The Psychology of the Person Chapter 1 Introduction Naomi Wagner, Ph.D Lecture Outlines Based on Burger, 8 th edition.

The Psychology of the The Psychology of the PersonPerson

Chapter 1 IntroductionChapter 1 Introduction

Naomi Wagner, Ph.DNaomi Wagner, Ph.D

Lecture Outlines Lecture Outlines

Based on Burger, 8Based on Burger, 8thth edition edition

Personality vs. Human BehaviorPersonality vs. Human Behavior

The term “personality” refers to an The term “personality” refers to an “invisible”, hypothetical entity“invisible”, hypothetical entityWe cannot see what is going on We cannot see what is going on “inside” the person“inside” the personWe assess “what is going on inside” We assess “what is going on inside” on the basis of behavioral on the basis of behavioral observationsobservationsBehaviors that are consistent along Behaviors that are consistent along time and across situations seem to time and across situations seem to reflect one’s personality reflect one’s personality

Why Study Personality?Why Study Personality?

• We often want to explain the behavior We often want to explain the behavior of other peopleof other people

• Especially when this behavior is Especially when this behavior is unexpectedunexpected

• We need to explain in order to be able We need to explain in order to be able to predict (and possibly to protect to predict (and possibly to protect ourselves)ourselves)

• The ability to predict provides us with The ability to predict provides us with a sense of safetya sense of safety

Examples of Attempting to Predict Examples of Attempting to Predict BehaviorBehavior

Dating services: Studies have shown Dating services: Studies have shown that similarity in personal that similarity in personal tendencies, interests, etc is a good tendencies, interests, etc is a good predictor of the success of t he predictor of the success of t he relationshiprelationship

In the job-market: some jobs may In the job-market: some jobs may require, in addition to the technical require, in addition to the technical skills, some personality dispositions, skills, some personality dispositions, e.g. the ability to work under stresse.g. the ability to work under stress

The Person vs. the SituationThe Person vs. the Situation

One of the enduring questions in psychology: One of the enduring questions in psychology: Is our behavior shaped by the situation we Is our behavior shaped by the situation we are in (external), or by the type of person we are in (external), or by the type of person we are (internal)? are (internal)? Both the person and the situation contribute Both the person and the situation contribute to our behavior. On the one hand, we know to our behavior. On the one hand, we know that we do not act the same way in all that we do not act the same way in all situations, but on the other hand we also situations, but on the other hand we also know that in similar situations, under the know that in similar situations, under the same conditions, different people act same conditions, different people act differently.differently.

Personality variables vs. Situational Personality variables vs. Situational Variables in Affecting our behaviorVariables in Affecting our behavior

The term “The term “PersonalityPersonality” originates from the ” originates from the Greek word Greek word PersonaPersona,, meaning a meaning a maskmaskIn the ancient Greek theater, the actors In the ancient Greek theater, the actors carried a mask attached to a stick, it carried a mask attached to a stick, it represented the character they playedrepresented the character they played

Are we putting on a mask?

The term personality means a mask in Greek, and further linguistic analysis points to “per sonare” to sound through the mask, meaning, to pretend you are someone else Under what conditions might this be true?One example is job interview, where we want to present ourselves in a favorable light Another example is in a court of law, when we have committed a crime and want to present ourselves as incompetent to stand trial (“insane”)

How do the fields of personality and How do the fields of personality and social psychology differ? social psychology differ?

The Study of Individual DifferencesThe Study of Individual Differences Social psychologists are interested in how Social psychologists are interested in how people people typicallytypically behave in respond to behave in respond to situational demands.situational demands.Personality psychologists accept that there Personality psychologists accept that there might be typical responses in certain might be typical responses in certain situations, but their main interest is what situations, but their main interest is what makes one person different from the other. makes one person different from the other. The study of The study of individual differences,individual differences, that is- that is- consistent individual differences across consistent individual differences across situations- for example, why are some situations- for example, why are some people outgoing and others are shy?people outgoing and others are shy?

Definition of “Personality”Definition of “Personality”

There is no single definition to the termThere is no single definition to the term Burger (our author), suggests that personality Burger (our author), suggests that personality can be defined as can be defined as consistent behavioral consistent behavioral patterns and intrapersonal processes patterns and intrapersonal processes originating within the individual.originating within the individual. Note elements of this definition: personality is Note elements of this definition: personality is consistent, consistent, along time and across situations. along time and across situations. Personality is our Personality is our intrapersonal processes intrapersonal processes (not interpersonal) —our emotional, (not interpersonal) —our emotional, motivational, and cognitive processes that motivational, and cognitive processes that affect how we feel and how we act. affect how we feel and how we act.

Six approaches to studying Six approaches to studying personalitypersonality

What are the sources of consistent What are the sources of consistent behavioral patterns, and behavioral patterns, and intrapersonal processes? intrapersonal processes?

There are six approaches, or There are six approaches, or perspectives, that attempt to answer perspectives, that attempt to answer the question. Each approach aims to the question. Each approach aims to identify and explore an important identify and explore an important aspect of human personality.aspect of human personality.

Five blind men meet an elephant

They each perceives it differently

The main point of each The main point of each perspectiveperspective

Psychoanalysis (Freud)Psychoanalysis (Freud) TheThe psychoanalytic psychoanalytic approach focuses on the approach focuses on the role of the role of the unconsciousunconscious mind in affecting mind in affecting behavior. behavior. Freud used the analogy of the iceberg Freud used the analogy of the iceberg The unconscious stores desires, impulses, drives, The unconscious stores desires, impulses, drives, painful memories- of which we are not aware painful memories- of which we are not aware

Psychoanalysis (cont-d)

We are not aware of the motivations for our behavior- we do not have “free will” A deterministic perspective

The Trait Approach

The term “trait” refers to a The term “trait” refers to a hypothetical construct, some inner hypothetical construct, some inner “factor” that is not a physical entity, “factor” that is not a physical entity, that is abstractthat is abstract

However, we assume that we have However, we assume that we have inner traits that are reflected in our inner traits that are reflected in our behaviorbehavior

We say that someone is shy, We say that someone is shy, anxious, friendly, etc on the basis of anxious, friendly, etc on the basis of behaviorsbehaviors

The Trait Approach (cont-d)

A trait is perceived as a “dimension” or a continuum, ranging from less “amount” of the trait to a lot of the trait Less__________________________More By assessing traits (e.g. a test to assess shyness) each person can be identified in terms how much of the trait he/she possesThis enables comparison across people (e.g. when you want to determine who among the applicants for a job has more of the trait needed)

The Biological Approach

The The biologicalbiological approach points to approach points to inherited dispositions, and physiological inherited dispositions, and physiological processes as affecting human behavior processes as affecting human behavior

The Human Genome Project identified all The Human Genome Project identified all the genes on the human chromosome the genes on the human chromosome

Brain imaging techniques enable us to Brain imaging techniques enable us to watch physiological activity in the brain watch physiological activity in the brain as the brain processes information. as the brain processes information.

The Biological Approach (cont-d)

The neuron

The biological Approach (cont-d)

Every cell in the human body has 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs (one from you mother and one from your father) , they are made of DNA

The humanisticThe humanistic approach identifies approach identifies personal responsibility, the drive for self-personal responsibility, the drive for self-actualization and self-acceptance as key actualization and self-acceptance as key factors in personality.factors in personality.

The Biological Approach (cont-d)

We do not come I to the world a blank slate (tabula rasa0Biology means our familial heritabilityBiology means our shared evolutionary history Biology means the physiology underlying our mental processes

The Humanistic Approach

Main concepts of this approach is free will, self-actualization, self-acceptanceMaslow’s hierarchy of needs is an important theme of this approachIt sees us human beings as motivated to grow and to become the best we can

The Humanistic Approach

The Behavioral-Learning Approach

The The behavioral/social-learningbehavioral/social-learning approach approach explains personality explains personality differences among people as results differences among people as results of conditioning, learning and of conditioning, learning and expectations, and other expectations, and other environmental influencesenvironmental influencesThis approach is deterministic- we This approach is deterministic- we are not always aware of the causes are not always aware of the causes for our behavior, because we are for our behavior, because we are manipulated by environmental forces manipulated by environmental forces

The Cognitive Approach

The CognitiveThe Cognitive approach looks at approach looks at the way different people process the way different people process information to explain differences in information to explain differences in behavior.behavior.

What might be the relationships What might be the relationships between the six approaches?between the six approaches?

Although sometimes the six approaches Although sometimes the six approaches differ only in focus, in many instances differ only in focus, in many instances the explanations of two or more the explanations of two or more approaches are entirely incompatible. approaches are entirely incompatible.

For example: The Behavioral approach For example: The Behavioral approach is deterministic (we may not be aware is deterministic (we may not be aware of the way we have been of the way we have been “conditioned”), whereas the Humanistic “conditioned”), whereas the Humanistic approaches believes in Free Will.approaches believes in Free Will.

How are the Psychoanalytical and the How are the Psychoanalytical and the Behavioral Approaches Similar?Behavioral Approaches Similar?

Both present a deterministic perspectiveBoth present a deterministic perspectiveWe are not in charge of our behavior, but We are not in charge of our behavior, but rather operate along the influence of rather operate along the influence of “forces” that we are not aware of“forces” that we are not aware ofIn the psychoanalytic view it is the In the psychoanalytic view it is the unconscious mindunconscious mindIn the behavioral view our behavior is In the behavioral view our behavior is shaped by learning principles that we shaped by learning principles that we might not be aware of (e.g. commercials might not be aware of (e.g. commercials create an association between a product create an association between a product and a desired result, so we buy the and a desired result, so we buy the product).product).

Why Study Personality?Why Study Personality?

We hope to identify personality traits, so we We hope to identify personality traits, so we can predict how the person will behavecan predict how the person will behave

In hiring decisions, the job may require In hiring decisions, the job may require some personality characteristicssome personality characteristics

Dating services operate on the basis of the Dating services operate on the basis of the research finding that similarity in traits and research finding that similarity in traits and tendencies predict the success of the tendencies predict the success of the relationship relationship

In the legal system, the lawyers want to In the legal system, the lawyers want to assess the tendencies of prospective jurors.assess the tendencies of prospective jurors.

How the 6 approaches view How the 6 approaches view aggression? aggression?

(Please review in textbook the 6 explanations of depression as (Please review in textbook the 6 explanations of depression as well)well)

The psychoanalyticThe psychoanalytic: points to an : points to an unconscious unconscious deathdeath instinctinstinct. According to this point of view, we . According to this point of view, we all posses an unconscious drive to self-destruct. all posses an unconscious drive to self-destruct. However, since people with healthy personality do However, since people with healthy personality do not hurt themselves, this death wish is turned not hurt themselves, this death wish is turned outward, and expressed as aggression against outward, and expressed as aggression against others. Another psychoanalytic suggestion is that others. Another psychoanalytic suggestion is that aggression results from frustration—when our goal-aggression results from frustration—when our goal-directed movement is blocked. directed movement is blocked. The traitThe trait approach focuses on approach focuses on individual individual differencesdifferences among people in aggressionamong people in aggression, and , and the stability of this behavior along time and across the stability of this behavior along time and across situations.situations.

(cont-d) (cont-d)

The biological perspectiveThe biological perspective is also interested in is also interested in stable patterns of aggressive behavior in people, stable patterns of aggressive behavior in people, and point to the and point to the genetic predispositiongenetic predisposition to act to act aggressively as one reason for this stability. aggressively as one reason for this stability. Evidence supports the genetic basis of Evidence supports the genetic basis of aggression- it seems to be running in families.aggression- it seems to be running in families. Another facet of the biological perspective is the Another facet of the biological perspective is the evolutionary explanationevolutionary explanation: In terms to our : In terms to our prehistory, the more aggressive members of the prehistory, the more aggressive members of the species had a higher chance to survive, to live species had a higher chance to survive, to live long enough in order to mate and to pass on the long enough in order to mate and to pass on the aggressive genes to their offspring. Testosterone aggressive genes to their offspring. Testosterone levels were also implicated in aggression. levels were also implicated in aggression.

(cont-d)(cont-d)

The humanisticThe humanistic approach views aggression approach views aggression as the result of as the result of unfulfilled needs to growunfulfilled needs to grow in a healthy manner.in a healthy manner.The behavioral/social learningThe behavioral/social learning perspective: perspective: aggression is learned on the basis of aggression is learned on the basis of rewards rewards and and reinforcementreinforcement, and also on , and also on the basis of observing aggressive models the basis of observing aggressive models being rewarded. being rewarded. Cognitive psychologistsCognitive psychologists view aggression from view aggression from the perspective of information-processing. the perspective of information-processing. We respond to situations of the basis of our We respond to situations of the basis of our interpretation interpretation of the situation.of the situation.

Personality and CulturePersonality and Culture

IndividualisticIndividualistic cultures place great emphasis on cultures place great emphasis on individual needs and accomplishmentsindividual needs and accomplishments Collectivist Collectivist cultures are concerned about group cultures are concerned about group belongingness and group needs. belongingness and group needs. Concepts that are studied by Western personality Concepts that are studied by Western personality psychologists can take on very different meanings when psychologists can take on very different meanings when people from collectivist cultures are studied. For example, people from collectivist cultures are studied. For example, the Western notion of self-esteem is based on assumptions the Western notion of self-esteem is based on assumptions of personal goals and feeling of uniqueness that may not be of personal goals and feeling of uniqueness that may not be appropriate to people in collectivist, group-oriented appropriate to people in collectivist, group-oriented cultures.cultures. Similarly, the Western definition of achievement and Similarly, the Western definition of achievement and success is not universal. In collectivist cultures success success is not universal. In collectivist cultures success means cooperation and groups accomplishments. means cooperation and groups accomplishments.

The study of personality: Theory, The study of personality: Theory, Application, Assessment, and Application, Assessment, and

ResearchResearch Theory: Theory: each approach to understanding each approach to understanding personality begins with a theory. The theory personality begins with a theory. The theory is an attempt to explain the mechanisms is an attempt to explain the mechanisms that underlie human personality and how that underlie human personality and how these mechanisms are responsible for these mechanisms are responsible for creating behaviors unique to a given creating behaviors unique to a given individual. Also each theory attempts to individual. Also each theory attempts to emphasize a different aspect of personality, emphasize a different aspect of personality, each theory must wrestle with several each theory must wrestle with several issues relating to the nature of human issues relating to the nature of human personality. personality.

Issues along which the theories differIssues along which the theories differ

Genetic vs. environmental influences: Genetic vs. environmental influences: Is our personality the Is our personality the result of inherited (genetically-based) dispositions, or is it shaped by result of inherited (genetically-based) dispositions, or is it shaped by the environment, as we grow up? the environment, as we grow up? Conscious vs.Conscious vs. unconscious determinants of behavior: unconscious determinants of behavior: To what To what extent are people aware of the causes of their behavior? There is extent are people aware of the causes of their behavior? There is some agreement today that much information processing takes some agreement today that much information processing takes place at a level below awareness.place at a level below awareness.Free will vs.Free will vs. determinism: determinism: To what extent do we decide our own To what extent do we decide our own fate, and to what extent are our behaviors determined by forces fate, and to what extent are our behaviors determined by forces outside our control? This is an issue that has spilled from outside our control? This is an issue that has spilled from philosophy. Radical behaviorism, as represented by Skinner, philosophy. Radical behaviorism, as represented by Skinner, argued that our behavior is not freely chosen, but rather the result of argued that our behavior is not freely chosen, but rather the result of environmental stimuli to which we are exposed. Psychoanalysis also environmental stimuli to which we are exposed. Psychoanalysis also stresses innate needs and unconscious mechanism that leave stresses innate needs and unconscious mechanism that leave much of human behavior outside of our control. At the other end of much of human behavior outside of our control. At the other end of the spectrum are humanistic theorists, who identify personal the spectrum are humanistic theorists, who identify personal responsibility as the cornerstone of mental health. responsibility as the cornerstone of mental health.

ApplicationApplication

Application: Application: The most obvious The most obvious application of personality theories is in application of personality theories is in psychotherapy. Many of the major psychotherapy. Many of the major pioneers in the study of personality were pioneers in the study of personality were clinicians, who developed their ideas clinicians, who developed their ideas about human nature of the basis of their about human nature of the basis of their work with clients. Psychotherapy comes in work with clients. Psychotherapy comes in many styles, reflecting the assumptions many styles, reflecting the assumptions the therapist makes about the nature of the therapist makes about the nature of personality.personality.

Assessment Assessment

Since the concept of “personality” implies Since the concept of “personality” implies some internal “structures” that are invisible some internal “structures” that are invisible and non-physical, how do we measure it?and non-physical, how do we measure it?The psychoanalytic approach attempts to The psychoanalytic approach attempts to get to the unconscious mind by presenting get to the unconscious mind by presenting a person with ambiguous stimuli a person with ambiguous stimuliIn the absence of clear meaning, the In the absence of clear meaning, the person is expected to “project” onto the person is expected to “project” onto the stimulus unconscious sentiments. stimulus unconscious sentiments.

Assessment (Cont-d) Assessment (Cont-d)

Many personality researchers, especially Many personality researchers, especially of the trait approach, use self-report of the trait approach, use self-report inventoriesinventories

Behavioral psychologists use direct Behavioral psychologists use direct observations of behavior to assess the observations of behavior to assess the existence of a given trait “inside” the existence of a given trait “inside” the person. person.

ResearchResearch

Research: Research: Each of the theories we will Each of the theories we will examine generates a great deal of examine generates a great deal of research. Sometimes this research tests research. Sometimes this research tests principles and assumptions central to the principles and assumptions central to the theory. Other times researchers are theory. Other times researchers are interested in further exploring concepts interested in further exploring concepts introduced by the theory. introduced by the theory.