THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION ON YOUTHS BY SHARON KAREN EDENS Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts In Clinical Psychology Faculty of Arts at the Rand Afrikaans University Supervisor : Dr. A. Burke 1999
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THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TRANSCENDENTAL
MEDITATION ON YOUTHS
BY
SHARON KAREN EDENS
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts
In
Clinical Psychology
Faculty of Arts
at the Rand Afrikaans University
Supervisor : Dr. A. Burke
1999
The financial assistance of National Research Foundation (NRF) towards
this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and
conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not necessarily to
be attributed to the National Research Foundation.
(i)
ACKNOWLEDEGMENTS
My warm and sincere gratitude to :
Dr Alban Burke for his encouragement, constructive comment, time,
energy and his belief in my abilities.
The principals, teachers and willing youths who participated in this
project.
The kind and willing people who helped in so many different ways:
Delene VVightman, Carrie Coetzee, Wendy Tollemache, Mark Edens,
Denise Amery, Carolyn Tollemache, Richard Peycke, Ronald
Tollemache, Conrad Mhlongo, Colin Zazayokwe, Taddy Blecher,
Nozipho, Vumazonke, Pamela Caitley-Spencer, Peter Mkhondo.
My parents Ronald and Wendy Tollemache for always loving, supporting
and encouraging me.
My children Neil and Alyssa Edens for filling my life with love and joy and
enduring a mother with dreams.
I dedicate this thesis to my husband, Mark Edens, for loving and
supporting me throughout my studies and truly wanting me to fulfill
myself.
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to ascertain whether the practise of
Transcendental Meditation may benefit youths in terms of certain
psychological variables. This was a quantitative quasi-experimental
study as randomization was not possible. Grade seven pupils from a
school in Alexandra which had been practising Transcendental
Meditation for approximately two years; as well as a control school were
both tested. There was an attempt to control nuisance variables, such
as the translation of questionnaires, close geographical proximity of the
schools, as well as the implementation of tests at the same time of day.
Despite this, nuisance variables may always influence a study, in this
study possible group differences could not be controlled for. Statistics
showed that the school practising Transcendental Meditation had
significantly lower scores than the control school in measures of anxiety.
These scores were significant at the 0.1% level of significance. It was
also discovered that depression was lower in the school practising
Transcendental Meditation; this was found to be significant at the 1%
level of significance. Measures of locus of control and hopelessness did
not appear to be effected by the practice of Transcendental Meditation.
Thus the possibility was proposed that Transcendental Meditation may
have an effect on mood or affect namely anxiety and depression. In
contrast, it was found that Transcendental Meditation may not effect the
more stable personality characteristics of locus of control; nor the more
stable cognitions found in hopelessness.
The lowered scores of depression and anxiety were at levels of
significance which may be deemed strong for a social science study.
Thus this study may be considered to show important findings, as the
consequences of psychological health in individuals ultimately effects the
larger society.
(iv)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW
Page
1
8
2.1 Meditation 8
2.1.1 Definition of Meditation 8
2.1.2 Definition of Transcendental Meditation 9
2.1.3 Basic Modes of Meditation 10
2.1.4 Aims of Transcendental Meditation 11
2.1.5 Research on Meditation and Transcendental Meditation 13
2.1.5.1 Research on Physiology 13
2.1.5.2 Research on Psychological Variables 16
2.1.5.3 Research on Substance Abuse and Criminal
Rehabilitation 21
2.1.5.4 Research on Academic Performance 21
2.2 Locus of Control 24
2.2.1 Definition of Locus of Control 24
2.2.2 Theoretical Basis of the Locus of Control Construct 24
2.2.3 Internal and External Locus of Control 26
2.3 Anxiety 28
2.3.1 Definition of Anxiety 28
2.3.2 Comorbidity of Childhood Anxiety Disorders and
Depression 29
2.3.3 Theories of Anxiety 31
2.3.3.1 Biological Theories 31
2.3.3.2 Psychosocial Theories 32
2.3.3.2.1 Psychodynamic Theories 32
2.3.3.2.2 Learning and Behavioural Theories 32
(v)
Page
2.3.3.2.3 Existentialism Theories 33
2.3.4 Treatment of Anxiety 33
2.4 Depression 36
2.4.1 Definition of Depression 36
2.4.2 Theories of Depression 36
2.4.2.1 Biological Theories 37
2.4.2.1.1 Genetic Theories 37
2.4.2.1.2 Neurobiological Theories 37
2.4.2.2 Social — Psychological Theories 38
2.4.2.2.1 Separation Loss 38
2.4.2.2.2 Response Contingent Positive Reinforcement Theory 38
2.4.2.2.3 Learned Helplessness 39
2.4.2.2.4 Beck's Cognitive Triad 39
2.4.3 Depression in Childhood and Adolescence 40
2.4.3.1 Differences Between Depression in Adults and Youths 41
2.4.3.2 Depression and Aggression in Youths 43
2.4.4 Treatment of Depression 45
2.4.4.1 Pharmacotherapy in Youth 45
2.4.4.2 Psychotherapy 45
2.4.4.2.1 Cognitive — Behavioural Treatments 45
2.4.4.2.2 Play Therapy 46
2.5 Hopelessness 46
2.5.1 Definition of Hopelessness 46
2.5.2 Theoretical Perspectives of Hopelessness 47
2.5.3 The Relation Between Hopelessness and Suicidal
Behaviour 48
2.5.4 Suicide in Childhood and Adolescence 49
(vi)
CHAPTER THREE : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Page
51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 The Research Hypotheses 53
3.3 The Sample 54
3.4 Measuring Instruments 56
3.4.1 Locus of Control Scale for Children 57
3.4.2 The Hopelessness Scale for Children 58
3.4.3 A Revised Measure of Children's Manifest Anxiety 59
3.4.4 Child Depression Scale 60
3.5 Method 60
CHAPTER FOUR : STATISTICAL RESULTS 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Distribution of Scores for the Different Variable 64
4.3 Differences Between Mean Scores Between the
Two Schools 73
4.4 Relationship Between Variables 76
CHAPTER FIVE : DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 81
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Effects of Transcendental Meditation on the
Different Variables 83
5.2.1 Anxiety 83
5.2.2 Depression 84
5.2.3 Locus of Control 85
5.2.4 Hopelessness 86
5.3 Interrelationship of Variables 87
5.4 Limitations and Recommendations of the Study 89
REFERENCES 94
Page
LIST OF TABLES
Number of Pupils per School
Frequencies of Gender
Frequencies of Age
Frequencies of Locus of Control Scores
Frequencies of Anxiety Scores
Frequencies of Depression Scores
Frequencies of Hopelessness Scores
Summary of Descriptive Statistics for
Locus of Control, Depression, Hopelessness
and Anxiety
Differences Between the Mean Scores of the
Two Schools in Terms of the Variables
Correlation Between Variables for School 1
Correlation Between Variables for School 2
Correlation Between Variables for the Total
Sample
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
Table 4.6
Table 4.7
Table 4.8
Table 4.9
Table 4.10
Table 4.11
Table 4.12
64
64
67
68
69
70
72
73
75
76
78
80
Page
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Number of Pupils per School 65
Figure 4.2 Frequencies of Gender 66
Figure 4.3 Means Scores of Different Variables for each School 74
Figure 4.4 Illustration of Significant Correlations for School 1 77
Figure 4.5 Illustration of Significant Correlations for School 2 79
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
The psychological effects of Transcendental Meditation in youths is
assessed in this study. Although there has been much research on the
benefits of Transcendental Meditation on psychological variables (Eppley,
Abrams & Shear, 1989) as well as on physiological changes (MacLeen,
Walton, Wenneberg & Levitsky, 1997), there has been very limited
research on Transcendental Meditation in South Africa (Bloch, 1984). This
study may be regarded as a pilot study in which the importance of further
research on Transcendental Meditation in South Africa is established, as
well as the need for South African standardized psychological tests for
youths.
In June 1984 the Development Society of Southern Africa conducted a
symposium on the state of development thinking in a number of disciplines
with financial assistance from the Human Sciences Research Council. It
was asserted that research on the holistic human purpose of development
had been neglected and that there had been a focus on the operational or
technical side of development. The development of people as a central
concern in social change was widely accepted and encouraged (Beukes,
1986). This study may be perceived to be research on the holistic human
purpose of development. Interventions on microlevels have been found to
have a ripple effect on society (Holscher & Romm, 1986), thus it is possible
that one may consider Transcendental Meditation to be a microlevel
intervention in a changing society.
1
2
Schooling has been in the process of change in South Africa. There has
been an attempt to improve schools in more disadvantaged areas and all
schools are now open to all race groups. This study shows there may still
be disadvantages in some schools, due to the fact that the school
conducting the Transcendental Meditation was more crowded with more
pupils per teacher, than the control school. The school implementing the
Transcendental Meditation technique had classrooms which were
physically smaller, and had an average of fifty one students in each class.
The control school however had an average of thirty nine students per
class. A survey in the Star (23 rd November, 1995) found that a higher
proportion of black matric pupils suffer from anxiety and negative stress, as
opposed to white matric pupils, indicating a need to address psychological
difficulties in schools.
Although the government expenditure on education in South Africa is a
high percentage in World terms it still does not appear to be sufficient
(Gore, 1993). People who have the potential to succeed, but do not
succeed end up functioning inadequately in the environment and being
disheartened (Rimm, 1995). Factors that may influence failure or
underachievement are: children placed in large classrooms with
overworked teachers, and lack of financial resources for specialised
interventions (McCabe, 1994).
Difficulties arise when schools are unequipped to deal with psychological
issues that accompany underachievement (Rimm, 1995). Due to financial
reasons South Africa would be unable to have therapists available for all
the school children in the country (McCabe, 1994). Thus there is a need
3
for a technique which may be cost and time effective but yet aid the youth
in becoming more psychologically healthy. Psychological interventions
such as individual or group therapy as well as life skill groups may be
considered expensive and time consuming. A technique which may aid
Psychological health would thus be more beneficial as it would reach larger
groups of children in a shorter span of time.
Research on Transcendental Meditation has found positive effects on a
measure of happiness (Smith, Compton & West, 1995), anxiety (Orme-
The correlations between the variables for the school practising
Transcendental Meditation demonstrates that anxiety effects the three
other variables, namely: depression; hopelessness and locus of control.
88
This is illustrated in figure 4.4; where all the variables were found to have
a significant correlation at the 0.01. level (2-tailed) or the ten percent level.
Research has shown that a relationship between anxiety and depression
exists (Klein & Last, 1989). According to the literature review anxiety and
depression are overlapping psychological states as opposed to being
separate states (Craig & Dobson, 1995). It could be claimed that
Transcendental Meditation reduces anxiety and thereby depression is
reduced due to the relationship between the variables.
The hypothesis that students practising Transcendental Meditation would
be less depressed than the control group was also confirmed by this study.
A significance level of 1% was discovered in terms of depression. The
significance levels of 1% for depression and 0.1% for anxiety may be
considered high for a social science study. The researcher attempted to
control for nuisance variables such as the time of day; schools in close
proximity; and language translations. Although these results should be
interpreted with caution because of this being a quasi-experimentally
research; the findings may still be considered to be important due to the
levels of significance which were found in both anxiety and depression.
The school practicing Transcendental Meditation also discovered a
correlation between the variables of depression and hopelessness, as well
as depression and locus of control. This correlation indicates that a
decrease in anxiety and depression influenced the other two variables.
Figure 4.4 illustrates the school practicing Transcendental Meditation found
all the variables correlated with each other at the 10% level of significance.
89
Correlations found in the control school are illustrated in Figure 4.5. It
must be noted that anxiety was the only variable that correlated with each
of the other variables, namely: hopelessness, locus of control and
depression. This differed from the school practising Transcendental
Meditation where it may be postulated that due to a reduction in anxiety, all
the other variables were influenced, as they were all found to correlate
amongst each other at the 10% level of significance (see Figure 4.4).
5.4 Limitations and Recommendations of the Study
Implementing a quantitative research study on black South African youth
with Western standardized measuring instruments obviously has
complications. All the measuring instruments in this study were
standardized according to Western samples. Accordingly both validity and
reliability were also calculated according to Western samples.
The need for psychological tests which are more culturally appropriate for
South African youth appears to be imperative. Evidence of these
difficulties may be given via an example in the locus of control scale which
enquired about a students belief of a four leaf clover bringing good luck.
Due to these cultural difficulties as well as translation difficulties five out of
the forty items in the locus of control scale had to be omitted.
Consequently, results from this scale are highly questionable, as validity
and reliability were not calculated for.
90
There were four reasons for not calculating validity and reliability of the
tests. Firstly, it was not the aim of the study to translate and standardize
for South African conditions; secondly the sample size was too small to
calculate reliability and validity; thirdly the sample composition was such
that there was not equal representation of the different age groups and
finally the sample was drawn only out of one specific geographical area.
This study highlights the need for psychological tests to be standardized
and psychometric properties calculated for South African youth as well as
translated into various South African languages.
Language difficulties may also be perceived as a limitation of this study.
Difficulties arose because although both schools were Northern Sotho
schools it was discovered that some of the youth spoke Zulu or Tswana as
their home language. This may have adversely affected the study as it is
imperative that every item is fully understood. The researcher attempted to
alleviate this by having some English questionnaires available for children
who may have preferred to answer in English.
This study was a quasi-experimental design as random assignment into
control and experiment group was not possible. This was due to the fact
that the one school had already been practising Transcendental Meditation
for almost two years. This quasi-experimental design may be considered a
limitation as causal attribution is not considered to be as conclusive as
causal attribution within a strict experimental design. Accordingly if one
were to repeat this study it would be recommended that it be repeated in a
strict experimental design, with high levels of constraint. A pretest
91
implemented before the Transcendental Meditation is introduced and
thereafter a post test would be most beneficial in assessing the influence of
Transcendental Meditation on psychological variables.
The researcher attempted to prevent the influence of nuisance variables by
ensuring the schools were close in geographical proximity. The testing was
conducted at the same time in both schools and questionnaires were
translated. Some observable differences were that the control school had
less pupils per class, as well as bigger classrooms, and it also bordered a
more affluent area of Alexandra. These possible nuisance variables could
all be perceived as having a positive effect on the control school, however
the school conducting the Transcendental Meditation was found to have
more positive measurements in terms of anxiety and depression.
The Maharishi effect which may be explained via modern physics and the
quantum field theory (Hagelin, 1987) may also be considered to be a
nuisance variable. The Maharishi effect prop6ses that when a critical
mass of people practice Transcendental Meditation the underlying field of
consciousness is enlivened and influences both the consciousness and
physiology of people in society who are not meditating (Maharishi, 1969).
Lastly due to this being an intact-group design this study may be effected
by group differences.
92
The importance of research on holistic human development as a central
concern in social change has been established (Beukes, 1986). Thus it is
important that psychological tests should be standardized for all South
Africans. This standardization must include three facets:
All items should be culturally appropriate for the different cultural
groups.
The format of the questionnaires would have to be given special
attention. This is based on the findings by Maphike (1992) in which it was
found black South African children were more inclined to opt for extreme
responses in the choice attribution style questionnaire.
A strict Brislin (1970) method of translation be implemented.
Accordingly the questionnaires should be translated into the required
language by a translator then back translated by a different translator into
the original language, and then retranslated, until a consensus on all items
exists.
In conclusion this study indicates the necessity of establishing
standardized psychological tests for South Africans. The importance of
research on holistic human development in societies has been established
(Beukes, 1986). Research on psychological health may be considered
vital to a country such as South Africa as interventions on microlevels have
been found to have a ripple effect on societies (Holscher & Romm, 1986).
Although this study used a quasi-experimental design, the findings of
Transcendental Meditation and its correlation with lower levels of anxiety
and depression are so significant that the results may be deemed
93
Important. Due to the consequences of psychological health on academic
performance (Rimm, 1995) as well as the positive effects on South Africa
as a nation it is hoped that this study may encourage further research on
Transcendental Meditation.
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