The Phases of Speech

• THE PHASES OF SPEECH By Catford

Dr.SundarabaluDept.of LinguisticsBharathiar [email protected]

This is how people communicate: This is how neurons communicate:

  Transmitter Receptor Neurotransmitter Neuroreceptor 

 THE PHASES OF SPEECH • When  someone  speaks  to  someone,  the  sequence of  events  is,  In  response  to  the  need  to communicate  about  some  event the  speaker conceptualizes  the  event  in  a  particular  way  and then  encodes  that  conceptualization  in  a  form placed down by the grammar of his language. 

• The linguistically encoded utterance is

externalized and apprehended by the hearer

through the agency of a series of events that we

term the phases of speech. Hearing is two –

• internal and external

• These phases start in the speaker, and culminate (To reach 

the  highest  point  or  degree;  climax) in the hearer decoding the utterance and 

arriving  at  a  conceptualization which,  assuming  he 

is  familiar  with  the  speaker’s  language,  closely 

matches the speaker’s conceptualization, which was 

the start of the process. (Zapraszamy,)

• The  processes  of  conceptualization  and coding/decoding are  outside  the  domain  of phonetics. 

• The  purely  phonetic  part  of  the  speech  process begins,  we  assume,  with  the  implementation  of  a short term neural programme in the central nervous system,  which  is  produced  by  the  lexico-grammatical  structure  of  the  utterance  and determines  the  nature  and  the  sequencing  of everything  that  follows. We  may  call  this  the neurolinguistic programming phase of the utterance.  

• Programming- already fixed /or written in gene-DNA 

Alternative approach and methods-9

1. Nero-linguistics Programming

The period from the 1970s through the 1980s viewed a major paradigm shift in language teaching

• NLP is a powerful, practical and specific approach in the direction of allowing you to achieve your goals and make your life

• gathering information about their internal external view of the world,(walk)

• NLP is collection of techniques, pattern, and strategies for supporting effective communication, personal growth and change, and learning. It is based on a series of underlying assumptions about how the mind works and how people act and interact (Narman 1997:14)

• The assumptions of NLP refer to attitudes to life ,to people and to self discovery and awareness

• However , in NLP neuro refers to beliefs about the brain and how it function :

• Programming refers to observable patterns (referred to as ‘programs’) of thought and behavior.

• Rapport is an essential basis for successful communication - if there is no rapport there is no (real) communication. 

• (It is mind process/ sound Process. If you have good sound in your body people like you otherwise ?  )

• Sensory perception : noticing what another person is communication, consciously and nonverbally. This can be expressed as “Use your senses .Look at , listen to, and feel what is actually happening”.

Goals of Neurolinguistics

• To find where the language is represented in brain.

• To find how language is represented in brain.

• To find how the nervous system function in the act of expression and comprehension.(language processing studies).

The network of connections whereby signals can be transmitted from one part of the body to another is known as the nervous system. This system is subdivided into the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

It contains billions of nerve cells, some of which relay information to and from connections with the peripheral nervous system, others of which transfer information within the central nervous system.

The CNS consists of the brain, the spinal cord which consists to it, and their associated membranes and fluids. The system is immensely complex, and its potential for processing information needs to be appreciated.

The PNS consist of the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves.

The Nervous System

CN I

CN III

CN VII

CN IX

CN XI

CN II

CN IV

CN VI

CN VIII

CN X

CN XII

CN V

Parts of Cranial Nerves

Names and Functions of Cranial NervesName and Number Functions of  Sensory Component Functions of  Motor Component

I.  Olfactory Smell (no motor nerve)

II.  Optic Vision (no motor nerve)

III. Oculomotor Sensations from eye muscles Eye movements, pupil construction

IV. Trochlear Sensations from eye muscles Eye movements

V. Trigemial Sensations from skin of face, nose, and mouth

Chewing, Swallowing

VI. Abucens Sensations from eye muscles Eye movements

VII. Facial Taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, visceral sensations from the head

Facial expressions, crying, salivation, and dilation of blood vessels in the head

VIII. Statoacoustic Hearing, equilibrium (no motor nerve)

IX.Glossopharyngeal Taste and other sensations from throat and posterior  third of tongue

Swallowing, salivation, dilation of blood vessel

X. Vagus Taste and sensations from neck, thorax, and abdomen

Swallowing, control of larynx, parasympathetic nerves to heart and viscera

XI. Accessory (no sensory nerve) Movements of shoulders and head; parasympathetic to viscera

XII. Hypoglossal Sensation from tongue  muscles Movements of tongue

COMMON PROBLEMS OF DYSLEXIAThe most commonly encountered problems are as follows:

1. Number and letter recognition

2. Letter reversals

3. Word recognition

4. Number, letter and word recollection

5. Spelling problems

6. Punctuation recognition

7. Fixation problems

8. Word additions and omissions

9. Poor comprehension

COMMON PROBLEMS OF DYSLEXIAThe most commonly encountered problems are as follows:

1. Number and letter recognition

2. Letter reversals

3. Word recognition

4. Number, letter and word recollection

5. Spelling problems

6. Punctuation recognition

7. Fixation problems

8. Word additions and omissions

9. Poor comprehension

• Thereafter,  in  a  sequence  no  doubt  determined during  the  stage  of  neurolinguistics programming,  specific motor commands flow out through motor nerves to muscles in the chest, throat, mouth, etc. As  a  result,  these muscles  contract-in whole or in part, successively  or  simultaneously,  more  or  less strongly.  We  call  this  whole  process  of  motor commands  (the  outflow  of  neural  impulses  from  the  central  nervous  system),  together with  the  Permanently  related  muscle contractions, the neuromuscular phase.

18

• As a result of the muscular contractions occurring in this neuromuscular phase, the organs to which these  muscles  are  attached  adopt  particular postures  or make particular movements the ribcage (set of curved bones in chest.) may contract, the vocal folds in the larynx may be brought close together, the tongue adopt a particular configuration, and so on.

• In  short,  the  follow-up  to  the  neuromuscular phase  is  a  posturing  or  movement  of  whole organs  in  the  vocal  tract.  We  therefore  call  this the organic phase.

• The  movements  of  organs  during the organic  phase  act  upon  the  air  contained within  the  vocal  tract.  They  compress  the air,  or  dilate  it,  and  they  set  it  moving  in various  ways-in  rapid  puffs,  in  sudden bursts,  in  a  smooth  flow,  in  a  rough, eddying, turbulent stream, and so on. All of this  constitutes  the  aerodynamic phase of speech.

Vocal Sound Production

Vocal Sound Production

Diaphragm  action  pushes  air  from  the  lungs through  the  vocal  folds,  producing  a  periodic train of air pulses. This pulse train is shaped by the  resonances  of  the  vocal tract.  The  basic resonances,  called  vocal formants,  can  be changed  by  the  action  of  the  articulators  to produce distinguishable  voice  sounds,  like  the vowel sounds. 

Although our one-mass model is a closer representation of actual vocal fold oscillation than the myoelastic-aerodynamic model, some refinements will make the model even more like human phonation. 

http://www.ncvs.org/ncvs/tutorials/voiceprod/tutorial/model.html

• As the air flows through the vocal tract during 

the  aerodynamic  phase  the  things  that 

happen  to  it  set  the air molecules oscillating 

in ways that can be perceived by our sense of

hearing.  In  other  words,  the  aerodynamic 

events  generate  sound-waves,  and  these 

constitute the acoustic phase of speech. 

Sense organs

Language in –sound form, liquid form, concrete , abstract ,form/form less 

Definition of senseSense refers to the inherent(natural) meaning of the linguistic form; it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations. It is the collection of all the semantic features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized(In general)

Sense / feeling: The firm/strong /doubt-free/clear awareness of something

• In  the  acoustic phase,  an  airborne  sound-wave 

radiates from the speaker's mouth and reaches the 

ear  of  anyone  within  hearing distance, including

the speaker himself. The sound-wave, interrupting 

on  the hearer's ear-drum,  sets  it  vibrating  in  step 

with  the  wave-form,  and these vibrations are

transmitted, by  the  little bones of the middle ear,

to  the  inner  ear,  or  cochlea, where  they  stimulate 

sensory endings of the auditory nerve. 

basilar membrane: analysis of sound frequencies

Ref:The analysis of sound frequencies by the basilar membrane. (A) The fibres of the basilar membrane become progressively wider and more flexible from the base of the cochlea to the apex. As a result, each area of the basilar membrane vibrates preferentially to a particular sound frequency. (B) High-frequency sound waves cause maximum vibration of the area of the basilar membrane nearest to the base of the cochlea; (C) medium-frequency waves affect the centre of the membrane; (D) and low-frequency waves preferentially stimulate the apex of the basilar membrane. (The locations of cochlear frequencies along the basilar membrane shown are a composite drawn from different sources.)Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

(Ref:The mechanism of hearing. Sound waves enter the outer ear and travel through the external auditory canal until they reach the tympanic membrane, causing the membrane and the attached chain of auditory ossicles to vibrate. The motion of the stapes against the oval window sets up waves in the fluids of the cochlea, causing the basilar membrane to vibrate. This stimulates the sensory cells of the organ of Corti, atop the basilar membrane, to send nerve impulses to the brain.)Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/536/The-mechanism-of-hearing?topicId=175622

ear: hearing mechanism

Sound Map

These many words and sounds signalling warnings, friendship, and daily routine are a natural part of the day for people who hear

http://www.gallaudet.edu/clerc_center/information_and_resources/info_to_go/hearing_loss_information/hearing_loss_for_older_children.html

SOUND AND THE EAR Each part of the ear has a special role to play in the hearing process. It's a process that begins only when sound reaches the ear.

Variations in Air Pressure and Corresponding Waveform

Sound is defined as vibrations transmitted through a solid, liquid or gas capable of being detected by the ear

When we hear a  sound,  it’s usually  the  result of air molecules being  set  in motion around a vibrating  object  (the  sound  source).  We  usually  call  the  invisible  vibration  of  these  air molecules “sound waves.” Sound waves are detected by our eardrums, which are connected to nerves within our brains.

The cochlea divided into three regions called: the scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani. 

The sound from a tuning fork is pure and has a smooth, regular sound-wave pattern. A hammer's sound has an irregular, ''spiky'' wave, which is typical of a noise.

http://theemster.com/sound.htm

Pure sound -noise

• Neural impulses from the nerve-endings travel up 

the  auditory  nerve  to  the brain, where  they  give 

rise  to  sensations  of  sound.  We  call  this  whole 

process  of  peripheral  stimulation  and  afferent 

neural transmission the neuroreceptive phase.

• Finally,  an  interpretative  process  occurs  in  which 

the coming neuroreceptive signals are identified as

this  or  that particular vocal sound or sound-

sequence.  This is the phase of neuroolinguistic

identification, which we can regard as more or less 

the verse of the neurolinguistic programming phase 

with which the phonetic event began.

•  Though there may always be some awareness of sound in this 

phase, the  identification as particular speech-sounds  is usually 

below the threshold of consciousness. In the actual exchange

of conversation, attention is directed more to the meaning of

what is said than to the sounds by which that meaning is

manifest.

• The final steps in the process-the hearer's decoding and

ultimate conceptualization-are outside the domain of

phonetics, just as were the matching conceptualization and

encoding in the speaker.

 summarize the phases of speech : (l) Neurolinguistics programming: the  selection, sequencing, and timing of what follows.

(sequencing-Biochemistry)  the  procedure  of  determining  the  order  of amino acids  in  the polypeptide chain of a protein  (protein sequencing) or of nucleotides in a DNA section comprising a gene (gene sequencing)

The firm/strong /doubt-free/clear awareness of something

1. Neuromuscular phase: transmission  of  outbound  (motor) neural impulses and the contraction of individual muscles. 

(impulses-Physiology The electrochemical transmission of a signal along a nerve fiber that produces an excitatory or  inhibitory response at a target tissue, such as a muscle or another nerve.)

• A neurotransmitter is a chemical released by a neuron to communicate with other cells

ax·on-that process of a neuron by which impulses travel away from the cell body; 

synapse / the site of functional apposition between neurons, where an impulse is transmitted from one to another, usually by a chemical neurotransmitter released by the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron.

• (3) Organic phase: postures and movements of whole organs. 

• postures -A position of the body or of body parts

Speech_Graphics_Simone_Articulation_System.mp4

• (4)  Aerodynamic phase: dilation, compression,  and  flow  of  air  in  and  through the vocal tract. 

• Dilation- The act of expanding 

(5) Acoustic phase: propagation of sound-waves from speaker's vocal tract. 

Propagation of sound waves through air 

Ref:  wave  motion  is  the  propagation  of  sound  from  one  place  to another. When a person speaks, the molecules of air near the mouth of the  speaker  are  disturbed  resulting  in  vibration  of  these  molecules about their mean positions. These vibrating molecules in turn push the nearby molecules and the process continues until the molecules of the air near the listener's ear start vibrating. These disturbances vibrate the eardrum and these vibrations of the eardrum in turn sends the message to  the  brain  through  nerve  connections.  In  this  case  also,  it  is  the disturbance, which moves forward and not the particles of air.

  propagation  :sound  waves,  is  transmitted through a medium such as air or water.

(6) Neuroreceptive phase: peripheral auditory stimulation and transmission of inbound neural impulses. 

This is how people communicate: This is how neurons communicate:

  Transmitter Receptor Neurotransmitter Neuroreceptor 

How does the brain communicate?   The  brain  is  a  communications center  of  the  body,  consisting  of billions  of  neurons,  or  nerve  cells. Networks  of  neurons  pass  messages back and forth to different structures within  the  brain,  the spinal column, and the peripheral nervous system. These nerve networks coordinate and regulate  everything  we  feel,  think, and  do.  Each  nerve  cell  in  the  brain sends  and  receives  messages  in  the form  of  electrical  impulses.  Once  a cell  receives  and  processes  a message,  it  sends  it  on  to  other neurons.  The  messages  are  carried between neurons by chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Nerve_impulse_Animation.mp4

Vestibular System

• (7) Neurolinguistic identification: potential or actual identification of  incoming  signals  as  specific  speech-sounds. 

Brain uses sleep to cleanse itself of toxins Watch the video - Screen India.webm

• In addition to all  this we must  take note of  two other phases, aspects, of  the  speech process. These are  the two  kinds  of  feedback: kinesthetic feedback and auditory feedback. 

• As the organs of speech posture and move about in the performance  of  speech,  sensory  nerve-endings within the  muscle  and  on  the  surfaces  of  the  organs  are stimulated  by  music  contraction  and  by  contact  and pressure. 

• We  may  be,  but  often  are  not,  conscious  of  this feedback  as  proprioceptive sensations (feelings  of muscular contraction and  tension) and tactile sensations. As a  general  name  for  these  proprioceptive  and  tactile sensations  we  use  the  term  'kinaesthesis',  hence kinaesthetic feedback. 

• The  second  type  of  feedback  consists  of  the 

stimulation  of  the  speaker's peripheral hearing

organs by the sound-wave issuing from his own

mouth which reaches his ears both externally, by

air conduction, and internally, by bone

conduction. This is auditory feedback.

• These  feedback  systems  monitor  and  control speech  by  inserting  into  the  motor  system information  concerning  the  continuing  muscular, organic, aerodynamic, and acoustic events. Much of  phonetic  training  involves  making  these feedbacks, especially kinaesthetic or proprioceptive feedback, conscious. 

• Analysis,  and  conscious  control,  of  the  activities of speech must be based upon awareness of what the vocal organs are doing and this awareness is derived from the feedback systems. 

• Of  the  seven  phases  of  speech  described  above only  three  lend  themselves  conveniently  to categorization  for  general  phonetic  purposes: these  are  the  organic  phase,  the  aerodynamic phase,  and  the  acoustic  phase.  Traditionally, phonetic classification has been based on the organic phase. 

• This was the basis of classification of the earliest phoneticians-the  Indian  grammarians  of  2,500 years  ago-and  also  of  the  ancient  Greek  and Roman  grammarians,  the  medieval  Arab grammarians,  and  the  English  phoneticians  from Elizabethan times onwards. 

• The acoustic phase has only been fully accessible since  the  development  in  the  twentieth  century of electronic devices for acoustic analysis, such as the  cathode-ray  oscilloscope  and  the  sound spectrograph  in  the  1930s  and  1940s. Nevertheless,  since  such  instruments  became available an enormous amount has been learned about  the  acoustic  phase,  and  the  study  of  this phase of speech is known as acoustic phonetics. 

• The  aerodynamic  phase  is  also  accessible  to instrumental  investigation  and  aerodynamic  data have  been  used  since  the  nineteenth  century, chiefly  as  a means  of  acquiring  information  about the  preceding,  organic,  phase:  by  looking  at variations  in  the  rate  of  airflow  out  of  the mouth, measuring  intra-oral  pressure,  and  so  on,  one  can make  many  useful  inferences  about  the  organic activities  that  give  rise  to  these  aerodynamic effects. 

• It  is  only  recently  that  the  suggestion  has  been made  that  there  should  be  a  more  or  less independent  aerodynamic  phonetics,  parallel  to acoustic phonetics. 

• General phonetic taxonomy, however-that is, the general or basic classification of speech sounds-is still  based  on  the  organic  phase,  with  some contributions  from  aerodynamic  and  acoustic phonetics where helpful. 

• This type of phonetics is often called articulatory phonetics, a term which is somewhat inaccurate, since,  as  we  shall  see,  articulation  is  only  one (though a very important one) of  the components of speech sound production. 

  Summarize the phases of speech : 1. Neurolinguistics programming: the  selection,  sequencing,  and 

timing of what follows. 2. Neuromuscular phase: transmission  of  outbound  (motor) 

neural impulses and the contraction of individual muscles. 3. Organic phase: postures and movements of whole organs. 4. Aerodynamic phase: dilation,  compression,  and  flow  of  air  in 

and through the vocal tract. 5. Acoustic phase: propagation  of  sound-waves  from  speaker's 

vocal tract. 6. Neuroreceptive phase: peripheral  auditory  stimulation  and 

transmission of inbound neural impulses. 7. Neurolinguistic identification: potential or actual  identification 

of incoming signals as specific speech-sounds. 

Sources-Catford