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The Oxford History of World Cinema3
3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide in
Oxford New York
Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Sao Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto
Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York
© Oxford University Press 1996
The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker)
First published 1996 First published in paperback 1997
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organizations. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available
ISBN 0–19–811257–2 ISBN 0–19–874242–8 (Pbk.)
9 10
Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Butler & Tanner Ltd Frome and London
I should like to dedicate this book to the memory of my father,
who did not live to see it finished, and to my children, for their enjoyment.
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgements
This book has been a long time in preparation and in the course of it I have received help from many quarters. I am grateful first of all to my contributors, and in par- ticular to those who, as well as diligently writing their own contributions to the
book, also acted as informal advisers on the project—notably Thomas Elsaesser, Charles Musser, Ashish Rajadhyaksha, and A. L. Rees. I also received specialist advice from Stephen Bottomore, Pam Cook, Rosalind Delmar, Hugh Denman, Joel Finler, June Givanni, David Parkinson, Jasia Reichert, and, most valuably of all, from Markku Salmi. I had administrative help in the early stages from my niece Rebecca Nowell-Smith, and editorial assistance—all too briefly—from Sam Cook. For the last two years my Assistant Editor has been Kate Beetham, to whom my debt is indescribable. Lael Lowinstein helped with the bibliography. Picture research was conducted by Liz Heasman, whose knowledge and judgement are unrivalled in this tricky field. The tiresome work of tracing picture permissions devolved on Vicki Reeve and Diana Morris. For this normally thankless task they deserve particular thanks. And thanks, too, to my editors at the Oxford University Press, Andrew Lockett and Frances Whistler, especially for their patience.
Translations are by Robert Gordon (Italy: Spectacle and Melodrama, The Scandinavian Style, Italy from Fascism to Neo-Realism, Italy: Auteurs and After); Gerald Brooke (The Soviet Union and the Russian Emigres); Timothy Seaton (Cinema in the Soviet Republics); and Nina Taylor (Yiddish Cinema in Europe, East Central Europe before the Second World War, Changing States in East Central Europe).
G.N.-S.
vii
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Richard Abel (USA) Rick Altman (USA) Roy Armes (UK) John Belton (USA) Janet Bergstrom (USA) Chris Berry (Australia) Hans-Michael Bock (Germany) David Bordwell (USA) Royal Brown (USA) Edward Buscombe (UK) Michael Chanan (UK) Paolo Cherchi Usai (USA) Donald Crafton (USA) Stephen Crofts (Australia) Chris Darke (UK) Rosalind Delmar (UK) Karel Dibbets (Netherlands) Michael Donnelly (USA) Phillip Drummond (UK) Michael Eaton (UK) Thomas Elsaesser (Netherlands) Cathy Fowler (UK) Freda Freiberg (Australia) David Gardner (USA) Douglas Gomery (USA) Peter Graham (France) David Hanan (Australia)
ix
Contributors
Phil Hardy (UK) John Hawkridge (UK) Susan Hayward (UK) Marek and Magorzata
Hendrykowski (Poland) Michele Hilmes (USA) Vida Johnson (USA) Anton Kaes (USA) Yusuf Kaplan (UK) Philip Kemp (UK) Peter Kenez (USA) Vance Kepley (USA) Marsha Kinder (USA) Hiroshi Komatsu (Japan) Antonia Lant (USA) Li Cheuk-to (Hong Kong) Jill McGreal (UK) Joe McElhaney (USA) P. Vincent Magombe (UK) Richard Maltby (UK) Martin Marks (USA) Morando Morandini (Italy) William Moritz (USA) Charles Musser (USA) Hamid Naficy (USA) James Naremore (USA) Kim Newman (UK)
Natalia Nussinova (Russia) Ed O’Neill (USA) Roberta Pearson (UK) Duncan Petrie (UK) Graham Petrie (Canada) Jim Pines (UK) Jean Radvanyi (France) Ashish Rajadhyaksha (India) A. L. Rees (UK) Mark A. Reid (USA) Eric Rentschler (USA) David Robinson (UK) Bill Routt (Australia) Daniela Sannwald (Germany) Joseph Sartelle (USA) Thomas Schatz (USA) Ben Singer (USA) Vivian Sobchack (USA) Gaylyn Studlar (USA) Yuri Tsivian (Latvia) William Uricchio (Netherlands) Ruth Vasey (Australia) Ginette Vincendeau (UK) Linda Williams (USA) Brian Winston (UK) Esther Yau (USA) June Yip (USA)
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Contents
s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s xv
l i s t o f c o l o u r i l l u s t r a t i o n s xvii
g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n xix
r e f e r e n c e s xxii
Silent Cinema 1895–1930
i n t r o d u c t i o n 3
T H E E A R L Y Y E A R S
Origins and Survival paolo cherchi usai 6 Early Cinema roberta pearson 13
Transitional Cinema roberta pearson 23
T H E R I S E O F H O L L Y W O O D
The Hollywood Studio System douglas gomery 43 The World-Wide Spread of Cinema ruth vasey 53
The First World War and the Crisis in Europe william uricchio 62
T H E S I L E N T F I L M
Tricks and Animation donald crafton 71 Comedy david robinson 78
Documentary charles musser 86 Cinema and the Avant-Garde a . l . rees 95
Serials ben singer 105
N A T I O N A L C I N E M A S
French Silent Cinema r i c h a r d a b e l 112 Italy: Spectacle and Melodrama p a o l o c h e r c h i u s a i 123
British Cinema from Hepworth to Hitchcock j o h n h a w k r i d g e 130 Germany: The Weimar Years t h o m a s e l s a e s s e r 136
The Scandinavian Style p a o l o c h e r c h i u s a i 151 Pre-Revolutionary Russia y u r i t s i v i a n 159
xi
contents
The Soviet Union and the Russian Emigres natalia nussinova 162 Yiddish Cinema in Europe marek & magorzata hendrykowski 174
Japan: Before the Great Kanto Earthquake h i r o s h i k o m a t s u 177
T H E S I L E N T C I N E M A E X P E R I E N C E
Music and the Silent Film martin marks 183 The Heyday of the Silents geoffrey nowell -smith 192
Sound Cinema 1930–1960
i n t r o d u c t i o n 207
S O U N D
The Introduction of Sound karel dibbets 211
T H E S T U D I O Y E A R S
Hollywood: The Triumph of the Studio System thomas schatz 220 Censorship and Self-Regulation richard maltby 235
The Sound of Music martin marks 248 Technology and Innovation john belton 259
Animation william moritz 267
G E N R E C I N E M A
Cinema and Genre rick altman 276 The Western edward buscombe 286
The Musical rick altman 294 Crime Movies phil hardy 304
The Fantastic vivian sobchack 312
E N G A G I N G W I T H R E A L I T Y
Documentary charles musser 322 Socialism, Fascism, and Democracy geoffrey nowell -smith 333
N A T I O N A L C I N E M A S
The Popular Art of French Cinema ginette vincendeau 344 Italy from Fascism to Neo-Realism morando morandini 353
Britain at the End of Empire antonia lant 361 Germany: Nazism and After eric rentschler 374
East Central Europe Before the Second World War magorzata hendrykowska 383 Soviet Film Under Stalin peter kenez 389
Indian Cinema: Origins to Independence ashish rajadhyaksha 398
xii
contents
China Before 1949 chris berry 409 The Classical Cinema in Japan hiroshi komatsu 413
The Emergence of Australian Film bill routt 422 Cinema in Latin America michael chanan 427
T H E P O S T - W A R W O R L D
After the War g e o f f r e y n o w e l l - s m i t h 436 Transformation of the Hollywood System d o u g l a s g o m e r y 443 Independents and Mavericks g e o f f r e y n o w e l l - s m i t h 451
The Modern Cinema 1960–1995
introduction 463
C I N E M A I N T H E A G E O F T E L E V I S I O N
Television and the Film Industry michele hilmes 466 The New Hollywood douglas gomery 475
New Technologies john belton 483 Sex and Sensation linda williams 490
A M E R I C A N M O V I E S
The Black Presence in American Cinema j im pines 497 Exploitation and the Mainstream kim newman 509
Dreams and Nightmares in the Hollywood Blockbuster joseph sartelle 516
E X T E N D I N G T H E B O U N D A R I E S
Cinema Verite and the New Documentary charles musser 527 Avant-Garde Film: The Second Wave a . l . rees 537
Animation in the Post-Industrial Era william moritz 551 Modern Film Music royal brown 558
Art Cinema geoffrey nowell -smith 567
C I N E M A S O F T H E W O R L D
New Directions in French Cinema peter graham 576 Italy: Auteurs and After morando morandini 586
Spain After Franco marsha kinder 596 British Cinema: The Search for Identity duncan petrie 604
The New German Cinema anton kaes 614 East Germany: The DEFA Story hans -michael bock 627
Changing States in East Central Europe marek hendrykowski 632 Russia After the Thaw vida johnson 640
xiii
contents
Cinema in the Soviet Republics jean radvanyi 651 Turkish Cinema yusuf kaplan 656
The Arab World roy armes 661 The Cinemas of Sub-Saharan Africa p . vincent magombe 667
Iranian Cinema hamid naficy 672 India: Filming the Nation ashish rajadhyaksha 678
Indonesian Cinema david hanan 690 China After the Revolution esther yau 693
Popular Cinema in Hong Kong li cheuk -to 704 Taiwanese New Cinema june yip 711
The Modernization of Japanese Film hiroshi komatsu 714 New Australian Cinema stephen crofts 722
New Zealand Cinema bill routt 731 Canadian Cinema / Cinema Canadien j ill mcgreal 731 New Cinemas in Latin America m i c h a e l c h a n a n 740
C O N C L U S I O N
New Concepts of Cinema geoffrey nowell -smith 750 The Resurgence of Cinema geoffrey nowell -smith 759
bibliography 767
index 785
Special Features
Chantal Akerman 755 Tomas Gutierrez Alea 744 Robert Altman 470–1 Michelangelo Antonioni 568–9 Arletty 347 Fred Astaire 296–7 Brigitte Bardot 492 Yevgeny Bauer 160–1 Ingmar Bergman 572–3 Ingrid Bergman 230–1 Bernardo Bertolucci 593 Frank Borzage 64–5 Marlon Brando 444–5 Luis Bunuel 432–3 Bugs Bunny 269 John Cassavetes 542–3 Youssef Chahine 664 Lon Chaney 198–9 Charlie Chaplin 84–5 Maurice Chevalier 246 Raoul Coutard 487 Franco Cristaldi 595 David Cronenberg 736 George Cukor 282 Anatole Dauman 571 Bette Davis 222–3 Alain Delon 579 Cecil B. DeMille 34–5 Gerard Depardieu 585 Vittorio De Sica 360 Marlene Dietrich 240–1 ‘Don’ts and Be Carefuls’ 239 Alexander Dovzhenko 394–5 Carl Theodor Dreyer 102–3 Clint Eastwood 472–3 Sergei Eisenstein 168–9 Douglas Fairbanks 60 Rainer Werner Fassbinder 618–19 Federico Fellini 587 Louis Feuillade 108–9 Gracie Fields 366–7 Gabriel Figueroa 430–1 John Ford 288–9 Jodie Foster 478–9 Karl Freund 314–15 Jean Gabin 307
Greta Garbo 190–1 Judy Garland 226–7 Ritwik Ghatak 686–7 Dorothy and Lillian Gish 40–1 Jean–Luc Godard 752–3 Sid Grauman 52 D. W. Griffith 30–1 Yilmaz Guney 659 William S. Hart 68 Howard Hawks 278–9 Will Hays 238 Robert Herlth 148–9 Werner Herzog 620–1 Alfred Hitchcock 310–11 James Wong Howe 200–1 John Huston 448–9 Daisuke Ito 180 Joris Ivens 331 Humphrey Jennings 328–9 Alfred Junge 380–1 Buster Keaton 80–1 Alexander Korda 336–7 Stanley Kubrick 458–9 Akira Kurosawa 716 Burt Lancaster 452–3 Fritz Lang 196–7 Spike Lee 508 Val Lewton 318–19 Max Linder 117 The Loop and the Maltese Cross 7 Joseph Losey 606–7 Ernst Lubitsch 184–5 Alexander Mackendrick 371 Chris Marker 530–1 Joseph P. Maxfield 213 William Cameron Menzies 232–3 Oscar Micheaux 499 Vincente Minnelli 302–3 Tom Mix 69 Kenji Mizoguchi 418–19 Marilyn Monroe 256–7 Ivan Mosjoukine 166 F. W. Murnau 146–7 Nargis 404 Jack Nicholson 510–11 Asta Nielsen 26
Manoel de Oliveira 602–3 Max Ophuls 252–3 Nagisa Oshima 718 Yasujiro Ozu 420–1 Pier Paolo Pasolini 494–5 Mary Pickford 56–7 Sidney Poitier 504–5 Erich Pommer 145 Michael Powell and Emeric
Pressburger 368–9 M. G. Ramachandran 406–7 Satyajit Ray 682–3 Jean Renoir 338–9 Paul Robeson 341 Glauber Rocha 742 Roberto Rossellini 438 Jean Rouch 529 Joe Schenck 49 Arnold Schwarzenegger 517 Martin Scorsese 764–5 Sembene Ousmane 668–9 Victor Sjostrom 156–7 Steven Spielberg 520–1 Barbara Stanwyck 284 Ladislas Starewitch 76 Josef von Sternberg 216–17 Erich von Stroheim 54–5 Andrei Tarkovsky 646–7 Jacques Tati 351 Gregg Toland 262–3 Toto 356 Alexandre Trauner 346 Rudolph Valentino 44–5 Agnes Varda 757 Conrad Veidt 140 Dziga Vertov 92–3 Luchino Visconti 440–1 Andrzej Wajda 634 Andy Warhol 544–5 John Wayne 290 Orson Welles 454–5 Wim Wenders 624–5 Shirley Yamaguchi 410 Zhang Yimou 702
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xvii
List of Colour Illustrations (Between pages 362 and 363)
Pathe, Life of Christ (1910) Photo: Joel Finler Collection
Percy Smith, Romance of a Butterfly (1912) Photo: Joel Finler Collection
D. W. Griffith, two frames from Intolerance (1916) Photo: Joel Finler Collection
Two-strip Technicolor: Follow Thru (1930) Photo: Joel Finler Collection
Victor Fleming, The Wizard of Oz (1939) Photo: BFI; © 1939 Turner Entertainment Co. All rights reserved.
Walt Disney, Fantasia (1940) Photo: Disney; © 1940 Walt Disney Co.
Stanley Donen, Singin’ in the Rain (1951) Photo: BFI; © 1952 Turner Entertainment Co. All rights reserved.
John Ford, She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949) Photo: UCLA; © 1949 RKO Pictures Inc. Used by permission Turner Entertainment Co. All rights reserved.
Roger Corman, The Masque of the Red Death (1964) Photo: BFI; Artwork © Orion Pictures Corporation/Lumiere Pictures Ltd.
Derek Jarman, Caravaggio (1986) Photo: BFI; © BFI/Channel 4
Ingmar Bergman, Fanny and Alexander (1982) Photo: BFI; © Sandrew Film AB.
Woody Allen, A Midsummer Night’s Sex Comedy (1982) Photo: BFI; © Warner Brothers Inc.
Akira Kurosawa, Kagemusha (1980) Photo: BFI; © Toho Company, Twentieth-Century–Fox.
Ridley Scott, Black Rain (1989) Photo: BFI; © 1996 Paramount Pictures. All rights reserved.
Jean-Luc Godard, Week-End (1967) Photo: BFI; © 1967 Les Films Gaumont
Tim Burton, Batman (1989) Photo: Joel Finler Collection; © Warner Brothers Inc.
Luchino Visconti, L’innocente (1976) Photo: Geoffrey Nowell-Smith; © G. F. Lelli.
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xix
General Introduction geoffrey nowell -smith
The cinema, wrote the documentarist Paul Rotha in the 1930s, ‘is the great unresolved equation between art and industry’. It was the
first, and is arguably still the greatest, of the indus- trialized art forms which have dominated the cultural life of the twentieth century. From the humble begin- nings in the fairground it has risen to become a billion- dollar industry and the most spectacular and original contemporary art.
As an art form and as a technology, the cinema has been in existence for barely a hundred years. Primitive cinematic devices came into being and began to be exploited in the 1890s, almost simultaneously in the United States, France, Germany, and Great Britain. Within twenty years the cinema had spread to all parts of the globe; it had developed a sophisticated tech- nology, and was on its way to becoming a major indus- try, providing the most popular form of entertainment to audiences in urban areas throughout the world, and attracting the attention of entrepreneurs, artists, scientists, and politicians. As well as for enter- tainment, the film medium has come to be used for purposes of education, propaganda, and scientific research. Originally formed from a fusion of elements including vaudeville, popular melodrama, and the illustrated lecture, it rapidly acquired artistic dis- tinctiveness, which it is now beginning to lose as other forms of mass communication and entertainment have emerged alongside it to threaten its hegemony.
To compress this complex history into a single volume has been, needless to say, a daunting task. Some developments have to be presented as central, while others are relegated to the margins, or even left out entirely. Certain principles have guided me in this work. For a start, this is a history of the cinema, not of film. It does not deal with every use of the film medium but focuses on those which have concurred to turn the original invention of moving images on celluloid into the great institution known as the cinema, or ‘the movies’. The boundaries of cinema in this sense are wider than just the films that the institution produces and puts into circulation. They include the audi- ence, the industry, and the people who work in it—from
stars to technicians to usherettes—and the mechanisms of regulation and control which determine which films audiences are encouraged to see and which they are not. Meanwhile, outside the institution, but constantly pressing in on it, is history in the broader sense, the world of wars and revolution, of changes in culture, demogra- phy, and life-style, of geopolitics and the global economy.
No understanding of films is possible without under- standing the cinema, and no understanding of the cinema is possible without recognizing that it—more than any other art, and principally because of its enormous popu- larity—has constantly been at the mercy of forces beyond its control, while also having the power to influence history in its turn. Histories of literature and music can perhaps be written (though they should not be) simply as histories of authors and their works, without reference to printing and recording technologies and the industries which deploy them, or to the world in which artists and their audiences lived and live. With cinema this is imposs- ible. Central to the project of this book is the need to put films in the context without which they would not exist, let alone have meaning.
Secondly, this is a history of cinema as, both in its origins and in its subsequent development, above all popular art. It is popular art not in the old-fashioned sense of art emanating from the ‘people’ rather than from cultured elites, but in the distinctively twentieth-century sense of an art transmitted by mechanical means of mass diffusion and drawing its strength from an ability to connect to the needs, interests, and desires of a large, massified public. To talk about…
3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide in
Oxford New York
Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Sao Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto
Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York
© Oxford University Press 1996
The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker)
First published 1996 First published in paperback 1997
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organizations. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available
ISBN 0–19–811257–2 ISBN 0–19–874242–8 (Pbk.)
9 10
Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Butler & Tanner Ltd Frome and London
I should like to dedicate this book to the memory of my father,
who did not live to see it finished, and to my children, for their enjoyment.
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgements
This book has been a long time in preparation and in the course of it I have received help from many quarters. I am grateful first of all to my contributors, and in par- ticular to those who, as well as diligently writing their own contributions to the
book, also acted as informal advisers on the project—notably Thomas Elsaesser, Charles Musser, Ashish Rajadhyaksha, and A. L. Rees. I also received specialist advice from Stephen Bottomore, Pam Cook, Rosalind Delmar, Hugh Denman, Joel Finler, June Givanni, David Parkinson, Jasia Reichert, and, most valuably of all, from Markku Salmi. I had administrative help in the early stages from my niece Rebecca Nowell-Smith, and editorial assistance—all too briefly—from Sam Cook. For the last two years my Assistant Editor has been Kate Beetham, to whom my debt is indescribable. Lael Lowinstein helped with the bibliography. Picture research was conducted by Liz Heasman, whose knowledge and judgement are unrivalled in this tricky field. The tiresome work of tracing picture permissions devolved on Vicki Reeve and Diana Morris. For this normally thankless task they deserve particular thanks. And thanks, too, to my editors at the Oxford University Press, Andrew Lockett and Frances Whistler, especially for their patience.
Translations are by Robert Gordon (Italy: Spectacle and Melodrama, The Scandinavian Style, Italy from Fascism to Neo-Realism, Italy: Auteurs and After); Gerald Brooke (The Soviet Union and the Russian Emigres); Timothy Seaton (Cinema in the Soviet Republics); and Nina Taylor (Yiddish Cinema in Europe, East Central Europe before the Second World War, Changing States in East Central Europe).
G.N.-S.
vii
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Richard Abel (USA) Rick Altman (USA) Roy Armes (UK) John Belton (USA) Janet Bergstrom (USA) Chris Berry (Australia) Hans-Michael Bock (Germany) David Bordwell (USA) Royal Brown (USA) Edward Buscombe (UK) Michael Chanan (UK) Paolo Cherchi Usai (USA) Donald Crafton (USA) Stephen Crofts (Australia) Chris Darke (UK) Rosalind Delmar (UK) Karel Dibbets (Netherlands) Michael Donnelly (USA) Phillip Drummond (UK) Michael Eaton (UK) Thomas Elsaesser (Netherlands) Cathy Fowler (UK) Freda Freiberg (Australia) David Gardner (USA) Douglas Gomery (USA) Peter Graham (France) David Hanan (Australia)
ix
Contributors
Phil Hardy (UK) John Hawkridge (UK) Susan Hayward (UK) Marek and Magorzata
Hendrykowski (Poland) Michele Hilmes (USA) Vida Johnson (USA) Anton Kaes (USA) Yusuf Kaplan (UK) Philip Kemp (UK) Peter Kenez (USA) Vance Kepley (USA) Marsha Kinder (USA) Hiroshi Komatsu (Japan) Antonia Lant (USA) Li Cheuk-to (Hong Kong) Jill McGreal (UK) Joe McElhaney (USA) P. Vincent Magombe (UK) Richard Maltby (UK) Martin Marks (USA) Morando Morandini (Italy) William Moritz (USA) Charles Musser (USA) Hamid Naficy (USA) James Naremore (USA) Kim Newman (UK)
Natalia Nussinova (Russia) Ed O’Neill (USA) Roberta Pearson (UK) Duncan Petrie (UK) Graham Petrie (Canada) Jim Pines (UK) Jean Radvanyi (France) Ashish Rajadhyaksha (India) A. L. Rees (UK) Mark A. Reid (USA) Eric Rentschler (USA) David Robinson (UK) Bill Routt (Australia) Daniela Sannwald (Germany) Joseph Sartelle (USA) Thomas Schatz (USA) Ben Singer (USA) Vivian Sobchack (USA) Gaylyn Studlar (USA) Yuri Tsivian (Latvia) William Uricchio (Netherlands) Ruth Vasey (Australia) Ginette Vincendeau (UK) Linda Williams (USA) Brian Winston (UK) Esther Yau (USA) June Yip (USA)
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Contents
s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s xv
l i s t o f c o l o u r i l l u s t r a t i o n s xvii
g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n xix
r e f e r e n c e s xxii
Silent Cinema 1895–1930
i n t r o d u c t i o n 3
T H E E A R L Y Y E A R S
Origins and Survival paolo cherchi usai 6 Early Cinema roberta pearson 13
Transitional Cinema roberta pearson 23
T H E R I S E O F H O L L Y W O O D
The Hollywood Studio System douglas gomery 43 The World-Wide Spread of Cinema ruth vasey 53
The First World War and the Crisis in Europe william uricchio 62
T H E S I L E N T F I L M
Tricks and Animation donald crafton 71 Comedy david robinson 78
Documentary charles musser 86 Cinema and the Avant-Garde a . l . rees 95
Serials ben singer 105
N A T I O N A L C I N E M A S
French Silent Cinema r i c h a r d a b e l 112 Italy: Spectacle and Melodrama p a o l o c h e r c h i u s a i 123
British Cinema from Hepworth to Hitchcock j o h n h a w k r i d g e 130 Germany: The Weimar Years t h o m a s e l s a e s s e r 136
The Scandinavian Style p a o l o c h e r c h i u s a i 151 Pre-Revolutionary Russia y u r i t s i v i a n 159
xi
contents
The Soviet Union and the Russian Emigres natalia nussinova 162 Yiddish Cinema in Europe marek & magorzata hendrykowski 174
Japan: Before the Great Kanto Earthquake h i r o s h i k o m a t s u 177
T H E S I L E N T C I N E M A E X P E R I E N C E
Music and the Silent Film martin marks 183 The Heyday of the Silents geoffrey nowell -smith 192
Sound Cinema 1930–1960
i n t r o d u c t i o n 207
S O U N D
The Introduction of Sound karel dibbets 211
T H E S T U D I O Y E A R S
Hollywood: The Triumph of the Studio System thomas schatz 220 Censorship and Self-Regulation richard maltby 235
The Sound of Music martin marks 248 Technology and Innovation john belton 259
Animation william moritz 267
G E N R E C I N E M A
Cinema and Genre rick altman 276 The Western edward buscombe 286
The Musical rick altman 294 Crime Movies phil hardy 304
The Fantastic vivian sobchack 312
E N G A G I N G W I T H R E A L I T Y
Documentary charles musser 322 Socialism, Fascism, and Democracy geoffrey nowell -smith 333
N A T I O N A L C I N E M A S
The Popular Art of French Cinema ginette vincendeau 344 Italy from Fascism to Neo-Realism morando morandini 353
Britain at the End of Empire antonia lant 361 Germany: Nazism and After eric rentschler 374
East Central Europe Before the Second World War magorzata hendrykowska 383 Soviet Film Under Stalin peter kenez 389
Indian Cinema: Origins to Independence ashish rajadhyaksha 398
xii
contents
China Before 1949 chris berry 409 The Classical Cinema in Japan hiroshi komatsu 413
The Emergence of Australian Film bill routt 422 Cinema in Latin America michael chanan 427
T H E P O S T - W A R W O R L D
After the War g e o f f r e y n o w e l l - s m i t h 436 Transformation of the Hollywood System d o u g l a s g o m e r y 443 Independents and Mavericks g e o f f r e y n o w e l l - s m i t h 451
The Modern Cinema 1960–1995
introduction 463
C I N E M A I N T H E A G E O F T E L E V I S I O N
Television and the Film Industry michele hilmes 466 The New Hollywood douglas gomery 475
New Technologies john belton 483 Sex and Sensation linda williams 490
A M E R I C A N M O V I E S
The Black Presence in American Cinema j im pines 497 Exploitation and the Mainstream kim newman 509
Dreams and Nightmares in the Hollywood Blockbuster joseph sartelle 516
E X T E N D I N G T H E B O U N D A R I E S
Cinema Verite and the New Documentary charles musser 527 Avant-Garde Film: The Second Wave a . l . rees 537
Animation in the Post-Industrial Era william moritz 551 Modern Film Music royal brown 558
Art Cinema geoffrey nowell -smith 567
C I N E M A S O F T H E W O R L D
New Directions in French Cinema peter graham 576 Italy: Auteurs and After morando morandini 586
Spain After Franco marsha kinder 596 British Cinema: The Search for Identity duncan petrie 604
The New German Cinema anton kaes 614 East Germany: The DEFA Story hans -michael bock 627
Changing States in East Central Europe marek hendrykowski 632 Russia After the Thaw vida johnson 640
xiii
contents
Cinema in the Soviet Republics jean radvanyi 651 Turkish Cinema yusuf kaplan 656
The Arab World roy armes 661 The Cinemas of Sub-Saharan Africa p . vincent magombe 667
Iranian Cinema hamid naficy 672 India: Filming the Nation ashish rajadhyaksha 678
Indonesian Cinema david hanan 690 China After the Revolution esther yau 693
Popular Cinema in Hong Kong li cheuk -to 704 Taiwanese New Cinema june yip 711
The Modernization of Japanese Film hiroshi komatsu 714 New Australian Cinema stephen crofts 722
New Zealand Cinema bill routt 731 Canadian Cinema / Cinema Canadien j ill mcgreal 731 New Cinemas in Latin America m i c h a e l c h a n a n 740
C O N C L U S I O N
New Concepts of Cinema geoffrey nowell -smith 750 The Resurgence of Cinema geoffrey nowell -smith 759
bibliography 767
index 785
Special Features
Chantal Akerman 755 Tomas Gutierrez Alea 744 Robert Altman 470–1 Michelangelo Antonioni 568–9 Arletty 347 Fred Astaire 296–7 Brigitte Bardot 492 Yevgeny Bauer 160–1 Ingmar Bergman 572–3 Ingrid Bergman 230–1 Bernardo Bertolucci 593 Frank Borzage 64–5 Marlon Brando 444–5 Luis Bunuel 432–3 Bugs Bunny 269 John Cassavetes 542–3 Youssef Chahine 664 Lon Chaney 198–9 Charlie Chaplin 84–5 Maurice Chevalier 246 Raoul Coutard 487 Franco Cristaldi 595 David Cronenberg 736 George Cukor 282 Anatole Dauman 571 Bette Davis 222–3 Alain Delon 579 Cecil B. DeMille 34–5 Gerard Depardieu 585 Vittorio De Sica 360 Marlene Dietrich 240–1 ‘Don’ts and Be Carefuls’ 239 Alexander Dovzhenko 394–5 Carl Theodor Dreyer 102–3 Clint Eastwood 472–3 Sergei Eisenstein 168–9 Douglas Fairbanks 60 Rainer Werner Fassbinder 618–19 Federico Fellini 587 Louis Feuillade 108–9 Gracie Fields 366–7 Gabriel Figueroa 430–1 John Ford 288–9 Jodie Foster 478–9 Karl Freund 314–15 Jean Gabin 307
Greta Garbo 190–1 Judy Garland 226–7 Ritwik Ghatak 686–7 Dorothy and Lillian Gish 40–1 Jean–Luc Godard 752–3 Sid Grauman 52 D. W. Griffith 30–1 Yilmaz Guney 659 William S. Hart 68 Howard Hawks 278–9 Will Hays 238 Robert Herlth 148–9 Werner Herzog 620–1 Alfred Hitchcock 310–11 James Wong Howe 200–1 John Huston 448–9 Daisuke Ito 180 Joris Ivens 331 Humphrey Jennings 328–9 Alfred Junge 380–1 Buster Keaton 80–1 Alexander Korda 336–7 Stanley Kubrick 458–9 Akira Kurosawa 716 Burt Lancaster 452–3 Fritz Lang 196–7 Spike Lee 508 Val Lewton 318–19 Max Linder 117 The Loop and the Maltese Cross 7 Joseph Losey 606–7 Ernst Lubitsch 184–5 Alexander Mackendrick 371 Chris Marker 530–1 Joseph P. Maxfield 213 William Cameron Menzies 232–3 Oscar Micheaux 499 Vincente Minnelli 302–3 Tom Mix 69 Kenji Mizoguchi 418–19 Marilyn Monroe 256–7 Ivan Mosjoukine 166 F. W. Murnau 146–7 Nargis 404 Jack Nicholson 510–11 Asta Nielsen 26
Manoel de Oliveira 602–3 Max Ophuls 252–3 Nagisa Oshima 718 Yasujiro Ozu 420–1 Pier Paolo Pasolini 494–5 Mary Pickford 56–7 Sidney Poitier 504–5 Erich Pommer 145 Michael Powell and Emeric
Pressburger 368–9 M. G. Ramachandran 406–7 Satyajit Ray 682–3 Jean Renoir 338–9 Paul Robeson 341 Glauber Rocha 742 Roberto Rossellini 438 Jean Rouch 529 Joe Schenck 49 Arnold Schwarzenegger 517 Martin Scorsese 764–5 Sembene Ousmane 668–9 Victor Sjostrom 156–7 Steven Spielberg 520–1 Barbara Stanwyck 284 Ladislas Starewitch 76 Josef von Sternberg 216–17 Erich von Stroheim 54–5 Andrei Tarkovsky 646–7 Jacques Tati 351 Gregg Toland 262–3 Toto 356 Alexandre Trauner 346 Rudolph Valentino 44–5 Agnes Varda 757 Conrad Veidt 140 Dziga Vertov 92–3 Luchino Visconti 440–1 Andrzej Wajda 634 Andy Warhol 544–5 John Wayne 290 Orson Welles 454–5 Wim Wenders 624–5 Shirley Yamaguchi 410 Zhang Yimou 702
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List of Colour Illustrations (Between pages 362 and 363)
Pathe, Life of Christ (1910) Photo: Joel Finler Collection
Percy Smith, Romance of a Butterfly (1912) Photo: Joel Finler Collection
D. W. Griffith, two frames from Intolerance (1916) Photo: Joel Finler Collection
Two-strip Technicolor: Follow Thru (1930) Photo: Joel Finler Collection
Victor Fleming, The Wizard of Oz (1939) Photo: BFI; © 1939 Turner Entertainment Co. All rights reserved.
Walt Disney, Fantasia (1940) Photo: Disney; © 1940 Walt Disney Co.
Stanley Donen, Singin’ in the Rain (1951) Photo: BFI; © 1952 Turner Entertainment Co. All rights reserved.
John Ford, She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949) Photo: UCLA; © 1949 RKO Pictures Inc. Used by permission Turner Entertainment Co. All rights reserved.
Roger Corman, The Masque of the Red Death (1964) Photo: BFI; Artwork © Orion Pictures Corporation/Lumiere Pictures Ltd.
Derek Jarman, Caravaggio (1986) Photo: BFI; © BFI/Channel 4
Ingmar Bergman, Fanny and Alexander (1982) Photo: BFI; © Sandrew Film AB.
Woody Allen, A Midsummer Night’s Sex Comedy (1982) Photo: BFI; © Warner Brothers Inc.
Akira Kurosawa, Kagemusha (1980) Photo: BFI; © Toho Company, Twentieth-Century–Fox.
Ridley Scott, Black Rain (1989) Photo: BFI; © 1996 Paramount Pictures. All rights reserved.
Jean-Luc Godard, Week-End (1967) Photo: BFI; © 1967 Les Films Gaumont
Tim Burton, Batman (1989) Photo: Joel Finler Collection; © Warner Brothers Inc.
Luchino Visconti, L’innocente (1976) Photo: Geoffrey Nowell-Smith; © G. F. Lelli.
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General Introduction geoffrey nowell -smith
The cinema, wrote the documentarist Paul Rotha in the 1930s, ‘is the great unresolved equation between art and industry’. It was the
first, and is arguably still the greatest, of the indus- trialized art forms which have dominated the cultural life of the twentieth century. From the humble begin- nings in the fairground it has risen to become a billion- dollar industry and the most spectacular and original contemporary art.
As an art form and as a technology, the cinema has been in existence for barely a hundred years. Primitive cinematic devices came into being and began to be exploited in the 1890s, almost simultaneously in the United States, France, Germany, and Great Britain. Within twenty years the cinema had spread to all parts of the globe; it had developed a sophisticated tech- nology, and was on its way to becoming a major indus- try, providing the most popular form of entertainment to audiences in urban areas throughout the world, and attracting the attention of entrepreneurs, artists, scientists, and politicians. As well as for enter- tainment, the film medium has come to be used for purposes of education, propaganda, and scientific research. Originally formed from a fusion of elements including vaudeville, popular melodrama, and the illustrated lecture, it rapidly acquired artistic dis- tinctiveness, which it is now beginning to lose as other forms of mass communication and entertainment have emerged alongside it to threaten its hegemony.
To compress this complex history into a single volume has been, needless to say, a daunting task. Some developments have to be presented as central, while others are relegated to the margins, or even left out entirely. Certain principles have guided me in this work. For a start, this is a history of the cinema, not of film. It does not deal with every use of the film medium but focuses on those which have concurred to turn the original invention of moving images on celluloid into the great institution known as the cinema, or ‘the movies’. The boundaries of cinema in this sense are wider than just the films that the institution produces and puts into circulation. They include the audi- ence, the industry, and the people who work in it—from
stars to technicians to usherettes—and the mechanisms of regulation and control which determine which films audiences are encouraged to see and which they are not. Meanwhile, outside the institution, but constantly pressing in on it, is history in the broader sense, the world of wars and revolution, of changes in culture, demogra- phy, and life-style, of geopolitics and the global economy.
No understanding of films is possible without under- standing the cinema, and no understanding of the cinema is possible without recognizing that it—more than any other art, and principally because of its enormous popu- larity—has constantly been at the mercy of forces beyond its control, while also having the power to influence history in its turn. Histories of literature and music can perhaps be written (though they should not be) simply as histories of authors and their works, without reference to printing and recording technologies and the industries which deploy them, or to the world in which artists and their audiences lived and live. With cinema this is imposs- ible. Central to the project of this book is the need to put films in the context without which they would not exist, let alone have meaning.
Secondly, this is a history of cinema as, both in its origins and in its subsequent development, above all popular art. It is popular art not in the old-fashioned sense of art emanating from the ‘people’ rather than from cultured elites, but in the distinctively twentieth-century sense of an art transmitted by mechanical means of mass diffusion and drawing its strength from an ability to connect to the needs, interests, and desires of a large, massified public. To talk about…
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