The neural basis of self- knowledge Arnaud D’Argembeau University of Liège, Belgium Workshop on Social Neuroscience Gent, 27 June 2013
Feb 24, 2016
The neural basis of self-knowledge
Arnaud D’ArgembeauUniversity of Liège, Belgium
Workshop on Social NeuroscienceGent, 27 June 2013
γνῶθι σεαυτόν(« Know thyself »)
Outline
1. What is the self?2. Neural basis of self-knowledge
– Semantic self-knowledge– Episodic self-knowledge
3. Default mode network4. What is the role of the MPFC?5. Self-enhancement6. Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Self
Self-as-subject
Semantic self-representations
Episodic self-representations
What do we mean by “self”?
Self-as-object• “I” (James)• Core self (Damasio)• Minimal self (Gallagher)• …
• “me” (James)• Autobiographical self (Damasio)• Narrative self (Gallagher)• …
• Semantic self-knowledge: a set of abstract representations of one’s personal attributes (e.g., traits, preferences, abilities, goals, social roles)
• Episodic self-knowledge: the ability to mentally relive past experiences and to project oneself into possible futures (“mental time travel”)
• These two forms of self-knowledge are dissociable– Patients with amnesia (e.g., Klein et al., 2002)– Priming experiments in healthy individuals (e.g., Klein & Loftus, 1993)
What do we mean by “self”?
Thinking about one’s traits
Kelley et al. (2002) J Cogn Neurosci
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Johnson et al. (2002). Brain
• Self evaluation in the domains of mood, social ‐interactions, cognitive and physical abilities (e.g., “I get angry easily”, “I often forget things”)• Decisions about statements of factual knowledge (e.g., “you need water to live”)
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Meta-analyses of trait judgments about the self
Van der Meer et al. (2010) Neurosci Biobehav Rev
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Murray et al. (2012) Neurosci Biobehav Rev
17 PET or fMRI studies 25 PET or fMRI studies
Moran et al. (2006) J Cogn Neurosci
MPFC activity correlates with degrees of self-descriptiveness
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
You are
sociable
You are
sociable
You are
sociable
You are
sociable
D’Argembeau et al. (2007) J Cogn Neurosci
You are
clumsy
According to David, you are
clumsy
According to David, he is
clumsy
David is
clumsy
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
What do others think about me?
MPFC subserves diverse forms of self-reflection
Jenkins & Mitchell (2011), Social Neuroscience
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Ruby et al. (2009) Neurobiology of Aging
MPFC damage abolishes the self-reference effect
Task: traits judgments• Self (‘does this trait describe you?’)• Other (‘does this trait describe Oprah Winfrey?’)• Case (‘is the trait capitalized?’)Recognition memory task => SRE (hits self – hits other)
Philippi et al. (2012) J cogn Neurosci
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Preserved self-concept in patient R:
• Self-consciousness scale revised• Positivity bias• Big Five inventory (consistency over time)• Metacognition and introspective abilities
BUT self-conceptions are rather rigid and not fully updated
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Role of the MPFC in semantic self-knowledge
• The MPFC is more active when thinking about one’s traits compared to the traits of others
• When thinking about one’s traits, the degree of MPFC activity correlates with the self-descriptiveness of the traits
• The MPFC is active when processing different kinds of semantic self-knowledge (e.g., traits, physical abilities, how we are seen by others)
• Damage to the MPFC impairs some aspects of semantic self-knowledge
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Mental time travel
Amnesia: The case of K. C. (Tulving, 1985)
Tulving: “What will you be doing tomorrow?”(There is a 15-second pause)K.C.: smiles faintly, then says, “I don’t know”Tulving: “Do you remember the question?”K.C.: “About what I’ll be doing tomorrow?”Tulving: “Yes. How would you describe your state of mind when you try to think about it?”(A 5-second pause)K.C.: “Blank, I guess”
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Developmental research
Episodic memory and future thinking emerge at the same time, between 3 and 5 years of age
Suddendorf & Busby (2005)
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Phenomenological characteristics
D’Argembeau & Van der Linden (2004) Consciousness & Cognition
Experimental manipulations of valence and temporal distance have similar effects on past and future event representations
Near Far1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Past eventsFuture events
Positive Negative1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Past eventsFuture events
Temporal distance Affective valence
Ratin
gs fo
r sen
sory
det
ails
Ratin
gs fo
r sen
sory
det
ails
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Typical task: remembering/imagining specific events (i.e., unique events that occur in a specific place and time) in response to cue words (e.g., beach)
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Svoboda et al. (2006) Neuropsychologia
Meta-analysis of autobiographical memory studies
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Addis et al. (2007) Neuropsychologia
Remembering past events and imagining future events rely on common neural substrates
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Szpunar et al. (2007) PNAS
Cabeza & St Jacques (2007)
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Neural correlates of imagining self-relevant future events
Personally-relevant future events: future events related to personal goals(Personal Projects Inventory; Little, 1983; e.g. getting married next summer)
Non-personally-relevant future events: future events that are plausible but not part of personal goals (e.g. going to the zoo next summer)
Routine activities (e.g. taking a shower)
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Personal future
Getting married next summer
+
Daily routine
Taking a shower
Max. 5 s
jitter (4 - 12 s)
15 sImagine the event (with eyes closed)
Eyes closed
Identify the event
fMRI session
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) J Cogn Neurosci
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) J Cogn Neurosci
Personally-relevant future events > routine activities
Non-personally-relevant future events > routine activities
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Personally-relevant future events > non-personally-relevant future events
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) J Cogn Neurosci
Imagining personally-relevant future events
Thinking about one’s traits
Overlap
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) J Cogn Neurosci
x = -4 y = 56
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
• Semantic self-knowledge– The MPFC is the brain area that is most commonly activated in fMRI
studies– Damage to the MPFC is associated with some impairments in self-
representation
• Episodic self-knowledge– Involve multiple brain regions– MPFC is associated with self-relevance
=> Although semantic and episodic forms of self-knowledge are dissociable, they both involve the MPFC
Interim conclusion
Moran et al. (2006) J Cogn Neurosci
DMN and self-related thought
Kelley et al. (2002) J Cogn Neurosci
The MPFC typically shows decreased activity relative to baseline
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) J Cogn Neurosci
DMN and self-related thought
Gusnard & Raichle (2001) Nature Reviews Neuroscience
Default mode network
What is going on during the “resting state”?
– Daydreaming, mind-wandering– Remembering the past, imagining the future– Attending to bodily sensations and external stimuli– …
DMN and self-related thought
DMN and self-related thought
Conjunction analysis between resting state and self-reflection
Correlation with amount of self-referential thoughts
D’Argembeau et al. (2005) NeuroImage
Self Other Social Rest02468
10Self-referential thoughts
PET study• Resting state• Explicit self-reflection• Thinking about others• Thinking about social issues
In the four conditions, no stimuli were presented and no motor response was required during the scans
(Self – Other) AND (Rest – Society)
DMN and self-related thought
Mind-wandering and self-related thought
Stawarczyk, Majerus, Van der Linden, & D’Argembeau (2011) PLoS ONE
What is the function of the MPFC?
• Not self-specific – Familiarity (Gilihan & Farah, 2005)– Memory retrieval and evaluation processes (Legrand & Ruby, 2009)– Meta-cognition, introspection, and mentalizing (e.g., Amodio & Frith,
2006)
Is the involvement of MPFC self-specific?
Legrand & Ruby (2009) Psychological Bulletin
Thinking about one’s traits vs. traits of other people
BUT mixing of different aspects of self (trait judgments, sense of agency, recognition of one’s own face, name, etc.)
What is the function of the MPFC?
Is the involvement of MPFC self-specific?
Thinking about one’s traits vs. traits of other people
Van der Meer et al. (2010) Neurosci Biobehav Rev
Murray et al. (2012) Neurosci Biobehav Rev
What is the function of the MPFC?
Review of the social neuroscience literature (Lieberman, 2010)
• Mentalizing: MPFC is activated in 33% of studies; dorsal MPFC is activated in 91% of studies
• Self-knowledge: MPFC is activated in 94% of studies; dorsal MPFC is activated in 53% of studies
What is the function of the MPFC?
What is the function of the MPFC?
Van Overwalle (2009), HBM
Heatherton et al. (2006), SCAN
What about close others?
Vanderwal et al. (2008), NeuroImage
What is the function of the MPFC?
• Close others are often treated as “part of the self” (e.g., Aaron et al., 2004)
• Perhaps the difference in MPFC activity for self vs. close others depends on the degree to which the other is included in one’s sense of self
What is the function of the MPFC?
What is the function of the MPFC?
Cultural differences
Self > non-close other Self > mother
Zhu et al. (2007) NeuroImage
What is the function of the MPFC?
Benoit et al. (2010) NeuroImage
MPFC activity for self vs. other correlates with the degree of self-other overlap (as assessed by the correlation between self-judgments and judgments about one’s best friend)
What is the function of the MPFC?
Benoit et al. (2010) NeuroImage
What is the function of the MPFC?
Benoit et al. (2010) NeuroImage
Activity in the MPFC at study correlates with subsequent memory performance
What is the function of the MPFC?
• Not self-specific – Familiarity (Gilihan & Farah, 2005)– Memory retrieval and evaluation processes (Legrand & Ruby, 2009)– Meta-cognition, introspection, and mentalizing (e.g., Amodio & Frith,
2006)
• Cognitive operations involved in trait self-judgments according to Legrand & Ruby (2009)
– Consideration of the question (does the trait apply to you?)– Perception and integration of the stimulus (e.g., shyness)– Recall of relevant situations (e.g., I blushed the last time John said something embarrassing to me,
even thought I usually do not blush easily)– Comparison or association of these recalled events with each other, which leads to a– Generalization or the formulation of probalistic rule (e.g., most of the time I am confident and do
not blush in embarrassing situations), and– Application of the rule, which allows a conclusion to be drawn (e.g., I am not shy)
• BUT– Trait judgments do not involve the recall of past events (cf. studies by Klein and colleagues)– Typically, trait judgments are made within 2 seconds, whereas the recall of past events takes
3-10 seconds
Does the MPFC subserve memory retrieval and evaluation processes?
What is the function of the MPFC?
Does MPFC subserve evaluation processes?
Passive viewing of words• Self-related (e.g., hometown, initials; n = 50, white font)• Neutral (n = 400, non-self-related words in white font)• Perceptual oddball (n = 50, non-self-related words in green font)
Moran et al. (2009), Social Neuroscience
What is the function of the MPFC?
What is the function of the MPFC?
• 2 groups of participants based on their self-schema (athletic vs. scientific)
• Implicit self-relevance task: viewing pictures related to athletism and science and judging whether contain people
• Explicit self-relevance task: viewing adjectives related to athletism and science and judging whether they describe the self
Explicit processing of schema-relevant information
Implicit processing of schema-relevant information
Rameson et al. (2010) NeuroImage
Does MPFC subserve evaluation processes?
What is the function of the MPFC?
• 2 groups of participants based on their self-schema (athletic vs. scientific)
• Implicit self-relevance task: viewing pictures related to athletism and science and judging whether contain people
• Explicit self-relevance task: viewing adjectives related to athletism and science and judging whether they describe the self
Neural overlap during explicit and implicit self-relevant processing
Rameson et al. (2010) NeuroImage
Does MPFC subserve evaluation processes?
• Not self-specific – Familiarity (Gilihan & Farah, 2005)– Memory retrieval and evaluation processes (Legrand & Ruby, 2009)– Meta-cognition, introspection, and mentalizing (e.g., Amodio & Frith,
2006)
• Appraising and coding self-relatedness or self-relevance (e.g., Northoff & Bermpohl, 2004; Schmitz & Johnson, 2007; D’Argembeau & Salmon, 2012)
What is the function of the MPFC?
“One great splitting of the whole universe into two halves ismade by each of us; and for each of us almost all of the interest attaches to one of the halves; but we all drawthe line of division between them in a different place.When I say that we all call the two halves by the samenames, and that those names are ‘me’ and ‘not-me’ respectively, it will at once be seen what I mean. The altogether unique kind of interest which each human mindfeels in those parts of creation which it can call me or minemay be a moral riddle, but it is a fundamental psychologicalfact. No mind can take the same interest in his neighbor’sme as in his own.” (The principles of psychology, 1890, p. 289).
William James
What is the function of the MPFC?
Food
Hare et al. (2009)
Money
Kable & Glimcher (2007)
Attractive faces
O’Doherty et al. (2003)
Charitable decisions
Hare et al. (2010)
MPFC activity when people think about themselves could reflect the value they attach to the particular conception of themselves that is activated at a given moment
Value signals in the MPFC
• People tend to devalue distant past and future selves, such that they are regarded as “others” (e.g., Pronin et al., 2008; Wilson & Ross, 2003)
Increasing psychological distance to selves
• People tend to devalue distant past and future selves, such that they are regarded as “others” (e.g., Pronin et al., 2008; Wilson & Ross, 2003)
• If MPFC is involved in valuing the self, then MPFC activity should be reduced when thinking about distant selves
Increasing psychological distance to selves
D’Argembeau et al. (2008) SCAN
At present, I am
sociable
At present, David is
sociable
Five years ago, I was
sociable
Positive trait
sociable
Five years ago, David was
sociable
3.5 s
Increasing psychological distance to selves
Increasing psychological distance to selves
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) Social Neuroscience
Increasing psychological distance to selves
Ersner-Hershfield et al. (2009) SCAN
Investments in self-views
• People possess many different beliefs and ideas about themselves and attach more or less value to particular self-views
• Investments in self-views (Pelham, 1991):– Emotive investment: importance placed on a particular self-view– Epistemic investment: certainty with which a particular self-view is
held
• If MPFC is involved in valuing the self, then MPFC activity should correlate with people’s investments in self-views
sincere
+
lazy
+
punctual
fMRI session
3.5 s
240 traits
Self-descriptiveness judgments“To what extent does this trait describe you?” (1 = not at all; 4 = completely)
D’Argembeau et al. (2012) Cerebral Cortex
Investments in self-views
sincere
+
lazy
+
punctual
Post-scan ratings
240 traits
Emotive investment“How important is it for you to possess or not possess this trait?” (1 = not at all important; 4 = very important)
Epistemic investment“How certain are you that you possess or do not possess this trait?” (1 = not at all; 4 = completely)
D’Argembeau et al. (2012) Cerebral Cortex
Investments in self-views
Investments in self-views
x = 10
x = -2
L
L
y = 48
y = 62
L
L
Emotive investments
Epistemic investments
D’Argembeau et al. (2012) Cerebral Cortex
Neural correlates of reflecting on the meaning of personal experiences are modulated by individual differences in the value of self-reflection (Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire; Trapnell & Campbell, 1999)
x = -10 y = 62
Left IFG
Left A
x = -50Left MTG
RRQ - reflection
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
MP
FC(r
easo
ning
> re
mem
berin
g pa
ram
eter
est
imat
e)
-2,0
-1,5
-1,0
-0,5
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
D’Argembeau et al. (in preparation)
Individual differences in the value attached to self-reflection
D’Argembeau et al. (in press), SCAN
Valuing outer aspects of self
Kim & Johnson (2012), SCAN
People’s identities not only include elements that are unambiguously part of them (e.g., their body and mental states) but also outer aspects of their lives, such as their family, friends, and possessions (James, 1890; Belk, 1988)
Valuing outer aspects of self
Kim & Johnson (2012), SCAN
• Still debated
• Distinct subregions of the MPFC probably support different processes that intervene in self-representation
• Ventral MPFC activity tracks the value attached to self-related contentso decreases with increasing psychological distance to self-conceptionso correlates with investments in self-conceptionso is modulated by individual differences in the value of self-reflectiono correlates with the value assigned to owned objects
• The function of the ventral MPFC may be to integrate information from various sources in order to appraise and code personal value/significance
What is the function of the MPFC?
Non-self Self
Degrees of personal value/significance
What is the function of the MPFC?
• Most people strive to create and maintain positive self-views (self-enhancement)
– Better-than-average effect– Self-serving attributional bias– Illusion of control– Optimism about one’s personal future– …
Self-enhancement
Thinking about one’s hopes and aspirations (promotion self-reflection) versus one’s duties and obligations (prevention self-reflection)
Johnson et al. (2006). SCAN
Self-enhancement
Promotion goals > prevention goals
Packer and Cunningham (2010), Social Neuroscience
Self-enhancement
Self-enhancement
Projecting oneself into specific future events
D’Argembeau et al. (2008) NeuroImage
Self-enhancement
dACC and OFC might be involved in correcting exagerated positive self-evaluations
Negative correlations with the above-average effect
Beer & Hughes (2010) NeuroImage
• Disturbance of self-processing is an important component of many psychological disorders
– Schizophrenia– Depression– Bipolar disorder– Autism– Social phobia– …
• DMN abnormalities are widespread across different psychological disorders
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Disturbance of self-knowledge in schizophrenia
– Less stable trait self-knowledge (Boulanger et al., 2013)– Difficulties in remembering specific past experiences and imagining specific future
events (D’Argembeau et al., 2008)
Multimodal imaging (VBM, fMRI, DTI) points to the central role of the MPFC in schizophrenia (Pomarol-Clotet et al., 2010)
VBM
fMRI
DTI
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Reduced MPFC activity when accessing semantic self-knowledge in schizophrenia
Holt et al. (2011) Biological Psychiatry
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
The MPFC does not differentiate self from others in individuals with autism
Lombardo et al. (2010) Brain
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Lemogne et al. (in press)
The MPFC and self-referential processing in major depression
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Generalized social phobia
2 types of self-referential information• 1st person: what I think about myself (e.g. “I am stupid”)• 2nd person: comments coming from another person (e.g., “You are stupid”)
Blair et al. (2011) Psych Res Neuro
Self-knowledge and psychopathologyModifications of patterns of MPFC activity during self-processing may underlie the restructuration of dysfunctional self-views following cognitive behavioral therapy
Yoshimura et al. (in press) SCAN
Summary
• The self is a multifaceted construct => specify which aspect(s) of the self you are studying
• Research points to the MPFC as a key neural structure underlying the ‘me’ or self-as-object
– Semantic self-knowledge– Episodic self-knowledge
• An important function of the MPFC may be to process personal significance/value
• Disturbances of self-knowledge in various psychopathological disorders might be due (in part) to functional and/or structural abnormalities in the MPFC
University of Liège
Fabienne ColletteSteve MajerusPierre MaquetEric SalmonDavid Stawarczyk
University of Southern California
Antoine BecharaGui Xue
University of Geneva
Martial Van der Linden
Acknowledgments
Greater MPFC activity in response to negative feedback is associated with decreased state self-esteem
Eisenberger et al (2011). J Cogn Neurosci
Similarity of self with other
What is the function of the MPFC?
Mitchell et al. (2006) Neuron
MPFC activity is sensitive to closeness but not similarity
What is the function of the MPFC?
Krienen et al. (2010) J Neurosci
Lower self-esteem is associated with greater differential response to positive versus negative social feedbacks in the MPFC
Sommerville et al. (2010) Cerebral Cortex
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Lower self-esteem is associated with greater differential response to positive versus negative social feedbacks in the MPFC
Sommerville et al. (2010) Cerebral Cortex
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Lemogne et al. (in press)
The MPFC and self-referential processing in major depression
TMS applied to the MPFC reduces self-enhancement
Kwan et al. (2007)Self-enhancement score: more desirable traits and less undesirable traits were ascribed to the self compared to best friend
Self-enhancement