The Need for an Islamic Pedagogy

THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

THE NEED FOR AN ISLAMIC PEDAGOGY

By

MOHAMMED SABRIN

A Thesis submitted to the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2010

Copyright 2009 Mohammed Sabrin All Rights Reserve

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The members of the committee approve the thesis of Mohammed Sabrin defended on April 8,

2010.

_________________________________ Peter Easton Professor Directing Thesis

_________________________________ Jeffrey Milligan

Committee Member

_________________________________ Tom Luschei

Committee Member

Approved: _________________________________________________________________ Patrice Iatarola, Chair, Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members.

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In The Name Of Allah, And May The Peace And Blessings Of Allah Be Upon The

Messenger of Allah.

Oh Allah Accept This From Us, Undoubtedly You Are The

All-Hearing, All-Knowing (Qur'an 2:127)

Whatever is contained herein which is correct, then it is from the blessing of Allah,

and whatever is contained herein which is wrong, then it is from me.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................. vIntroduction ........................................................................................................................................................... 1Purpose ................................................................................................................................................................. 4

Research questions ............................................................................................................................................ 5Literature Review: Western Analogues to Islamic Pedagogy ............................................................................... 6

Theory ............................................................................................................................................................... 6Application ....................................................................................................................................................... 8

Methodology ....................................................................................................................................................... 12Evaluating Our Lenses .................................................................................................................................... 13

Presentation of Data ............................................................................................................................................ 21Knowledge in Islam ........................................................................................................................................ 21Islamic Education: Content or Pedagogy? ...................................................................................................... 30Basis for Islamic Pedagogy in the English Sources? ...................................................................................... 34Islamic Pedagogy Directly from the Quran, Sunnah, and Contemporary Arabic Works on the Topic ......... 46

Analysis of Data.................................................................................................................................................. 58Islamic Pedagogy as it Relates to the Western Analogue of Ethical Caring ................................................... 58

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 67List of References ............................................................................................................................................... 71Biographical Sketch ............................................................................................................................................ 78

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ABSTRACT For the neo-colonized Muslim ummah1 (nation) without a place to fully practice Islam

since the fall of the Ottoman Empire, there is pressing demand in the Muslim world for an

Islamic pedagogy extracted from the Quran and Sunnah (and the rich scholarship that exists

concerning them) that illustrates the Islamic perspective of knowledge and morality and how it

could be practiced in the various disciplines of the educational system to promote human

development (Cook 1999; Cook 2001). Re-newed identification of the general public of Muslims

with pre-colonization identities has been particularly on the rise since the 1970swhich is

commonly known as the beginning of the Islamic Awakening in the Muslim world (Cook,

2001, p.381; Haddad and Esposito, 1991, p.1). However, similar to many other institutions in

most modern day Muslim countries, formal education mostly consists of teaching methods

inherited from previous colonizers, like rote memorization (Gesink, 2006, pgs. 328-329; Ofori-

Attah, 2008, pgs.15, 18). This dissonance of values is perpetuated by corrupt authoritarian

puppet regimes who seek to maintain their power by supporting Western hegemony in the

region; hence, providing quality education that enhances critical thinking skills that might

challenge the status quo is not an initiative that receives much support (Kincheloe and Steinberg,

2004, p.149).

While teachers in the Muslim world, in places like Egypt, often teach Islamic and

positivistic empirical sciences, both are taught through a banking theory approach that does little

to develop critical thinking skills, let alone master basic conceptual knowledge. Aside from the

ineffectiveness of such methods, such a teaching philosophy spreads a passive slave-like

mentality to education which does not cultivate active citizens who will work for social justice2 .

How one teaches reflects their values. The following exemplar of an Islamic pedagogy hopes to 1 The Muslim ummah refers to the Islamic belief that all humans born after prophet Muhammads birth are considered from the ummah of Muhammad in general (ummat Al dawa or invitation), but those who choose to believe and follow him are the more specific ummat Al ijaaba (ummah of those who responded), who we would call Muslims today. Muslims believe in all the prophets (ie: Adam, Abraham, Jesus, Muhammad, etc.) in the sense that they all originally came with the same central message of Tawheed (worshipping only One God), but different branches/details (how to pray, etc.) contextual to their time/location; each prophet had their own branches for their particular ummah (the ummah of the Jews, of the Christians, etc.). Prophet Muhammad is believed to be the seal of the prophets from his time till judgment day for the entire world. Differences between the three monotheistic religions over even the central meaning of Tawheed today (the status of Jesus being more than a prophet, etc.) are believed to be due to tampering/alterations of the older scriptures by various theologians and others throughout history. For a fuller discussion, see Dr. Umar Ashqars Belief in Allah. 2 See Paulo Frieres Pedagogy of the Oppressed (2003)

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offer a culturally relevant solution. The intent of this research is to develop an Islamic pedagogy

that inspires an active approach to creating change in ones society by changing oneself and

working to be an active contribution to societal change simultaneously. This thesis focuses on

Islamic Pedagogy as it relates to two branches-developing caring student/teacher relationships

and utilizing these relationships to apply a case-based learning approach where students learn

how to apply knowledge directly from the educator and from their peers. While this research is

mostly theoretical and could possibly be valid for many parts of the Muslim world, the main

geographical intent for application is Egypt.

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INTRODUCTION Egypt has a population of about 82 million; it is split into 26 governorates with about 90% of the

people living on the 10% of the land around the Nile, and the currency is the Egyptian pound. Egypt is

ruled by an authoritarian regime that has ruled by marshal law since 1981. This emergency law is the

primary obstacle to change in Egypt, including in the field of educationnot to mention that 1.3 of the

1.7 billion in American funding is spent on support of the military which upholds these policies

(Boustany, 2008; Kelly, 2006; Zuhur, 2007, pgs. 2, 18 )5.

Egypt has the largest educational system in the Middle East (Sadik, 2006, p. 87). This is mainly

due to the tremendous population explosion over the last half a century, which has also caused a great

decline in per student expenditure (at 40 percent per five years in the 1990s) and is getting worse (World

Bank, 2009, p.12). Education in Egypt is very centralized and controlled by the Ministry of Education

with two sub ministries. The main educational system in Egypt is governed by a sub ministry called

the Ministry of Education and Learning and is divided into two stages: the first compulsory stage, from

ages six to fourteen, is split into two cycles, five then three years (only about ten percent of the

population can afford any level of private education). At the end of the second preparatory cycle,

students take a high-stakes national final exam which will essentially determine the rest of their life,

whether they go to general or technical secondary education (Leavitt, 1992, pgs.96-97). If admitted to

general education, the second stage is two years of general studies and one year specializing in a

particular subject. The type of certificate granted at the end of the third year depends on the score

achieved on the final national exam which will determine potential entrance into a university, and if

admitted, the field qualified for out of the students list of preferences (i.e.: Arts, Engineering, Medicine,

etc.). This final exam covers every course taken in high-school and is such a catastrophic event that

some students commit suicide every year from sheer stress (Elhakeem, 2008)! The Ministry of

Education has repeatedly defeated efforts to change the national exam (Leavitt, 1992, p.97). For the

other half of the student population that get tracked into technical secondary education, about 1 percent

get admitted to a university while the rest usually enter a trade or end up unemployed (Leavitt, 1992,

pgs. 96-97).

There is also the parallel Islamic educational system of Al-Azhar, which is administered by the

sub ministry Al-Awqaaf, and was established 975 CE. Al-Azhar has a four year primary stage, a three 5 For the often underplayed details of U.S foreign policy see Howard Zinns Peoples History of the World or William Blums Rogue State: A Guide to the Worlds Only Superpower.

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year preparatory stage, a four year secondary stage, and higher education (Leavitt, 1992, p. 97). Both the

main educational system and the parallel Al-Azhar system have public, private, and semi-private

branches with the main difference between these being that the size of the classroom decreases and use

of international languages such as English (for instruction) increases as one moves down the spectrum

from public to private. Correspondingly, under both ministries public schools are free, semi-private at

varying costs, and private rarely within reach except for the elite classof course aside from tuition,

there are numerous indirect expenses like transportation, uniforms, books, and other materials.

The demanding nature of the national exam at the end of secondary school combined with the

poor quality of curriculum/ instruction cause millions of dollars to be wasted each year on private

tutoring and bribes to get around the educational system. Ethnographic research from the Culture and

Education in Egypt Working Group (CEEWG) of the Middle East Awards Program explicated how

private lessons have become a market themselves due to the tremendous failure of the educational

system. Linda Herreras work with teachers allowed for discussions that highlighted the importance of

improving the regular learning experience so students would not have to purchase their education on

their own--which of course condemns most of the poverty-stricken of Egypt. However, these

conversations also highlighted the need to motivate teachers to put forth more effort and enthusiasm in

their teaching (despite the institutional obstacles) and acknowledge their social responsibility towards

their students (Herrera and Torres, 2006, pgs.100-118).

In regard to teaching methods and content, Egyptian education has been reduced to rote

memorization of dated textbooks. Students, from basic through secondary education, are lambasted with

facts and figures with no guidance on how to practically apply such knowledge or its relevance (Herrera,

2006, p. 9). During basic education, students learn manners and some academic content (like language,

communication, agriculture, and industrial skills) in this manner (Leavitt, 1992, p.97). In preparatory

and secondary education, the curriculum changes little, aside from an increased workload and having the

opportunity to specialize during the last year (in general secondary education). In Al-Azhar schools,

curriculum consists of the same Ministry of Education and Learning curriculum with added Islamic

sciences. The minute percentage that can afford Western private schools either receive a Western

curriculum, usually in English or French, or a language acquisition curriculum; there are some special

education schools as well (Leavitt, 1992, p.98).

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Regarding Universities, Said laments:

Universities in the Arab world are generally run according to some pattern inherited from, or

once directly imposed by, a former colonial powerclasses populated with hundreds of students, badly

trained, overworked, and underpaid faculty, political appointments, the almost total absence of advanced

research and of research facilities, and most important, the lack of a single decent library in the entire

regionthe few promising students who manage to make it through the system are encouraged to come

to the United States to continue their advanced workthe patronage system in scholarship, business,

and research makes the United States a virtual hegemonic commander of affairsthe Arabic and

Islamic world remains a second-order power in terms of the production of culture, knowledge, and

scholarship (Said, 1979, pgs. 322-323).

This is how Edward Said described Higher Education in the Middle East in 1979 and it has not

particularly changed much except for the fact that all of these issues have only gotten worse, primarily

due to authoritarian political regimes that hinder any possible change that might put their power at risk,

lack of planning/organization in ministries of education, widespread corruption, lack of resources, and

the population boom mentioned previously (Christina, 2003).

There are many issues that need to be addressed in Egyptian education including curriculum

(Herrera & Torres, 2006, p. 9), funding (Zuhur, 2007, p.19), teacher training (NCERD, 2000, p.7), and

early childcare education (NCERD, 2000, pgs.7-14), but what has been seen over the last 2 decades to

the common observerand of course professionals in the field as well (AREME 2003; Birdsall, 1999,

p.3; Herrera 2006; ; UNESCO, 2007)to be the greatest problem in improving education in Egypt has

been quality. Aside from the horrible economic prospects for employment, Egyptian education does not

motivate students to intellectually grow and it produces citizens who have merely memorized and

forgotten a lot of books. This pattern is quite ironic given that traditional6 (pre-colonization) Islamic

pedagogy centers on a case-based learning approach where students practically apply knowledge

through an apprentice-style relationship with their teachers and cooperative group work which allows

them to participate in their own moral and cognitive growth. Due to the complexity of political

constraints in improving many institutional aspects of Egyptian education, enhancing teachers abilities

to teach will empower them to change what they cantheir classroom.

6 Some academics label the 18th and 19th centuries the traditional period of the Muslim world, thereby, dismissing much of pre-Western Enlightenment history as of negligible significance (Bray, 2007).

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PURPOSE The objective of this research is to develop an Islamic pedagogy that inspires an active approach

to creating change in ones society by changing oneself and working to be an active contribution to

societal change simultaneously. This thesis focuses on Islamic Pedagogy as it relates to two branches-

developing caring student/teacher relationships and utilizing these relationships to apply a case-based

learning approach where students learn how to apply knowledge directly from the educator and from

their peers. To stimulate such relationships, I have focused on utilizing metaphysical (Islamic)

motivation in improving teacher effort/ability. Muslim teachers who practically live according to the

belief that teaching is an act of worshipthrough the way proper education produces active citizens

who improve societyare more effective teachers. Through such relationships, I have concentrated on

utilizing case-based learning to stimulate critical thinking, which enhances the quality of education.

Islamic pedagogy, with its high emphasis on caring apprenticeship relationships between teacher and

student allows teachers to utilize their personal relationships with students to scaffold them to higher

concepts. When teachers draw on classroom occurrences/ disturbances to model appropriate behavior

and elaborate on various academic concepts, they will construct live learning experiences inside the

classroom. I will provide specific examples of how to accomplish this. More generally put, every

moment in the classroom is a learning experience. This is what I intend by case based learning.

Through the aforementioned student-teacher relationships and teaching methods, educators set a

certain example for students, thereby not only directly guiding students moral/cognitive development,

but also creating mini role models among them to affect peer influence. Complimentary group

activities in such an environment would allow students to help each other morally and cognitively

develop. Given that family and peers have been two of the biggest indicators of childrens future

academic and social achievement globally (Hanushek, 2007, p.277), empirical research appears to

support an approach that does not neglect peer influence. A common theme on the parts of teachers and

students I will highlight is Ihsaanworshipping God as if you see Him, and even though you dont see

Him you live according to the acknowledgment that He sees you. The potential of this concept in

addressing motivation will be elaborated on. From my research and personal experience in Egypt, I have

seen the potential for these aforementioned threads due to the very social nature of Egyptian society.

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Research questions In order to craft a pedagogy such as what has been described above, it will have to be asked first

and foremost, what is Islam and what are the epistemological definitions of knowledge and education

within this belief system; are there different types of the former or latter? What is the purpose of seeking

knowledge in Islam; how and with whom should it be done? What do we intend by pedagogy and has a

particular Islamic pedagogy ever been outlined before by scholars in the past or present? Subsequently,

these questions will lead us to a framework of what an Islamic pedagogy might look like.

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LITERATURE REVIEW: WESTERN ANALOGUES TO ISLAMIC PEDAGOGY

Education involves the cultural patterns that determine how a people pass on their values and

accumulated knowledge/experiences to future generations. I have consciously used as neutral a

definition as possible for our purposes here of presenting varying conceptions of education in the East

and West. Education involves two processes, official curriculum content and moral education; in other

words while a particular subject matter is being taught, teachers also educate and socialize students into

the accepted value system of their society either directly (through the curriculum) or indirectly (through

their behavior and how they teach). How we teach is just as important as what we teach; undoubtedly

they are intimately linked. Pedagogy has various usages in the field of education; a common definition

used is the study of teaching methods, including the aims of education and the ways in which such

goals may be achieved (Pedagogy, 2010). Accordingly, the main factors to be addressed when

discussing pedagogy are the educator, student, and content; however, this research strives to provide a

pedagogy that can be utilized for theological or empirical knowledge (irrespective of content). The

pedagogical definition that will be used here is the teaching methods and corresponding relationship

between teacher and student utilized to reach ones educational objectives.

While much of the literature in the field of education has focused on the cognitive aspects of

education, more recent research has highlighted the importance of discussing what kind of moral

education goes on in the classroom (Lickona, 1991; Moore, 2007). In America, values are often derived

from the liberal arts public education system, citizens various personal religious beliefs, or some

combination of both (Moore, 2007; pgs.1-10). The focus of this study is on developing a pedagogy

culturally relevant to one particular belief systemIslam; however, it will be analyzed in comparison to

existing literature on Islamic pedagogy as well as some analogues from the Liberal Arts value system. I

will present existing literature on Islamic pedagogy as background in the presentation of data section.

This literature review will focus on Western literature regarding moral education and outline one of the

closest analogues to Islamic pedagogythe Ethic of Careincluding the specific teaching methods that

would logically accompany such a philosophy of teaching.

Theory Lev Vygotsky, a psychologist by profession, was one of the earliest academics to comment on

the importance of reconnecting the link between cognitive and affective factors when researching the

human psyche (Goldstein, 1999, pg.648).Vygotsky defined a zone of proximal development as the

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distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the

level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in

collaboration with more capable peers (as cited in Goldstein, 1999, p.649 emphasis added). Therefore,

using a customized student-centered pedagogy, an educator could scaffold a student along to higher,

more intricate concepts (building on their previous knowledge) depending on the supportive guidance

received either from the teacher or other peers who had comprehended the concept (Goldstein, 1999,

pgs.649-654). Vygotsky realized that learning is not simply an individual activity (otherwise not much

disciplinary analysis would be needed outside of a psychological lens), and that more insightful analysis

of educational development needs to be discussed in relation to the social interactions that take place

between the actors involved. Accordingly, by developing deeper relationships with their students,

educators can consciously care for students in a way that provides a suitable environment for growth.

Such deliberate attention to students needs on the part of the educator would also provide a role model

for other students to help each other grow in cooperative learning settings. As will be highlighted, the

quality of the student-teacher relationship is pivotal to Islamic pedagogy as well.

Many academics7 have elaborated on the nature of this affective and caring relationship between

teacher and student (Bailey, 2000; Noddings, 1984; Rogoff, 1990). At the time that Nel Noddings wrote

Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral education (1984), she was responding to a growing

sentiment (as evident through the increasing moral education literature) that more attention should be

paid to treating students like humans who need time, attention, and guidance to intellectually and

emotionally develop (Lickona, 1991). Noddings took this concept a step further by clarifying that an

educator has a moral obligation and responsibility to actively care for their students and embody the

values they want to instill in them by virtue of the educators position as a role model (Noddings, 1984).

She goes as far as to say that the one-caring (the educator) must receive the cared for (the student)

into themself by being engrossed with their goals and needs; this motivational displacement involves

temporarily preferring the student to ones self (Goldstein, 1999, p.656). On the part of the cared for

they are expected to somehow acknowledge or reciprocate this care in every caring encounter

(Goldstein, 1999, p.657), but are not ordered to (Noddings, 1984, p. 72). In fact, this reciprocity could

involve the teacher being directly acknowledged or simply witnessing the cared fors happy growth

(Noddings, 1984, p.74).

7 I am purposely using academics to refer to Western scholars affiliated with universities and academia to differentiate them from Islamic Studies scholars/theologians (university related or otherwise) in the Muslim world who will be referred to as ulamaa (sg: alim).

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Consequently, Noddings (1984) has differentiated between naturally caring and ethically caring

for ones students; the former is not a reliable form of care because the educator might simply not

naturally care for or be drawn to a particular student, while the latter involves an active, professional

choice to care acknowledging an ethical obligation. Ethical caring is an action, not a quality. A

student/teacher relationship based on ethical caring is more important because naturally caring for all of

ones students may or may not occur. Also, people are naturally more drawn to those they are similar to

in some way, in which case natural caring would not suffice for equitable guidance of students.

Educators should choose to care in strategic ways, irrespective of whether natural caring develops over

time or not. Ethical caring demonstrates a sincere dedication on the part of educators to help students

grow, whether they are having a bad day or not, whether they like the students or not; this choice

requires a genuine belief in childrens ability to succeed, which empowers the teacher and student

throughout the learning process. Such a practical and tailored approach to each child helps students

develop intellectually and morally. While this caring approach seems ideal in explaining what should be

done, one question is left unanswered, how do we motivate practitioners to care? Why should they

maintain a concern for the ethical self (Noddings, 1984, p.75,) in the unpredictable daily hustle and

bustle of over-energized children, increasing discipline problems, and even occasionally violent

behavior? This will be developed in the discussion of Islamic pedagogy, but first lets look at practical

examples of Noddings approach in the field.

Application Concerned about the moral state of youth in his time, Thomas Lickona undertakes the task of

outlining a detailed stratagem for the practical application of a caring pedagogy. Lickona applies the

concept of Vygotskys ZPD to not only demonstrate the importance of teachers taking active roles in

helping their children cognitively and morally develop, but that the teachers themselves must embody

the potential results of that development. He particularly goes a little further than Noddings by

highlighting that ones private life affects their public behavior (Lickona, 1991, p.49, 79). One has to

become a role model of the behavior one wants to see in students; the caring relationship that will be

developed is what will allow students to reach their potential development intellectually and

emotionally. An artificial faade played out every time a teacher comes to class is easily seen through;

Lickona states we are coming to see that our societal moral problems reflect, in no small measure, our

personal vices (Lickona, 1991, p.49). On the issue of role models one could also add to this that on a

macro level, the leaders of the nation should be the first exemplars in demonstrating these morals on the

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world stage for them to really have any effect and trickle their way down to the masses. However, the

causal direction of social change is not predetermined and teachers are also in a decisive position to

effect long-term societal change from the roots upthrough the children that will inherit their legacy.

Undoubtedly, one has to truly change oneself before one can hope to be a role model for others.

Doing so will pragmatically show children how to identify when moral action/judgment is needed, how

to reflect on it, and then act. By using daily occurrences, positive or negative, in the classroom as

teaching moments instead of mere disruptions, Lickona shows how educators can act out the moral

reflection process right in front of their students. Teachers can literally think out loud when a teaching

moment occurs, about their primary reaction to it, the weighing of opportunities for possible further

action, and then following through assertively to respond to the situation. This process could involve for

example, teachers modeling composure as they pause to deliberate a situation requiring a moral

decision, making value judgments in front of students as to the particular pros and cons of a particular

course of action, and then acting (Lickona, 1991, pgs.54-57). This process of using classroom incidents

as teaching moments is often called case-based learning. Modeling moral reflection in front of ones

students will pragmatically show them how to consciously represent the values they profess.

Lickona also gives examples of how the lack of role models to model moral behavior cannot

even be substituted for by any of the material recompense that is often offered to children for good

behavior. Role models pass on their morals to others they interact with since moral behavior is a social

act that is enacted publically and affects everyone involved. Ergo, the better students treat others

socially, the better they will feel about themselves internally. Accordingly, lack of such role models

leaves many students in despair, selfishness, and loneliness. Children without role models are often left

undisciplined and only interested in material consumption (Lickona, 1991, p.50). Many people are

slowly realizing that material pleasures will never substitute for beneficial human interaction. Given that

Lickona has shown how moral behavior should be taught, He also gives suggestions for which values

should be modeled.

Lickona advises educators to start with the core values of respect and responsibility and then

build upon these concepts a customized set of morals (such as honesty, tolerance, fairness, prudence,

self-discipline, compassion, cooperation, and courage) according to contextual needs (Lickona, 1991.

pgs.43-44). Lickona acknowledges that getting agreement about shared values does not, of course,

guarantee that people will agree about how to apply those values in every situation (Lickona, 1991,

p.47). This potential ambiguity illustrates once again the importance of using the case-based approach

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outlined above. By using the curriculum, disturbances, and other opportunities in the classroom to

model good morals, ethical behavior is no longer as challenging (Lickona, 1991, pgs.62, 69, 72).

Teachers who develop caring relationships with students can help students to experience the world

from the perspective of others (Lickona, 1991, p.55), an ability essential for teaching respect.

Becky Bailey, on a similar strand of ethical care, highlights the background disposition needed

for teaching morals, the importance of maintaining composure at all times so that one maintains control

and assertiveness no matter what the situation (Bailey, 2000, pgs.26-30). To actually maintain

composure, given the hectic bustle of life in the classroom, one should differ between management

demands and moral demands (Kohlberg & Selman, 1972, p.39); by stressing serious moral

infractions much more than the usual spills and misunderstandings, educators can prioritize their

demand of childrens short attention spans/ mental capabilities. Only with a composed demeanor can

one act purposely, and not off mere emotion, a temperament essential for moral reflection. Also, the

importance of acknowledging accomplishments through praise and other methods by the educator is

crucial for encouraging students along throughout their moral growth (Bailey, 2000, pgs.82, 85, 92).

Lickona describes the aforementioned procedure for exemplifying moral reflection by saying

that good character consists of knowing the good, desiring the good, and doing the goodhabits of the

mind, habits of the heart, and habits of action (Lickona, 1991, p.51). A striking parallel will be seen to

this method in Islam of how once someone has knowledge of a virtue, they purify their intention to do it,

and then carry out the action. Some teachers even use ethics journals that helped students to critically

reflect on their daily actions in the process of developing effective moral reflection skills (Lickona,

1991, p.56).

Cooperative learning activities are also opportunities to develop bonds between students so that

they can assist each other in modeling moral behavior (Lickona, 1991, p.74), while still allowing

opportunities for teachers to interject their own moral feedback and guidance (Lickona, 1991, p.85). The

feedback on behavior is recommended to be given in private, guiding students to understand why what

they did was inappropriate, and is followed up on by the teacher to monitor progress (Lickona, 1991,

p.86). Through cooperative learning, students experience trial and error opportunities with their peers

to practice moral reflection and action, and are then scaffolded to the desired objective through caring

educators guidance. Students participation in their own moral growth empowers them to begin to act

independently, raises their self-esteem, and has longer effects on their long-term behavior. Accordingly,

Lickona has outlined a framework for developing the caring student/teacher relationship and the process

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for utilizing this relationship to teach moral education, either directly between student and teacher or

through mini-role models created in cooperative learning structures.

Subsequently, Ethical Care pedagogy has been shown to focus on the importance of educators

consciously caring for their students and developing the relationships needed to scaffold them from their

existing level of cognitive/affective ability to the next. This process is accomplished through a case-

based learning approach that takes advantage of every opportunity in the classroom as a teaching

moment to apply knowledge practically. Such an approach creates transformative learning experiences

in the classroom that help students grow. There are many such academics that use some version or

another of what we could label Ethical Care pedagogy in Western literature (such as Gloria Ladson-

Billings for example; see Dreamkeepers), but I have highlighted these particular authors to preserve

space while simultaneously providing an in-depth analysis of such work. The aspects of Ethical Care

mentioned here will be compared to similar traits found in Islamic pedagogy.

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METHODOLOGY I have defined education and pedagogy thus far; therefore, we should define some other essential

terms to be utilized before proceeding. Islam, as used in this paper, refers to Sunni Orthodox Islam

(more specifically Ahl Al Sunnah wal Jamaaa, ASWJ; lit: the people of the Sunnah and the

Community); ASWJ Islam makes up roughly 90% of the Muslim world and includes the four major

jurisprudence schools of thought: Hanafi, Maaliki, Shaafii, and Hanbali. ASWJ works are known for

their clear reliance on the actual revelation as evidence when they write about anything regarding Islam;

this is opposite of the methodology of Sunni Ahl Al-Kalaam (lit: the people of talk) who sometimes

prefer their own personal reasoning over textual evidence by default and minimally cite Islamic scripture

when theorizing about Islam (Ashqar, 2003; Phillips, 2006). Ironically, Ahl Al-Kalaam, who represent

about 5% or less of Islamic scholarship and Muslims throughout history, are the sole perspectives

formally acknowledged in Western discourses about Islam (except for minute exceptions sometimes in

Islamic Studies departments)8. The other ten percent of the Muslim world consists of a mixture of

various sects (Shiism, varieties of Sunni like Sufism, etc.) which generally have some different

fundamental beliefs. Sunni Muslims follow the Quran (believed to be the literal word of God revealed

to prophet Muhammad) and the Sunnah (the teachings, sayings, and way of prophet Muhammad, peace

be upon him9, on how to practice the Quran).

There is a lot of literature on Islam in general concerning almost every disciplinary lens;

however, relatively little has been written on the development of a specific Islamic pedagogy. One must

preface such a statement by clarifying that the author has had limited time to research in a Muslim

countrywhere Islamic literature is expectedly much more accessible. There is particularly much more

literature in Arab Muslim countries since Arabic is the language that the Quran and Sunnah were

revealed in, and therefore the language used in most serious theological works written about them. This

being said, one would normally be left with the limited English scholarship that exists on Islamic

Education as a whole here in America. However, I have had the opportunity to research for a small

period of time in Egypt searching for Arabic works on Islamic pedagogy. These combined with the 8 These ulamaa who tried to incorporate Greek philosophy into Islam as early as the 9th century, are known for placing their own reasoning over textual proofs. They include scholars such as Al-Ghazaali, Al-Razi, and Ibn Rushd; some of them took on W. philosophy as their own substitute belief system, such as Ibn Sina and Ibn Arabi. Ahl Al-Kalaam, philosophers, and Sufis are usually the few ulamaa deemed worthy of mention in Western academia) for obvious reasons (Halstead, 2004). Fazlur Rahman and others (Afsaruddin, 2005) go as far as to translate Mutakallimun (derivative of Ahl Al-Kalaam) and Kalaam as Muslim theologians and theology respectively, thereby delegitimizing all mainstream academic scholarship of Ahl Al-Sunnah over the last roughly 1400 years. 9 Muslims are encouraged to say peace be upon him at least once the first time they mention prophet Muhammads name in a gathering or paper, etc.

13

Arabic Quran and Hadeeth (the individual narrations of the Sunnah; pl. ahadeeth) exegesis available

here in America have been the primary sources for this research. For exegesis, I have relied the most

heavily on those of Ibn Kathir (the most widely known exegesis in the Muslim world, compiled by the

named 13th century alim), Al-Ashqar (which is an abridged version of the famous 18th century Al-

Shawkaanees exegesis), and Arkahdaan (which is an abridged version of the widely respected Al-12th

century Qaasimi exegesis). In regard to the Sunnah, I have relied mostly on the two most authentic

collections of ahadeeth (the compilations of Al-Bukhari and Muslim). Other than my own scriptural

reflections, I have also highlighted the educational perspectives of two of the most knowledgeable

ulamaa in the past half century, Shaykhs Bin Baz and Uthaymeen, as well as educational specialist Dr.

Ahmad Mutawalee.

Quran and Hadeeth exegesis ulamaa have frequently highlighted pedagogical issues in their

works although they did not usually dedicate specific treatises to the topic. The works that have been

found specifically described as Islamic pedagogy actually dealt more with outlining a specific

curriculum of Islamic values that promote social, psychological, academic, and moral development, but

less on how to teach them. Paradoxically, what would normally be viewed as a dearth in the literature

has a lot to do with what exactly Islamic pedagogy is as will be explicated. There are over 6,000 verses

in the Quran and more than 20, 000 authentic ahadeeth; accordingly, to knowledgably speak about the

Islamic stance on a topic is not just to mention one verse of the Quran or one hadeeth from the Sunnah

as proof, but rather to present all pertinent revelation with the appropriate corresponding analysis.

Understandably, such a task is more appropriate for an entire lifetimes work than a Masters thesis;

ergo, what is presented here is a survey-natured textual analysis of the Quranic method of teaching in

the Quran itself, the pedagogical wisdoms behind the fashion in which scripture was revealed, and the

pedagogical techniques that prophet Muhammad used with his companions. Glimpses of how this

pedagogy was utilized historically will be brought to light as well.

Evaluating Our Lenses Given the overtly politicized nature of scholarship related to Islam in Academia (see Orientalism

and Covering Islam among others by Edward Said), a note of caution must be heeded. Most academic

scholarshiphere I do not intend the quality of the work, but merely that which is produced within the

ivory tower of Western universities and other learning institutions)on Islam is taught from a

Modernistic lensa belief system promoted through our Liberal Arts educational system that preaches

that the only ultimate Truth is that there are no fixed Truths or constants, but rather everything is

14

variable and based on opinion. This seems self-defeatist if pondered; but in any case this is a belief

system that was borne out of the European Enlightenment of the 18th and 19th centuries mostly due to

perceived contradictions between various aspects of Christianity and empirical science as well as the

centuries old religious based conflicts between France and Britain. This rationalist school of thought

could really be traced as far back as the Greek philosophy of scholars such as Plato, Socrates, and

Aristotle, but its current day revivers were European philosophers such as Descartes, Nietche, and Kant

(Kayum, 2010; Zarabozo (2), 2010).

Christian theologians called for higher criticism of the Bible and came to the conclusion that

not all aspects were appropriate for all time; hence, followers of the faith could choose the aspects of the

faith they personally deemed appropriate for their particular time and location. Such action was justified

by a belief that religion is an evolutionary process (Zarabozo (2), 2010). Bible scholars acknowledged

(then and now) that the Bible was written by more than 40 authors many years after the time Jesus is

believed to have died in Christianity (Dirks, 2010); accordingly, the Bible was no longer treated as an

ultimate Truth in official discourse. Some fruits of this movement were the reform movements that

occurred, like various Christian reformations, and corresponding alternative belief systems being

constructed to take the place of religion in many public institutions, like Darwinism.

Due to the aforementioned reasons, many academics and politicians concluded that the ideal

solution was to secularize society and simply accept the parts of religion that not only did not contradict

existing scientific theories, but that which also didnt contradict their own cultural preferences. Not only

were human-based empirical sciences taken as a universal Truthwhich has its human faults/biases (see

Cuviers work on the Hottentot Venus and The Origin of Species by Darwin for example)but so

were any Western philosophical theories that gained widespread acceptanceessentially those that

agreed with Western European culture. Philosophers individual personal reasoning/opinions became a

post-hoc response to justify societys changing religious attitudes and new liberal culture in Western

Europe (Zarabozo 2, 2010). Anything that was Western was presented as Human and Universal

objective Truth, and everything else was subjective uncivilized notions of culture, bias, and savageness

(Moore, 2007, pgs.36, 57-58,; Willinsky, 1998). One wonders if the maps of Chaucers time with

Western Europe shown, and the rest of the globe shaded black are not still relevant.

Ironically however, this culturally relativist belief system of Modernism was intolerantly

forcefully spread throughout much of the Muslim worldeither through formal colonization or neo-

colonization through media and educationas the solution to the intolerance of certain peoples during

15

the Medieval period (Zarabozo (2), 2010). Westernization of Muslim countries educational systems

imposed not only epistemological frameworks, but entire Western value systems that were inconsistent

with local values for the sake of cultural/political hegemony. Post colonization, many countries were

trying to unyoke themselves of colonial cultural hegemony (imposed through remaining transplanted

educational systems), while simultaneously trying to redesign relevant aspects of these systems to

improve the perceived weaknesses that led to their colonizationmainly military and industrial

expertise (Hussein, 2008, pgs.16, 21). Native attempts at such a task in the 20th century were Modernists

such as Jamal Al-Din Al-Afghani of Iran, Namik Kemal of Turkey, Sayyid Ahmad Khan of India, and

Muhammad Abduh of Egypt (Spring, 2006, p.155,). While some of these Modernists had questionable

intentions to begin with, most of them wanted to import the scientific and military expertise of the West

while preserving the Islamic belief system; as Muhammad Abduh noted for example, If one seeks to

educate and improve the Egyptian nation without religion, it is as if a farmer would try to sow seed in

unsuitable soilhis efforts will be in vain (Spring, 2006, p.155). Later however, ulamaa like Abduh,

particularly after traveling to study in Western educational institutions, soon tried to replicate Western

culture as a whole (Hussein, 2008, pgs.19-20; Kincheloe and Steinberg, 2004, pgs.142-144).

Modernism spread through the academic circles (and the elite sectors) of major centers of

Islamic culture like Turkey, Egypt, and the sub-continent; however, particularly with the decreasing trust

that laymen had in theologians connected to the authoritarian regimes controlling most of the Muslim

world post-colonization, Modernism did not widely spread among the masses (Hussein, 2008, pgs.20-

50). Many of these Modernists were viewed as foreign implants connected to the puppet regimes that

were ruling the Muslim world at the time since many of them not only promoted the idea that Muslims

only salvation after colonization was to Europeanize completely, but many even rejected the notion of

fighting colonial armies10 (Hefner and Zaman, 2007, pgs. 108, 118; Hussein, pgs.22-24, 106, 2008;

Kincehloe and Steinberg, 2004, pgs. 128, 149; Zarabozo 1, 2010). In short, Modernist philosophy was

(and is today) to reform the parts of Islam that were/are not compatible with Western culture/interests:

the most popular being the criminal code, polygamy, belief in miracles/universal Truths, prohibition of

interest in business transactions, prohibition on women being head of state, women wearing hijab, and

much of the Sunnah in general since it specifies Quranic legislation (Modernists prefer to go by the

10 Modern Modernists include Egypts Syed Tantawi who considered building a gigantic wall on the Egyptian border to effectively imprison Palestinians in Gaza and cut off their aid supplies a religious obligation (Suleiman, 2010).

16

spirit of the faith and not the specific commandments)1112 (Hussein, 2008; Kayum, 2010; Zarabozo, 1,

2010). I merely highlight this phenomena lest readers presume that authors with Islamic sounding

names necessarily offer a native perspective because usually only people with the cultural capital of a

Modernistic worldview are admitted into Western-oriented academic institutions in Muslim or non-

Muslim countriesI hope to be one of the few exceptions to this screening process. The Modernist

movement, and its later sub-branches of post-modernism and the like, was not widely accepted among

much of Western European laity in places like Britain, just officially conformed to in academia and

government circles for purposes of promoting secularism and similar ideologies that served economic

among other interests (Zarabozo 1, 2010). Part of the reason for this trend might be Western Europes

long historical ties to religion as a source of identity and the fact that Darwinism as an alternative

perspective on life has been arguably disproved by many scientists, particularly European onesmuch

of the evidence used to support the theory has even been found to be forged (Yahya, 2001). What

concerns us however is that Modernism spread much wider among laity in America and is the lens

through which knowledge is produced, particularly that concerning religion (Zarabozo 1, 2010).

The Modernistic lens is antithetical to religion because it portrays religion as tales of the

ancients (Quran, 16:24) (Wheeler, 2003, pgs.22-23), irrational, and uncivilized (by European

Enlightenment definitions) and Modernism as the opposite objective alternativean us vs. them

demonization of the other (Moore, 2007, pgs.36, 57-58). Modernism dons a cloak of supposed

scientific precepts, which are much more based on culture than empirical proof, to try to promote a

myth in academia that the advancement of civilization itself depends on Modernism as educational

theorist James Carper has demonstrated (Moore, 2007, p. 57). However, it has been realized that it was

never so much the empirical sciences advanced in the West, such as Chemistry and Biology (or even the

technology), that were at odds with Islamic values as some have posited (Talbani, 1996, p.70), as much

11 The most common strategy of Westernizing Islam has been a conscious attempt, particularly over the last half century, to delegitimize the Sunnah of prophet Muhammad and his companions by various methods, like portraying it as a sort of cultural baggage left over from the pre-Islamic era. An example is seen in Hallaqs The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. Hallaq ignores any reference to tens of early works on Hadeeth, Fiqh, and Rijaal to purportedly claim that a Qadi (lit: judge who rules by Quran and Sunnah) in early Islam did not have to know the Quran and Sunnah or that Quranic legislation evolved since the prohibition/punishment on/for drinking alcohol was not applied to Tilaa (a Middle Eastern fruit drink)which is not technically alcohol (khamr) according to Islamic jurisprudence (Nadwi, 2005). 12 Even Seyyed Hossein Nasr (a Sufi Modernist affiliate himself of IIIT, which is a mildly Modernist institution) notes, the prejudices that have marred the study of Islam in the West since the time of Peter the Venerable, when the Quran was first rendered into Latin and even beforehand, must finally be overcome if in-depth understanding is to be achieved. Unfortunately, despite so many claims to objectivity, much of Western scholarship concerning Islam remains distorted due to many old prejudices, to which new ones have been added, resulting from the Arab-Israeli conflict and the rise of so-called fundamentalism (Nasr, 2009, p.23).

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as it was the culture and value system (especially of Western philosophy) being transplanted along with

them (Cook, 1999, p.11).

As has been mentioned, Modernism views everything as a matter of opinion; religion does not

have any constants but is merely a product of its environment and therefore inherently variable in all

aspects. Due to Modernisms secular nature, notions of providential guidance are not entertained.

Subsequently, most American academics when speaking about Islam take their own prerogative on, and

present their own opinions on what should be the real True interpretation of Islam since it coordinates

with Western culture (despite the fact that it might contradict the belief and practice of millions of

Muslims). Accordingly one finds a wide diversity of opinions (Moore, 2007, pgs. 35, 127-128,) as

Moore and others (Sheridan and North, 2004, p.149; Barazangi; Bonakdarian 1998; Anscombe 2007;

Sells 1999; Abou el-Fadl 2002; and Esposito 1999) have mentioned, but they are all from the default

Modernistic perspective13 mistakenly applied as a universal Truth that all humans must follow. Many

such authors often write about very advanced theological issues with little or no experience/knowledge

of the Islamic scienceslike ilm Al rijaal (the science of authentication for chains of narrators of

ahadeeththe teachings and sayings of Prophet Muhammadthe science of Naskh (which verses or

ahadeeth have been abrogated by others and how), which verses/ahadeeth are general and which are

specific to the context they were revealed in or one similar to it, and many other fundamental principles

which are inherently connected to the directives of the Quran and Sunnah15 (Kincheloe and Steinberg,

2004, p.165; Phillips, 2005). As Nasr notes, very few of these academics with advanced degrees are

actually able to read classical Arabic texts with full in-depth comprehension of their meaning (Nasr,

2009, p. 21). Accordingly such academics would not be considered Islamic scholars as is usually

understood when this term is translated into the language of many Muslim majority countriesusually

alim, someone who has been deeply immersed in Islamic scholarship over 20-50 years. This is pivotal to

keep in mind when discussing literature written on Islamic topics in the West and will be relevant to our

discussion of Modern perspectives of Islamic pedagogy.

13 The a priori suppositions of the Modernistic lens are at least acknowledged in some of the work of academics such as Mohammad Akram Nadwi, Sherman Jackson, Talal Asad and Sabaa Mahmood. Mahmood praises how Asad for example highlights how the power of Western forms of knowledge lies not only in their ability to re-present social reality but also to intervene and remake non-Western traditions, practices, and institutions, [hoping to transform] what it means to live as a Muslim subject in the modern world (Nyang, Ahmed, and Bukhari, 2009, p.11). 15 Nasr ironically notes, in many of the major centers of Middle Eastern studies, everything is taught seriously except Islam itself. One sees often in such centers numerous courses on history, anthropology, languages, sociology, political science, and similar subjects pertaining to the Islamic world, but little in-depth study of Islam as the religion There is no greater source of distortion than applying the secularist perspective of the past few centuries in the West to a religion and civilization where it does not apply. (Nasr, 2009, pgs.19, 23).

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Contrary to Modernist claims, the ulamaa of the Islamic sciences in the Muslim world have

always taken the context of revelation into consideration when discussing scripture; hence, the emphasis

on the Sunnah and Seerah (essentially the biography of prophet Muhammad which gives the context that

he and his companions lived in while the Quran was being revealed) which are their own sciences (with

sub branches within them) (Nadwi, 2005, p.115). But since the Quran commands Muslims to take

prophet Muhammads interpretation of the Quran that he taught to his companions over anyone elses

(Phillips, 2005; Qadhi, 1999), there is no way to realistically force Islam to coincide with most current

Western cultural practices despite the wide diversity of arguments that may be made. The

aforementioned factors all contribute to the noteworthy disparity found between how lay Muslims in

Muslim countries practice Islam and how Islam is re-presented in much of Western literature.

One can see examples of this imposition of values explicitly in the bias representation of Middle

Eastern educational systems of the Middle Ages and how most non-religious education that occurred in

fields ranging from Medicine to Architecture is glossed over (in Western post-enlightenment literature);

the result has been the confection of a revisionist history where the religious sphere of society was

somehow divorced from the rest (Kincheloe and Steinberg, 2004, p.130), a re-written secular history

of the Muslim world16. What academia has been silent about has been just as telling as what has been

said. Such selective memory leads to an easily consumed myth for a progressive-minded audience: that

such people, who supposedly have nothing but theological knowledge, would either be particularly

unsuitable for the modern world, or an even more extreme presumption that maybe the Medieval

Muslim world was even secular all along. Even with Harvards international character, they teach

little about Islam as a religion aside from Sufi mysticism in India and Africa; Sufis are to Islam what

Quakers are to Christianity (Kavulla, 2007, p. 56). Nonetheless, Modernist, extreme Sufi(theres

nothing wrong with moderate asceticism in Islam that is not related to actions of polytheism, but then it

would not be considered Sufism as the term is used today) or Mutazilite (deviant philosophical sect

that rationalizes not believing in destiny and many other parts of Islam) versions of Islam are what the

American government promotes with added notions of no hijab, sharia, or any remotely social aspects

of Islam (see Rand Report on Civil Democratic Islam and the works of John Esposito , Hamza Yusef, 16 Such political initiatives are highly motivated by modern attempts to spread Western culture in the Muslim world through various methods like increasing secularization of Muslim societies and advocating Western gender roles (Kincheloe and Steinberg, , 2004, pgs.44-47, 161-163). One author went so far as to twist the words (relying on an average readers ignorance of Arabic syntax and morphology) of 18th century Islamic revivalist Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab to re-present some of his statements regarding the rights of women as supportive of current Western conceptions of female gender roles. Many references link to page numbers that dont even exist in the original work (see Delong-bass Wahhabi Islam: From Revival to Reform, 2004)!

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Fazlur Rahman, and Khaled Abou Al-Fadl). Only groups with Modernist related precepts are regarded

as normal like the Murjii (who believe faith is only in the heart)17 (Wheeler, 2003, p.114). A well-

read Muslim can differentiate between these Sunni sects, who are only about 5% of the world population

of Muslims, but the average reader in the West cannot, hence the long digress on this issue. The

deliberate disregard to much of mainstream Islamic scholarship in the theological sciences and blind eye

turned towards achievements in the empirical sciences have been integral factors of the Modernist

discourse and the main causes behind the very distorted image of Islamic education as a whole in the

West.

Why have certain orientalists wasted so many precious years of their lives trying to disprove the

Quran and Sunnah? Such programs of research are not merely an offense to the consciences of millions

of Muslims, but are also misleading and thus unworthy to be considered as scholarship as Martin

affirms (Martin, 1985, p.187). The politically charged attempts to forcefully re-write Islam into

conformity with Western ideals merely serves to alienate and dehumanize the vast majority of Muslims

on the planet18, while deliberately or not, selectively humanizing the elite authoritarian classes (with

Western cultural capital) that dominate most Muslim countries (thereby implicitly justifying violence

against the other as can be seen on the world stage). While such wishful thinking on the part of

Western academics may fool the majority of Americans in the U.S. who are rarely exposed to the

average experiences and perspectives of humans in the East, they dont even pragmatically effect any

17 A common myth, which depends on absolute ignorance of the existence of Arabic resources to refer back to, but nonetheless is mind-numbingly recycled (either explicitly or implicitly by ignoring roughly 1400 years of Islamic scholarship that entails otherwise) is that these aforementioned sects were the most important in Islamic history and then somehow magically with the advent of Muslims like Abdul Wahhab in the 18th century and Sayyid Qutb in the 20th, Islam evolved political/economic aspects. In reality, Islam has always been practiced as a social way of life in the Muslim world up until colonization when most aspects were effectively secularized (see History of Islam by Akbar Shah Najeebabadi). The false notion that such revivers or reformers were bringing something new is simply because they tried to reincorporate such aspects during/after colonization, blasphemy to Western academia which believes that the world was created in the European Enlightenment. 18 By no means do I intend here that Islam is now, or was ever in the past, something with absolutely no variables. Islam, since the Qurans first verses were revealed had variables like the different forms of recitation revealed to prophet Muhammad according to the different dialects spoken in Arabia at the time (Martin 34, 1985). Sharia, or Islamic Lawwhich is mostly a guideline for a set of objectivesonly has certain constants that dont change with time; Fiqh however, or Islamic jurisprudence, can vary depending on the context (it gives very specific commands/prohibitions, etc.) . But, a macro level analysis of Islamic theology will reveal about 70% of jurisprudence issues are agreed upon (and minor issues like where to place ones hands during prayer or whether hijab should include the face and hands or not are not pillars of Islam in the first place), because they are all due to slightly different understandings of the Quran and Sunnah based on proof, not mere opinion (see The Evolution of Fiqh by Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips). On the other hand, the Modernist movements attempts to reform Islam, attack fundamental principles and constants of the faith derived from the Quran and Sunnah that dont change with time and are supported by about 1400 years of scholarship based on sciences which Modernists dont even acknowledge. Without exaggeration, this latter point is equivalent to claiming one is going to create a new chemical or species without any research in the field of science!

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change in the cultures/practices of the majority in the Muslim world aside from increasing a

consciousness that their way of life is being attackedhardly a platform for dialogue. Empirical

evidence that the cultural invasion has had the opposite effect of its original intention is that recent

studies of Muslim majority countries confirm that the university experience actually engenders

religious attachment; [for example], the growth of secular education in Egypt has encouraged rather than

discouraged attachment to Islamic culture (Cook, 2001, p.382). As Noam Chomsky often musingly

argues, democracy, as its now practiced, only works if the people are persuaded to agree with what

the people in power had already decided (Chomsky, 2002). If we truly wish to see coexistence between

East and West, we must learn to be tolerant of others differences, even when they really are different.

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PRESENTATION OF DATA Knowledge in Islam

What is knowledge (ilm in Arabic) in Islam? The first words revealed of the Quran to Prophet

Muhammad in the seventh century C.E. were, what means19, Read/Recite! In the name of your Lord,

who has created all that exists (Quran, 96:1). The word ilm is mentioned 750 times in the Quran,

ranking it third behind Allah (2,800 references), and Rubb (which is usually translated as Lord, but

has wider pedagogical connotations as will be explained) at 950 references (Boyle, 2006, p.484).This is

the essence of Islam, knowledge; but what kind and for what purpose?

Knowledge has been defined by Arab linguists as the opposite of ignoranceanything that can

be conceived of or known... [and] more obvious than to need to be defined (Mutawalee, 2005, p.177).

There are two types of knowledge in Islam, that which is knownwhat humans have the ability to

comprehend in this worldly lifeand that which is hidden (Al-Ghayb). Regarding both types there are

also two subdivisions, that which benefits (helps one to worship God better) and that which does not

(Uthaymeen, 2004, p.33). Regarding knowledge that which is hidden but mentioned by name in

revelation, either in the Quran or Sunnah, (i.e.: the true nature of God, the angels, heaven, hellfire, etc.),

Muslims are still obligated to believe in itthe first characteristic mentioned of the characteristics of the

believers in the beginning of the Quran is that they believe in the hidden (Quran, 2:2). Some

knowledge might be unbeneficial or could even harm humans. For example, when some polytheists

from prophet Muhammads tribe came to ask him about when the Final Hour (Judgment day) would

be, Allah (Arabic for God) told him to say the knowledge thereof is with my Lord (alone). None but He

can reveal as to when it will occurAllah goes on to explain that humans knowing when judgment day

would be would be a huge burden on them (Quran, 7:187). Allah kept this knowledge hidden so that

humans would keep competing in righteousness till death, because in reality it is unbeneficial

knowledge since a persons opportunity to perform good deeds will end at death and they wont be

resurrected till judgment day. Similar in meaning is when prophet Muhammad was asked by a Bedouin

about the appointment of judgment day saying, When will The Hour be ?" The prophet replied to him,

"What have you prepared for it? The man said, "The love of Allah and His Messenger." The Prophet

19The Quran is believed to be the literal speech of Allah which can not be literally translated due to its divine origin (something will always be lost in translation); hence, any translation is a human attempt to convey the meaning as closely as possible (Ibrahim, 1997, p. 54). This is why I, in agreement with mainstream Islamic scholarship, have referred to translated verses as what means here, to highlight this issue, but will refrain from doing so the rest of the paper for space.

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replied, "You will be with those whom you love"" (Al-Qarnee, 2000, pgs.19-22). Well mention three

points of benefit from this hadeeth: one of prophet Muhammads teaching techniques when responding

to questions, was to direct the questioner to the more beneficial question they should be asking as seen

here (Al-Shareef, 2010). The second point that the ulamaa have commented on, is that knowing how to

ask the appropriate question at the appropriate time is half of all knowledge (not literally, but just to

emphasize the point) (Mekki, personal correspondence, April 10, 2010). The third benefit that the

ulamaa have highlighted is the importance of good company since one will be with those whom he loves

in the afterlife, for good or bad (Mekki, personal correspondence, April 10, 2010); this is of importance

for the discussion on peer influence to come. Nonetheless, the Islamic perspective of knowledge is that

Allah has made available the two types of knowledge that can be of benefit to us (if we use them to

improve society), revelation and the ability to use our senses to gain empirical knowledge. Ill elaborate

on the former, then the latter.

In Islam, acquisition of knowledge (ilm)the two types that can be known being that gained

through revelation and that gained through the sensesis justified and directed by the provision that all

knowledge gained be used in worship of the creator (Halstead, 2004, p.520) (worship being widely

defined as anything that pleases God as outlined in the Quran and Sunnah, from fasting to sexual

relations with ones wife (Muslim vol. 2A, p.187). As God commands in the Quran, Say (Oh

Muhammad) undoubtedly, my Salat (prayer), my sacrifice, my living, and my dying are for Allah, the

Lord of the 'Alamin (mankind, jinns and all that exists) (Quran, 6:162). Accordingly, the most

important type of knowledge in Islam is theological, meaning understanding the will and nature of Allah

through the Quran and Sunnah so that one may live by it (Uthaymeen, 2004 ). Only after a theological

foundation would an individual know how to live their life Islamically (meaning proper moral conduct)

no matter what field or practice they went into professionally. Proper character ensures knowledge is

used for the benefit of society; a chemical scientist with the intention to build the most dangerous

weapons for the highest bidder (as has been often the case for some while)doesnt benefit us with

his/her academic knowledge. Hence, character education in Islam is analogous to the role played by

civic education in Western secular societies. Emphasizing the importance of moral education, prophet

Muhammad said I have only been sent to correct peoples manners (Al-Shareef, 2010). In fact, it is

through these proper manners (understood broadly from the original Arabic khuluq to mean proper

interaction with ones Lord, family, society, etc.), that God would teach humans that which would

benefit them (Quran, 2:282).

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On the virtue of theological knowledge, Allah mentions in the Quran, Allah and the angels, and

those with knowledge bear witness that none has the right to be worshipped but He and that He always

sustains his creation in justice (Quran, 3:18). According to Arabic Balaagha (study of eloquent Arabic

speech, particularly in the Quran), the subjects mentioned in such a verse are listed in descending order

of importance (wa or and has different meanings depending on the context) (Umm Qataadah; personal

communication, April 3, 2010). Therefore, Allah has placed the testimony of faith of those that have

knowledge of Him, meaning his nature, will, and names and attributes, after that of the Testimony of

Allah Himself and the angels. So great is having true faith in Allah, meaning with ones heart, speech,

and actions, that Allah chose the best of his creation, the angels, and then the best of mankind, the most

knowledgeable of his worshippers, to testify to the most amazing thing possible, the whole reason that

Allah created the universeto be worshipped alone without any partners (Al-Khattaabi, 2006, p.142;

Mutawalee 2005, p.179). Al-Jawziyyaha 13th century Hadeeth/Exegesis alimcommented on this

verse saying, undoubtedly this is a testimony to the uprightness of those with true knowledge because

Allah will not use as a witness except those who are trustworthy (Mutawalee 2005, p.179). Allah even

commands his own prophet, considered the best of mankind, in the Qur'an, to ask Allah for even more

knowledge (Quran, 20:114). Ibn Abbas, the companion of prophet Muhammad who prophet

Muhammad named Turjamaan (the explainer) of the Quran for the entire ummah (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1,

1997, p.100-102), narrated that when theological knowledge is mentioned in the Qur'an, that it refers to

beneficial knowledge of Islam, meaning that which is lived by, and righteous deeds (Al-Jawziyyah,

2004, p. 58). In support of this, one will not find a verse in the Quran of those that start with those who

have true belief not immediately followed by the phrase and do righteous good deeds before

delving into descriptions about them (going to paradise, etc.). Subsequently, prophet Muhammad

described the circles of knowledge (this was the structure of the gatherings) as gardens of paradise

(Al-Bukhari, vol. 4B, pgs.233-235).

Regarding a hierarchy of importance for the individual, there are two broad categories of

theological knowledge. The first type is that which is obligatory on every individual (fard ayn), the bare

minimum of understanding ones obligations as a Muslim: basically the 6 articles of faith, rights of

Allah, then others rights over a person (like their family and community), and the 5 pillars of Islam so

that he or she can worship Allah properly. This knowledge is obligatory and a person would sin by not

learning it. The 2nd type of knowledge is that which is recommended but not obligatory as long as

someone in the community attains it (fard kifaaya), like inheritance and business laws, where if some do

24

it, then it is not required of the rest of the communityexcept if they specifically deal with the issue

(like a family lawyer knowing inheritance laws for example). In sum, whatever knowledge one has, they

should use it to please Allah by acting upon it, in which case it would be a proof that attests to their faith

on judgment day; and if they did not act by it, then it would be a proof against them. As some ulamaa

have commented, Knowledge is the roots [of the tree of truthfulness21], its branches are truthfulness,

and its fruits are righteous actions (Mutawalee 2005, p.181).

The references to the virtue of theological knowledge, due to its positive relationship with faith,

in the Quran are numerous (Al-Zumur: 9, Al-Rad:19, Al-Anam:114, Al-Israa:106-108, Al-Ankaboot:

49, Al-Room: 55-56, etc.); in the Sunnah, we also have numerous examples like the following:

Whoever treads a path to seek theological knowledge, Allah will make him22 tread one of the

paths towards Paradise. The angels lower their wings out of contentment for the seeker of theological

knowledge; the inhabitants of the heavens and the Earth, even the fish in the depths of the sea ask

forgiveness for the learned person. The superiority of the alim over the worshipper is like the virtue of

the moon on the night when it is full, over all of the stars. Indeed, the ulamaa are the inheritors of the

Prophets, and the prophets do not leave behind dinar nor dirham [currency that was used in the Arabian

peninsula], but rather, they leave behind knowledge. So whoever takes it, has acquired an abundant

portion" (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, pgs.103-104; Muslim, vol. 1B, 1990, pgs. 708-7110).

This hadeeth alone has the essence for teachers to promote a culture of knowledge in their

classrooms. The first benefit of seeking Islamic knowledge is that it has the highest reward, paradise.

The second is that the angels themselves acknowledge this human being and lower their wings in

approval of his/her actions. The third fruit of seeking knowledge is that everything between the heavens

and earth, even the fish in the sea, are asking forgiveness for this person seeking Islamic knowledge; and

if the reader has noticed, all of this has not been just specifically for major ulamaa of Islam. This is

simply a person trying their best with a sincere intention to please God by learning more about their

Lord and messenger and what they have commanded from him or her so that they can live by it. Only

the fifth and sixth characteristics mentioned in the hadeeth are in regard to the tremendously high status

of one who actually becomes a alim of Islam, their status over the average worshipper; the alim who has

gained this tremendous wisdom and God-consciousness in his actions due to his knowledge and teaches 21 What it means to be truthful (sideeq) to Allah is a wide topic, but it can most simply be explained as steadfastness in being sincere to Allah in all ones actions by consistently doing the most pleasing thing to Allah particular to a time and location (see Al-Afanis Al-Ikhlaas: Tateer Al-anfaas min hadeethil Ikhlaas). 22 Masculine pronouns such as him or he used in revelation are the default gender used but applies to both men and women unless there is evidence to the contrary on the issue in the Quran or Sunnah.

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it to others, is like the moon compared to the rest of the stars. This is an analogy that prophet

Muhammad uses (use of analogies will be elaborated on); we know how amazing the moon is because

PM has mentioned in another hadeeth (Muslim, vol.1B, 1990, p.708-710) that the people of paradise are

going to see Allah as clear as we see the moon in this life. He specifically highlighted the moon because

of its high status compared to the rest of the stars. Then he said that the ulamaa are the inheritors of the

prophets, and the prophets did not leave behind dirham nor dinar, but rather they left behind knowledge,

so whomever obtains it, has surely obtained a tremendous thing. This is a tremendous status as Abdullah

ibn Mas'ud, the companion of prophet Muhammad, explained whoever attains Islamic knowledge, it is

as if he has acquired prophethood between his shoulders, except that he was not directly revealed to (Al-

Jawziyya, 2004, p.58). It should be noticed here also, that Ibn Mas'ud described the knowledge being

between the shoulders, referring to the heart, and not the mind like some would assume, because the

heart is the king of the body and soul (Al-Ghazali, 2009, p. 36).The focus on utilizing knowledge to

purify the heart is particularly because it is what motivates a person to be the best or worst of people

irrespective of what empirical knowledge one has. If students and teachers view seeking knowledge as

an act of worship, then this is a powerful motivation given the harsh socio-economic conditions in

Muslim countries. Once, teachers and students have this appropriate intention, then it becomes obvious

that once one has theological knowledge they will need other types of knowledge (like empirical

knowledge) to develop the institutions needed to develop their society. This is not anything particularly

innovative to state, since as will be shown this was how most of Islamic Higher Education functioned

historically.

In any case, it is suffice to mention that Allah declared that having true knowledge of the

testimony of faith is one of the seven conditions for its acceptance23 ; that is how extremely critical

theological knowledge is in Islam. As mentioned in chapter Muhammad, Allah commands know, have

true knowledge, that no one has the right to be worshipped except Allah and seek forgiveness for your

sins (Quran, 47:19). The ulamaa have highlighted here how true knowledge was presented as a

command before the command of doing actions (seeking forgiveness) (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, pgs.96-

97; Al-Qarnee, 2000, p.6)this affirms what was mentioned shortly regarding the importance of

knowledge for doing actions. In Modernist discourse, belief is an opinion or point of view, but in Islam,

23 Knowledge of the testimony of faith (or shahada) is 1 of the 7 conditions mentioned in the Qur'an needed for this shahada to be accepted, like absolute certainty in it, sincerity to it in 1's actions, being truthful to it, love, meaning not loving any of creation more than Allah and his messenger, full submission, and complete acceptance of every part of the religion as it was revealed (Al-Jabiri, 1995).

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Allah describes true belief as having certain knowledge of something, just as certain as one would be of

any other knowledge attained by the senses (if not more). Because if one knows there is a paradise and

hellfire for example, they will act correspondingly; as Allah commands the family of prophet David, He

says Do [not say] thanks/ praise (Quran, 34:13). If teachers can relay to students that knowledge is to

be lived by, then they will carry this belief on to the study of empirical knowledge as well and both

types of knowledge would engage students to participate in their education, creating transformative

learning experiences in the classroom.

The Quran has also praised knowledge that is attained through the senses, empirical knowledge.

Allah has made this type of knowledge even capable of raising the status of animals; Allah says,

Lawful for you is what is caught by those animals and birds which you have taught and trained as

Allah has commanded you, so eat from what they catch for you, but pronounce the name of Allah as you

command them, and be conscious of Allah. Most definitely, Allah is swift in holding accountable

(Quran, 5: 4.). Accordingly, Tafseer ulamaa24 have highlighted how this verse shows the valuable status

of knowledge. The prey that this trained and taught animal catches for a person is permissible to eat; but

if it were untaught and had just killed the prey on its own, this meat would be impermissible to eat. The

only difference between the two cases here was that the animal has been taught and trained to catch prey

in a specific way (Ibn Kathir, vol. 3, 2000, pgs.97-101). We can add here that this knowledge was

knowledge gained through the senses, since this animal was taught by a human to perform a certain task

in a specific manner. This knowledge is not directly related to paradise and hellfire for example, but this

knowledge has made a certain type of human activity more easily accessible, attaining food. As long as

this human utilizes this food for some beneficial reason, like to feed himself or someone else so that they

can fulfill their daily responsibilities, then this has been a positive use of empirical knowledge. On the

other hand, if this knowledge was used to simply hunt for sport, killing animals with no pragmatic need

to, then this knowledge would be blameworthy. Subsequently, Allah has made permissible the use of

empirical knowledgethe dog using its senses to learn from the humanto facilitate permissible

human needs.

However, the most obvious example on the importance of empirical knowledge in Islam is that

in the Quran, Allah describes things that are supposed to prove Gods existence to humans as ayaat.

24 Tafsir (exegesis) ulamaa are essentially the companions of prophet Muhammad (since they had the Quran directly taught to them from prophet Muhammad), so all later Tafsir Ulamaa essentially did was to use their narrations as a basis and expound upon them in regard to whatever aspect of Tafsir they were elaborating on in their work (ie: grammatical, historical, derivation of laws, etc.).

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These ayaat (lit: signs, proofs, verses [of the Quran], evidences) that are mentioned in the Quran and

are supposed to lead humans to acknowledge God are of two types: things that can be sensed (i.e.:

empirical science) and textual revelation itself. The Quran that exists today, and matches all known

manuscripts around the world dating as far back as the seventh century, describes with intricate detail:

human embryonic development (stage by stage), how the mountains serve as pegs in the earth so that it

doesnt shake, the origins of the universe, functions of the cerebrum, the zone of separation between

fresh and salt water in the pacific ocean, the internal waves of the ocean, and the precipitation

processdetails and processes that we did not discover or fully comprehend until the modern