The Need for an Islamic Pedagogy

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The Need for an Islamic Pedagogy Mohammed Sabrin

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

THE NEED FOR AN ISLAMIC PEDAGOGY

By: MOHAMMED SABRIN. A Thesis submitted to the Department of Educational Leadership and

Policy Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2010

Copyright 2009 Mohammed Sabrin All Rights Reserve


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The members of the committee approve the thesis of Mohammed Sabrin

defended on April 8, 2010 _________________________________ Peter Easton Professor Directing Thesis

_________________________________ Jeffrey Milligan Committee Member

_________________________________ Tom Luschei Committee Member

Approved: Patrice Iatarola, Chair, Department of Educational Leadership and

Policy Studies. The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named

committee members.


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In The Name Of Allah, And May The Peace And Blessings Of Allah Be

Upon The Messenger of Allah.

Oh Allah Accept This From Us, Undoubtedly You Are The All-Hearing, All-Knowing (Qur'an 2:127)

Whatever is contained herein which is correct, then it is from the

blessing of Allah, and whatever is contained herein which is wrong, then it is from me.


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Table Contents ABSTRACT .................................................................. 6 INTRODUCTION ........................................................... 7

PURPOSE ................................................................ 10 Research questions ........................................................ 10

LITERATURE REVIEW: WESTERN ANALOGUES TO ISLAMIC PEDAGOGY ............................................................... 12

Theory ..................................................................... 12 Application ................................................................ 14

METHODOLOGY ......................................................... 17 Evaluating Our Lenses .................................................... 18

PRESENTATION OF DATA ............................................. 24 Knowledge in Islam ...................................................... 24 Islamic Education: Content or Pedagogy? ............................... 32 Basis for Islamic Pedagogy in the English Sources ...................... 35

Medieval Methods ..................................................... 35 The Historical Context of Islamic Pedagogy ............................. 39 Modern Perspectives of Islamic Pedagogy ............................ 40 Islamic Pedagogy Directly from the Quran, Sunnah, and Contemporary Arabic Works on the Topic ............................................... 46 Scaffolding in Islam ...................................................... 47

Case-based learning, but what do we mean by cases? ................ 47 ANALYSIS OF DATA ..................................................... 56

Reciprocity and Maintaining a Sincere Intention ........................ 59 Prioritizing Values Through Ones Demeanor and Composure ......... 60

CONCLUSION ............................................................. 64 Bibliography ................................................................ 67 Notes ......................................................................... 73


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ABSTRACT For the neo-colonized Muslim ummah1 (nation) without a place to

fully practice Islam since the fall of the Ottoman Empire, there is pressing demand in the Muslim world for an Islamic pedagogy extracted from the Quran and Sunnah (and the rich scholarship that exists concerning them) that illustrates the Islamic perspective of knowledge and morality and how it could be practiced in the various disciplines of the educational system to promote human development (Cook 1999; Cook 2001). Re-newed identification of the general public of Muslims with pre-colonization identities has been particularly on the rise since the 1970s-which is commonly known as the beginning of the Islamic Awakening in the Muslim world (Cook, 2001, p.381; Haddad and Esposito, 1991, p.1). However, similar to many other institutions in most modern day Muslim countries, formal education mostly consists of teaching methods inherited from previous colonizers, like rote memorization (Gesink, 2006, pgs. 328-329; Ofori- Attah, 2008, pgs.15, 18). This dissonance of values is perpetuated by corrupt authoritarian puppet regimes who seek to maintain their power by supporting Western hegemony in the region; hence, providing quality education that enhances critical thinking skills that might challenge the status quo is not an initiative that receives much support (Kincheloe and Steinberg, 2004, p.149).

While teachers in the Muslim world, in places like Egypt, often teach Islamic and positivistic empirical sciences, both are taught through a banking theory approach that does little to develop critical thinking skills, let alone master basic conceptual knowledge. Aside from the ineffectiveness of such methods, such a teaching philosophy spreads a passive slave-like mentality to education which does not cultivate active citizens who will work for social justice2. How one teaches reflects their values. The following exemplar of an Islamic pedagogy hopes to offer a culturally relevant solution. The intent of this research is to develop an Islamic pedagogy that inspires an active approach to creating change in ones society by changing oneself and working to be an active contribution to societal change simultaneously. This thesis focuses on Islamic Pedagogy as it relates to two branches-developing caring student/teacher relationships and utilizing these relationships to apply a case-based learning approach where students learn how to apply knowledge directly from the educator and from their peers. While this research is mostly theoretical and could possibly be valid for many parts of the Muslim world, the main geographical intent for application is Egypt.


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INTRODUCTION Egypt has a population of about 82 million; it is split into 26

governorates with about 90% of the people living on the 10% of the land around the Nile, and the currency is the Egyptian pound. Egypt is ruled by an authoritarian regime that has ruled by marshal law since 1981. This emergency law is the primary obstacle to change in Egypt, including in the field of education-not to mention that 1.3 of the 1.7 billion in American funding is spent on support of the military which upholds these policies (Boustany, 2008; Kelly, 2006; Zuhur, 2007, pgs. 2, 18 )3.

Egypt has the largest educational system in the Middle East (Sadik, 2006, p. 87). This is mainly due to the tremendous population explosion over the last half a century, which has also caused a great decline in per student expenditure (at 40 percent per five years in the 1990s) and is getting worse (World Bank, 2009, p.12). Education in Egypt is very centralized and controlled by the Ministry of Education- with two sub ministries. The main educational system in Egypt is governed by a sub ministry called the Ministry of Education and Learning and is divided into two stages: the first compulsory stage, from ages six to fourteen, is split into two cycles, five then three years (only about ten percent of the population can afford any level of private education). At the end of the second preparatory cycle, students take a high-stakes national final exam which will essentially determine the rest of their life, whether they go to general or technical secondary education (Leavitt, 1992, pgs.96-97). If admitted to general education, the second stage is two years of general studies and one year specializing in a particular subject. The type of certificate granted at the end of the third year depends on the score achieved on the final national exam which will determine potential entrance into a university, and if admitted, the field qualified for out of the students list of preferences (i.e.: Arts, Engineering, Medicine, etc.). This final exam covers every course taken in high-school and is such a catastrophic event that some students commit suicide every year from sheer stress (Elhakeem, 2008)! The Ministry of Education has repeatedly defeated efforts to change the national exam (Leavitt, 1992, p.97). For the other half of the student population that get tracked into technical secondary education, about 1 percent get admitted to a university while the rest usually enter a trade or end up unemployed (Leavitt, 1992, pgs. 96-97).

There is also the parallel Islamic educational system of Al-Azhar, which is administered by the sub ministry Al-Awqaaf, and was established 975 CE. Al-Azhar has a four year primary stage, a three year preparatory stage, a four year secondary stage, and higher education (Leavitt, 1992, p. 97). Both the main educational system and the parallel Al-Azhar system have public, private, and semi-private branches with the main difference between these being that the size of the classroom decreases and use of international languages such as English (for instruction) increases as one moves down the spectrum from public to private. Correspondingly, under both ministries public schools are free, semi-private at varying costs, and private rarely within reach except for the elite class-of course aside from tuition, there are


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numerous indirect expenses like transportation, uniforms, books, and other materials.

The demanding nature of the national exam at the end of secondary school combined with the poor quality of curriculum/ instruction cause millions of dollars to be wasted each year on private tutoring and bribes to get around the educational system. Ethnographic research from the Culture and Education in Egypt Working Group (CEEWG) of the Middle East Awards Program explicated how private lessons have become a market themselves due to the tremendous failure of the educational system. Linda Herreras work with teachers allowed for discussions that highlighted the importance of improving the regular learning experience so students would not have to purchase their education on their own--which of course condemns most of the poverty-stricken of Egypt. However, these conversations also highlighted the need to motivate teachers to put forth more effort and enthusiasm in their teaching (despite the institutional obstacles) and acknowledge their social responsibility towards their students (Herrera and Torres, 2006, pgs.100-118).

In regard to teaching methods and content, Egyptian education has been reduced to rote memorization of dated textbooks. Students, from basic through secondary education, are lambasted with facts and figures with no guidance on how to practically apply such knowledge or its relevance (Herrera, 2006, p. 9). During basic education, students learn manners and some academic content (like language, communication, agriculture, and industrial skills) in this manner (Leavitt, 1992, p.97). In preparatory and secondary education, the curriculum changes little, aside from an increased workload and having the opportunity to specialize during the last year (in general secondary education). In Al-Azhar schools, curriculum consists of the same Ministry of Education and Learning curriculum with added Islamic sciences. The minute percentage that can afford Western private schools either receive a Western curriculum, usually in English or French, or a language acquisition curriculum; there are some special education schools as well (Leavitt, 1992, p.98).

Regarding Universities, Said laments: Universities in the Arab world are generally run according to some

pattern inherited from, or once directly imposed by, a former colonial powerclasses populated with hundreds of students, badly trained, overworked, and underpaid faculty, political appointments, the almost total absence of advanced research and of research facilities, and most important, the lack of a single decent library in the entire regionthe few promising students who manage to make it through the system are encouraged to come to the United States to continue their advanced workthe patronage system in scholarship, business, and research makes the United States a virtual hegemonic commander of affairsthe Arabic and Islamic world remains a second-order power in terms of the production of culture, knowledge, and scholarship (Said, 1979, pgs. 322-323).

This is how Edward Said described Higher Education in the Middle East in 1979 and it has not particularly changed much except for the fact that all of these issues have only gotten worse, primarily due to authoritarian


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political regimes that hinder any possible change that might put their power at risk, lack of planning/organization in ministries of education, widespread corruption, lack of resources, and the population boom mentioned previously (Christina, 2003).

There are many issues that need to be addressed in Egyptian education including curriculum (Herrera & Torres, 2006, p. 9), funding (Zuhur, 2007, p.19), teacher training (NCERD, 2000, p.7), and early childcare education (NCERD, 2000, pgs.7-14), but what has been seen over the last 2 decades to the common observer-and of course professionals in the field as well (AREME 2003; Birdsall, 1999, p.3; Herrera 2006; ; UNESCO, 2007)-to be the greatest problem in improving education in Egypt has been quality. Aside from the horrible economic prospects for employment, Egyptian education does not motivate students to intellectually grow and it produces citizens who have merely memorized and forgotten a lot of books. This pattern is quite ironic given that traditional4 (pre-colonization) Islamic pedagogy centers on a case-based learning approach where students practically apply knowledge through an apprentice-style relationship with their teachers and cooperative group work which allows them to participate in their own moral and cognitive growth. Due to the complexity of political constraints in improving many institutional aspects of Egyptian education, enhancing teachers abilities to teach will empower them to change what they can-their classroom.


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PURPOSE The objective of this research is to develop an Islamic pedagogy that

inspires an active approach to creating change in ones society by changing oneself and working to be an active contribution to societal change simultaneously. This thesis focuses on Islamic Pedagogy as it relates to two branchesdeveloping caring student/teacher relationships and utilizing these relationships to apply a case-based learning approach where students learn how to apply knowledge directly from the educator and from their peers. To stimulate such relationships, I have focused on utilizing metaphysical (Islamic) motivation in improving teacher effort/ability. Muslim teachers who practically live according to the belief that teaching is an act of worship-through the way proper education produces active citizens who improve society-are more effective teachers. Through such relationships, I have concentrated on utilizing case-based learning to stimulate critical thinking, which enhances the quality of education.

Islamic pedagogy, with its high emphasis on caring apprenticeship relationships between teacher and student allows teachers to utilize their personal relationships with students to scaffold them to higher concepts. When teachers draw on classroom occurrences/ disturbances to model appropriate behavior and elaborate on various academic concepts, they will construct live learning experiences inside the classroom. I will provide specific examples of how to accomplish this. More generally put, every moment in the classroom is a learning experience. This is what I intend by case based learning.

Through the aforementioned student-teacher relationships and teaching methods, educators set a certain example for students, thereby not only directly guiding students moral/cognitive development, but also creating mini role models among them to affect peer influence. Complimentary group activities in such an environment would allow students to help each other morally and cognitively develop. Given that family and peers have been two of the biggest indicators of childrens future academic and social achievement globally (Hanushek, 2007, p.277), empirical research appears to support an approach that does not neglect peer influence. A common theme on the parts of teachers and students I will highlight is Ihsaan-worshipping God as if you see Him, and even though you dont see Him you live according to the acknowledgment that He sees you. The potential of this concept in addressing motivation will be elaborated on. From my research and personal experience in Egypt, I have seen the potential for these aforementioned threads due to the very social nature of Egyptian society.

Research questions In order to craft a pedagogy such as what has been described above, it

will have to be asked first and foremost, what is Islam and what are the epistemological definitions of knowledge and education within this belief system; are there different types of the former or latter? What is the purpose of seeking knowledge in Islam; how and with whom should it be done? What do we intend by pedagogy and has a particular Islamic pedagogy ever


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been outlined before by scholars in the past or present? Subsequently, these questions will lead us to a framework of what an Islamic pedagogy might look like.


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LITERATURE REVIEW: WESTERN ANALOGUES TO ISLAMIC PEDAGOGY

Education involves the cultural patterns that determine how a people pass on their values and accumulated knowledge/experiences to future generations. I have consciously used as neutral a definition as possible for our purposes here of presenting varying conceptions of education in the East and West. Education involves two processes, official curriculum content and moral education; in other words while a particular subject matter is being taught, teachers also educate and socialize students into the accepted value system of their society either directly (through the curriculum) or indirectly (through their behavior and how they teach). How we teach is just as important as what we teach; undoubtedly they are intimately linked. Pedagogy has various usages in the field of education; a common definition used is the study of teaching methods, including the aims of education and the ways in which such goals may be achieved (Pedagogy, 2010). Accordingly, the main factors to be addressed when discussing pedagogy are the educator, student, and content; however, this research strives to provide a pedagogy that can be utilized for theological or empirical knowledge (irrespective of content). The pedagogical definition that will be used here is the teaching methods and corresponding relationship between teacher and student utilized to reach ones educational objectives.

While much of the literature in the field of education has focused on the cognitive aspects of education, more recent research has highlighted the importance of discussing what kind of moral education goes on in the classroom (Lickona, 1991; Moore, 2007). In America, values are often derived from the liberal arts public education system, citizens various personal religious beliefs, or some combination of both (Moore, 2007; pgs.1-10). The focus of this study is on developing a pedagogy culturally relevant to one particular belief system-Islam; however, it will be analyzed in comparison to existing literature on Islamic pedagogy as well as some analogues from the Liberal Arts value system. I will present existing literature on Islamic pedagogy as background in the presentation of data section.

This literature review will focus on Western literature regarding moral education and outline one of the closest analogues to Islamic pedagogy-the Ethic of Care-including the specific teaching methods that would logically accompany such a philosophy of teaching.

Theory Lev Vygotsky, a psychologist by profession, was one of the earliest

academics to comment on the importance of reconnecting the link between cognitive and affective factors when researching the human psyche (Goldstein, 1999, pg.648).Vygotsky defined a zone of proximal development as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (as cited in Goldstein, 1999, p.649 emphasis added). Therefore, using a customized student-centered


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pedagogy, an educator could scaffold a student along to higher, more intricate concepts (building on their previous knowledge) depending on the supportive guidance received either from the teacher or other peers who had comprehended the concept (Goldstein, 1999, pgs.649-654). Vygotsky realized that learning is not simply an individual activity (otherwise not much disciplinary analysis would be needed outside of a psychological lens), and that more insightful analysis of educational development needs to be discussed in relation to the social interactions that take place between the actors involved. Accordingly, by developing deeper relationships with their students, educators can consciously care for students in a way that provides a suitable environment for growth.

Such deliberate attention to students needs on the part of the educator would also provide a role model for other students to help each other grow in cooperative learning settings. As will be highlighted, the quality of the student-teacher relationship is pivotal to Islamic pedagogy as well.

Many academics5 have elaborated on the nature of this affective and caring relationship between teacher and student (Bailey, 2000; Noddings, 1984; Rogoff, 1990). At the time that Nel Noddings wrote Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral education (1984), she was responding to a growing sentiment (as evident through the increasing moral education literature) that more attention should be paid to treating students like humans who need time, attention, and guidance to intellectually and emotionally develop (Lickona, 1991). Noddings took this concept a step further by clarifying that an educator has a moral obligation and responsibility to actively care for their students and embody the values they want to instill in them by virtue of the educators position as a role model (Noddings, 1984).

She goes as far as to say that the one-caring (the educator) must receive the cared for (the student) into themself by being engrossed with their goals and needs; this motivational displacement involves temporarily preferring the student to ones self (Goldstein, 1999, p.656). On the part of the cared for they are expected to somehow acknowledge or reciprocate this care in every caring encounter (Goldstein, 1999, p.657), but are not ordered to (Noddings, 1984, p. 72). In fact, this reciprocity could involve the teacher being directly acknowledged or simply witnessing the cared fors happy growth Consequently, Noddings (1984) has differentiated between naturally caring and ethically caring for ones students; the former is not a reliable form of care because the educator might simply not naturally care for or be drawn to a particular student, while the latter involves an active, professional choice to care acknowledging an ethical obligation. Ethical caring is an action, not a quality. A student/teacher relationship based on ethical caring is more important because naturally caring for all of ones students may or may not occur. Also, people are naturally more drawn to those they are similar to in some way, in which case natural caring would not suffice for equitable guidance of students.

Educators should choose to care in strategic ways, irrespective of whether natural caring develops over time or not. Ethical caring


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demonstrates a sincere dedication on the part of educators to help students grow, whether they are having a bad day or not, whether they like the students or not; this choice requires a genuine belief in childrens ability to succeed, which empowers the teacher and student throughout the learning process. Such a practical and tailored approach to each child helps students develop intellectually and morally. While this caring approach seems ideal in explaining what should be done, one question is left unanswered, how do we motivate practitioners to care? Why should they maintain a concern for the ethical self (Noddings, 1984, p.75,) in the unpredictable daily hustle and bustle of over-energized children, increasing discipline problems, and even occasionally violent behavior? This will be developed in the discussion of Islamic pedagogy, but first lets look at practical examples of Noddings approach in the field.

Application Concerned about the moral state of youth in his time, Thomas Lickona

undertakes the task of outlining a detailed stratagem for the practical application of a caring pedagogy. Lickona applies the concept of Vygotskys ZPD to not only demonstrate the importance of teachers taking active roles in helping their children cognitively and morally develop, but that the teachers themselves must embody the potential results of that development. He particularly goes a little further than Noddings by highlighting that ones private life affects their public behavior (Lickona, 1991, p.49, 79). One has to become a role model of the behavior one wants to see in students; the caring relationship that will be developed is what will allow students to reach their potential development intellectually and emotionally. An artificial faade played out every time a teacher comes to class is easily seen through;

Lickona states we are coming to see that our societal moral problems reflect, in no small measure, our personal vices (Lickona, 1991, p.49). On the issue of role models one could also add to this that on a macro level, the leaders of the nation should be the first exemplars in demonstrating these morals on the world stage for them to really have any effect and trickle their way down to the masses. However, the causal direction of social change is not predetermined and teachers are also in a decisive position to effect long-term societal change from the roots up-through the children that will inherit their legacy.

Undoubtedly, one has to truly change oneself before one can hope to be a role model for others.

Doing so will pragmatically show children how to identify when moral action/judgment is needed, how to reflect on it, and then act. By using daily occurrences, positive or negative, in the classroom as teaching moments instead of mere disruptions, Lickona shows how educators can act out the moral reflection process right in front of their students. Teachers can literally think out loud when a teaching moment occurs, about their primary reaction to it, the weighing of opportunities for possible further action, and then following through assertively to respond to the situation. This process could involve for example, teachers modeling composure as they pause to deliberate a situation requiring a moral decision, making value


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judgments in front of students as to the particular pros and cons of a particular course of action, and then acting (Lickona, 1991, pgs.54-57). This process of using classroom incidents as teaching moments is often called case-based learning. Modeling moral reflection in front of ones students will pragmatically show them how to consciously represent the values they profess.

Lickona also gives examples of how the lack of role models to model moral behavior cannot even be substituted for by any of the material recompense that is often offered to children for good behavior. Role models pass on their morals to others they interact with since moral behavior is a social act that is enacted publically and affects everyone involved. Ergo, the better students treat others socially, the better they will feel about themselves internally. Accordingly, lack of such role models leaves many students in despair, selfishness, and loneliness. Children without role models are often left undisciplined and only interested in material consumption (Lickona, 1991, p.50). Many people are slowly realizing that material pleasures will never substitute for beneficial human interaction. Given that Lickona has shown how moral behavior should be taught, He also gives suggestions for which values should be modeled.

Lickona advises educators to start with the core values of respect and responsibility and then build upon these concepts a customized set of morals (such as honesty, tolerance, fairness, prudence, self-discipline, compassion, cooperation, and courage) according to contextual needs (Lickona, 1991.

pgs.43-44). Lickona acknowledges that getting agreement about shared values does not, of course, guarantee that people will agree about how to apply those values in every situation (Lickona, 1991, p.47). This potential ambiguity illustrates once again the importance of using the case-based approach outlined above. By using the curriculum, disturbances, and other opportunities in the classroom to model good morals, ethical behavior is no longer as challenging (Lickona, 1991, pgs.62, 69, 72).

Teachers who develop caring relationships with students can help students to experience the world from the perspective of others (Lickona, 1991, p.55), an ability essential for teaching respect.

Becky Bailey, on a similar strand of ethical care, highlights the background disposition needed for teaching morals, the importance of maintaining composure at all times so that one maintains control and assertiveness no matter what the situation (Bailey, 2000, pgs.26-30). To actually maintain composure, given the hectic bustle of life in the classroom, one should differ between management demands and moral demands (Kohlberg & Selman, 1972, p.39); by stressing serious moral infractions much more than the usual spills and misunderstandings, educators can prioritize their demand of childrens short attention spans/ mental capabilities. Only with a composed demeanor can one act purposely, and not off mere emotion, a temperament essential for moral reflection. Also, the importance of acknowledging accomplishments through praise and other methods by the educator is crucial for encouraging students along throughout their moral growth (Bailey, 2000, pgs.82, 85, 92).


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Lickona describes the aforementioned procedure for exemplifying moral reflection by saying that good character consists of knowing the good, desiring the good, and doing the good-habits of the mind, habits of the heart, and habits of action (Lickona, 1991, p.51). A striking parallel will be seen to this method in Islam of how once someone has knowledge of a virtue, they purify their intention to do it, and then carry out the action. Some teachers even use ethics journals that helped students to critically reflect on their daily actions in the process of developing effective moral reflection skills (Lickona, 1991, p.56).

Cooperative learning activities are also opportunities to develop bonds between students so that they can assist each other in modeling moral behavior (Lickona, 1991, p.74), while still allowing opportunities for teachers to interject their own moral feedback and guidance (Lickona, 1991, p.85). The feedback on behavior is recommended to be given in private, guiding students to understand why what they did was inappropriate, and is followed up on by the teacher to monitor progress (Lickona, 1991, p.86). Through cooperative learning, students experience trial and error opportunities with their peers to practice moral reflection and action, and are then scaffolded to the desired objective through caring educators guidance. Students participation in their own moral growth empowers them to begin to act independently, raises their self-esteem, and has longer effects on their long-term behavior. Accordingly, Lickona has outlined a framework for developing the caring student/teacher relationship and the process for utilizing this relationship to teach moral education, either directly between student and teacher or through mini-role models created in cooperative learning structures.

Subsequently, Ethical Care pedagogy has been shown to focus on the importance of educators consciously caring for their students and developing the relationships needed to scaffold them from their existing level of cognitive/affective ability to the next. This process is accomplished through a casebased learning approach that takes advantage of every opportunity in the classroom as a teaching moment to apply knowledge practically. Such an approach creates transformative learning experiences in the classroom that help students grow. There are many such academics that use some version or another of what we could label Ethical Care pedagogy in Western literature (such as Gloria Ladson-Billings for example; see Dreamkeepers), but I have highlighted these particular authors to preserve space while simultaneously providing an in-depth analysis of such work. The aspects of Ethical Care mentioned here will be compared to similar traits found in Islamic pedagogy.


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METHODOLOGY I have defined education and pedagogy thus far; therefore, we should

define some other essential terms to be utilized before proceeding. Islam, as used in this paper, refers to Sunni Orthodox Islam (more specifically Ahl Al Sunnah wal Jamaaa, ASWJ; lit: the people of the Sunnah and the Community); ASWJ Islam makes up roughly 90% of the Muslim world and includes the four major jurisprudence schools of thought: Hanafi, Maaliki, Shaafii, and Hanbali. ASWJ works are known for their clear reliance on the actual revelation as evidence when they write about anything regarding Islam; this is opposite of the methodology of Sunni Ahl Al-Kalaam (lit: the people of talk) who sometimes prefer their own personal reasoning over textual evidence by default and minimally cite Islamic scripture when theorizing about Islam (Ashqar, 2003; Phillips, 2006). Ironically, Ahl Al-Kalaam, who represent about 5% or less of Islamic scholarship and Muslims throughout history, are the sole perspectives formally acknowledged in Western discourses about Islam (except for minute exceptions sometimes in Islamic Studies departments)6. The other ten percent of the Muslim world consists of a mixture of various sects (Shiism, varieties of Sunni like Sufism, etc.) which generally have some different fundamental beliefs. Sunni Muslims follow the Quran (believed to be the literal word of God revealed to prophet Muhammad) and the Sunnah (the teachings, sayings, and way of prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him7, on how to practice the Quran).

There is a lot of literature on Islam in general concerning almost every disciplinary lens; however, relatively little has been written on the development of a specific Islamic pedagogy. One must preface such a statement by clarifying that the author has had limited time to research in a Muslim country-where Islamic literature is expectedly much more accessible. There is particularly much more literature in Arab Muslim countries since Arabic is the language that the Quran and Sunnah were revealed in, and therefore the language used in most serious theological works written about them. This being said, one would normally be left with the limited English scholarship that exists on Islamic Education as a whole here in America. However, I have had the opportunity to research for a small period of time in Egypt searching for Arabic works on Islamic pedagogy. These combined with the Arabic Quran and Hadeeth (the individual narrations of the Sunnah; pl. ahadeeth) exegesis available here in America have been the primary sources for this research. For exegesis, I have relied the most heavily on those of Ibn Kathir (the most widely known exegesis in the Muslim world, compiled by the named 13th century alim), Al-Ashqar (which is an abridged version of the famous 18th century Al- Shawkaanees exegesis), and Arkahdaan (which is an abridged version of the widely respected Al-12th century Qaasimi exegesis). In regard to the Sunnah, I have relied mostly on the two most authentic collections of ahadeeth (the compilations of Al-Bukhari and Muslim). Other than my own scriptural reflections, I have also highlighted the educational perspectives of two of the most knowledgeable ulamaa in the past half century, Shaykhs Bin


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Baz and Uthaymeen, as well as educational specialist Dr. Ahmad Mutawalee.

Quran and Hadeeth exegesis ulamaa have frequently highlighted pedagogical issues in their works although they did not usually dedicate specific treatises to the topic. The works that have been found specifically described as Islamic pedagogy actually dealt more with outlining a specific curriculum of Islamic values that promote social, psychological, academic, and moral development, but less on how to teach them. Paradoxically, what would normally be viewed as a dearth in the literature has a lot to do with what exactly Islamic pedagogy is as will be explicated. There are over 6,000 verses in the Quran and more than 20, 000 authentic ahadeeth; accordingly, to knowledgably speak about the Islamic stance on a topic is not just to mention one verse of the Quran or one hadeeth from the Sunnah as proof, but rather to present all pertinent revelation with the appropriate corresponding analysis.

Understandably, such a task is more appropriate for an entire lifetimes work than a Masters thesis; ergo, what is presented here is a survey-natured textual analysis of the Quranic method of teaching in the Quran itself, the pedagogical wisdoms behind the fashion in which scripture was revealed, and the pedagogical techniques that prophet Muhammad used with his companions. Glimpses of how this pedagogy was utilized historically will be brought to light as well.

Evaluating Our Lenses Given the overtly politicized nature of scholarship related to Islam in

Academia (see Orientalism and Covering Islam among others by Edward Said), a note of caution must be heeded. Most academic scholarship-here I do not intend the quality of the work, but merely that which is produced within the ivory tower of Western universities and other learning institutions)-on Islam is taught from a Modernistic lens-a belief system promoted through our Liberal Arts educational system that preaches that the only ultimate Truth is that there are no fixed Truths or constants, but rather everything is variable and based on opinion. This seems self-defeatist if pondered; but in any case this is a belief system that was borne out of the European Enlightenment of the 18th and 19th centuries mostly due to perceived contradictions between various aspects of Christianity and empirical science as well as the centuries old religious based conflicts between France and Britain. This rationalist school of thought could really be traced as far back as the Greek philosophy of scholars such as Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle, but its current day revivers were European philosophers such as Descartes, Nietche, and Kant (Kayum, 2010; Zarabozo (2), 2010).

Christian theologians called for higher criticism of the Bible and came to the conclusion that not all aspects were appropriate for all time; hence, followers of the faith could choose the aspects of the faith they personally deemed appropriate for their particular time and location. Such action was justified by a belief that religion is an evolutionary process (Zarabozo (2), 2010). Bible scholars acknowledged (then and now) that the Bible was written by more than 40 authors many years after the time Jesus is believed


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to have died in Christianity (Dirks, 2010); accordingly, the Bible was no longer treated as an ultimate Truth in official discourse. Some fruits of this movement were the reform movements that occurred, like various Christian reformations, and corresponding alternative belief systems being constructed to take the place of religion in many public institutions, like Darwinism.

Due to the aforementioned reasons, many academics and politicians concluded that the ideal solution was to secularize society and simply accept the parts of religion that not only did not contradict existing scientific theories, but that which also didnt contradict their own cultural preferences. Not only were human-based empirical sciences taken as a universal Truth-which has its human faults/biases (see Cuviers work on the Hottentot Venus and The Origin of Species by Darwin for example)-but so were any Western philosophical theories that gained widespread acceptanceessentially those that agreed with Western European culture. Philosophers individual personal reasoning/opinions became a post-hoc response to justify societys changing religious attitudes and new liberal culture in Western Europe (Zarabozo 2, 2010). Anything that was Western was presented as Human and Universal objective Truth, and everything else was subjective uncivilized notions of culture, bias, and savageness (Moore, 2007, pgs.36, 57-58,; Willinsky, 1998). One wonders if the maps of Chaucers time with Western Europe shown, and the rest of the globe shaded black are not still relevant.

Ironically however, this culturally relativist belief system of Modernism was intolerantly forcefully spread throughout much of the Muslim world-either through formal colonization or neocolonization through media and education-as the solution to the intolerance of certain peoples during the Medieval period (Zarabozo (2), 2010). Westernization of Muslim countries educational systems imposed not only epistemological frameworks, but entire Western value systems that were inconsistent with local values for the sake of cultural/political hegemony. Post colonization, many countries were trying to unyoke themselves of colonial cultural hegemony (imposed through remaining transplanted educational systems), while simultaneously trying to redesign relevant aspects of these systems to improve the perceived weaknesses that led to their colonization-mainly military and industrial expertise (Hussein, 2008, pgs.16, 21). Native attempts at such a task in the 20th century were Modernists such as Jamal Al-Din Al-Afghani of Iran, Namik Kemal of Turkey, Sayyid Ahmad Khan of India, and Muhammad Abduh of Egypt (Spring, 2006, p.155,). While some of these Modernists had questionable intentions to begin with, most of them wanted to import the scientific and military expertise of the West while preserving the Islamic belief system; as Muhammad Abduh noted for example, If one seeks to educate and improve the Egyptian nation without religion, it is as if a farmer would try to sow seed in unsuitable soilhis efforts will be in vain (Spring, 2006, p.155). Later however, ulamaa like Abduh, particularly after traveling to study in Western educational institutions, soon tried to replicate Western culture as a whole (Hussein, 2008, pgs.19-20; Kincheloe and Steinberg, 2004, pgs.142-144).


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Modernism spread through the academic circles (and the elite sectors) of major centers of Islamic culture like Turkey, Egypt, and the sub-continent; however, particularly with the decreasing trust that laymen had in theologians connected to the authoritarian regimes controlling most of the Muslim world post-colonization, Modernism did not widely spread among the masses (Hussein, 2008, pgs.20-50). Many of these Modernists were viewed as foreign implants connected to the puppet regimes that were ruling the Muslim world at the time since many of them not only promoted the idea that Muslims only salvation after colonization was to Europeanize completely, but many even rejected the notion of fighting colonial armies8 (Hefner and Zaman, 2007, pgs. 108, 118; Hussein, pgs.22-24, 106, 2008; Kincehloe and Steinberg, 2004, pgs. 128, 149; Zarabozo 1, 2010). In short, Modernist philosophy was (and is today) to reform the parts of Islam that were/are not compatible with Western culture/interests: the most popular being the criminal code, polygamy, belief in miracles/universal Truths, prohibition of interest in business transactions, prohibition on women being head of state, women wearing hijab, and much of the Sunnah in general since it specifies Quranic legislation (Modernists prefer to go by the spirit of the faith and not the specific commandments)9,10 (Hussein, 2008; Kayum, 2010; Zarabozo, 1, 2010). I merely highlight this phenomena lest readers presume that authors with Islamic sounding names necessarily offer a native perspective because usually only people with the cultural capital of a Modernistic worldview are admitted into Western-oriented academic institutions in Muslim or non- Muslim countries-I hope to be one of the few exceptions to this screening process. The Modernist movement, and its later sub-branches of post-modernism and the like, was not widely accepted among much of Western European laity in places like Britain, just officially conformed to in academia and government circles for purposes of promoting secularism and similar ideologies that served economic among other interests (Zarabozo 1, 2010). Part of the reason for this trend might be Western Europes long historical ties to religion as a source of identity and the fact that Darwinism as an alternative perspective on life has been arguably disproved by many scientists, particularly European ones-much of the evidence used to support the theory has even been found to be forged (Yahya, 2001). What concerns us however is that Modernism spread much wider among laity in America and is the lens through which knowledge is produced, particularly that concerning religion (Zarabozo 1, 2010).

The Modernistic lens is antithetical to religion because it portrays religion as tales of the ancients (Quran, 16:24) (Wheeler, 2003, pgs.22-23), irrational, and uncivilized (by European Enlightenment definitions) and Modernism as the opposite objective alternative-an us vs. them demonization of the other (Moore, 2007, pgs.36, 57-58). Modernism dons a cloak of supposed scientific precepts, which are much more based on culture than empirical proof, to try to promote a myth in academia that the advancement of civilization itself depends on Modernism as educational theorist James Carper has demonstrated (Moore, 2007, p. 57). However, it has been realized that it was never so much the empirical sciences advanced in the West, such as Chemistry and Biology (or even the technology), that


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were at odds with Islamic values as some have posited (Talbani, 1996, p.70), as much as it was the culture and value system (especially of Western philosophy) being transplanted along with them (Cook, 1999, p.11).

As has been mentioned, Modernism views everything as a matter of opinion; religion does not have any constants but is merely a product of its environment and therefore inherently variable in all aspects. Due to Modernisms secular nature, notions of providential guidance are not entertained.

Subsequently, most American academics when speaking about Islam take their own prerogative on, and present their own opinions on what should be the real True interpretation of Islam since it coordinates with Western culture (despite the fact that it might contradict the belief and practice of millions of Muslims). Accordingly one finds a wide diversity of opinions (Moore, 2007, pgs. 35, 127-128,) as Moore and others (Sheridan and North, 2004, p.149; Barazangi; Bonakdarian 1998; Anscombe 2007;

Sells 1999; Abou el-Fadl 2002; and Esposito 1999) have mentioned, but they are all from the default Modernistic perspective11 mistakenly applied as a universal Truth that all humans must follow. Many such authors often write about very advanced theological issues with little or no experience/knowledge of the Islamic sciences-like ilm Al rijaal (the science of authentication for chains of narrators of ahadeeth-the teachings and sayings of Prophet Muhammadthe science of Naskh (which verses or ahadeeth have been abrogated by others and how), which verses/ahadeeth are general and which are specific to the context they were revealed in or one similar to it, and many other fundamental principles which are inherently connected to the directives of the Quran and Sunnah12 (Kincheloe and Steinberg, 2004, p.165; Phillips, 2005). As Nasr notes, very few of these academics with advanced degrees are actually able to read classical Arabic texts with full in-depth comprehension of their meaning (Nasr, 2009, p. 21). Accordingly such academics would not be considered Islamic scholars as is usually understood when this term is translated into the language of many Muslim majority countries-usually alim, someone who has been deeply immersed in Islamic scholarship over 20-50 years. This is pivotal to keep in mind when discussing literature written on Islamic topics in the West and will be relevant to our discussion of Modern perspectives of Islamic pedagogy.

Contrary to Modernist claims, the ulamaa of the Islamic sciences in the Muslim world have always taken the context of revelation into consideration when discussing scripture; hence, the emphasis on the Sunnah and Seerah (essentially the biography of prophet Muhammad which gives the context that he and his companions lived in while the Quran was being revealed) which are their own sciences (with sub branches within them) (Nadwi, 2005, p.115). But since the Quran commands Muslims to take prophet Muhammads interpretation of the Quran that he taught to his companions over anyone elses (Phillips, 2005; Qadhi, 1999), there is no way to realistically force Islam to coincide with most current Western cultural practices despite the wide diversity of arguments that may be made. The aforementioned factors all contribute to the noteworthy disparity


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found between how lay Muslims in Muslim countries practice Islam and how Islam is re-presented in much of Western literature.

One can see examples of this imposition of values explicitly in the bias representation of Middle Eastern educational systems of the Middle Ages and how most non-religious education that occurred in fields ranging from Medicine to Architecture is glossed over (in Western post-enlightenment literature); the result has been the confection of a revisionist history where the religious sphere of society was somehow divorced from the rest (Kincheloe and Steinberg, 2004, p.130), a re-written secular history of the Muslim world13. What academia has been silent about has been just as telling as what has been said. Such selective memory leads to an easily consumed myth for a progressive-minded audience: that such people, who supposedly have nothing but theological knowledge, would either be particularly unsuitable for the modern world, or an even more extreme presumption that maybe the Medieval Muslim world was even secular all along. Even with Harvards international character, they teach little about Islam as a religion aside from Sufi mysticism in India and Africa; Sufis are to Islam what Quakers are to Christianity (Kavulla, 2007, p. 56). Nonetheless, Modernist, extreme Sufi(theres nothing wrong with moderate asceticism in Islam that is not related to actions of polytheism, but then it would not be considered Sufism as the term is used today) or Mutazilite (deviant philosophical sect that rationalizes not believing in destiny and many other parts of Islam) versions of Islam are what the American government promotes with added notions of no hijab, sharia, or any remotely social aspects of Islam (see Rand Report on Civil Democratic Islam and the works of John Esposito, Hamza Yusef, Fazlur Rahman, and Khaled Abou Al-Fadl). Only groups with Modernist related precepts are regarded as normal like the Murjii (who believe faith is only in the heart)14 (Wheeler, 2003, p.114). A wellread Muslim can differentiate between these Sunni sects, who are only about 5% of the world population of Muslims, but the average reader in the West cannot, hence the long digress on this issue. The deliberate disregard to much of mainstream Islamic scholarship in the theological sciences and blind eye turned towards achievements in the empirical sciences have been integral factors of the Modernist discourse and the main causes behind the very distorted image of Islamic education as a whole in the West.

Why have certain orientalists wasted so many precious years of their lives trying to disprove the Quran and Sunnah? Such programs of research are not merely an offense to the consciences of millions of Muslims, but are also misleading and thus unworthy to be considered as scholarship as Martin affirms (Martin, 1985, p.187). The politically charged attempts to forcefully re-write Islam into conformity with Western ideals merely serves to alienate and dehumanize the vast majority of Muslims on the planet15, while deliberately or not, selectively humanizing the elite authoritarian classes (with Western cultural capital) that dominate most Muslim countries (thereby implicitly justifying violence against the other as can be seen on the world stage). While such wishful thinking on the part of Western academics may fool the majority of Americans in the U.S. who are rarely


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exposed to the average experiences and perspectives of humans in the East, they dont even pragmatically effect any change in the cultures/practices of the majority in the Muslim world aside from increasing a consciousness that their way of life is being attackedhardly a platform for dialogue. Empirical evidence that the cultural invasion has had the opposite effect of its original intention is that recent studies of Muslim majority countries confirm that the university experience actually engenders religious attachment; [for example], the growth of secular education in Egypt has encouraged rather than discouraged attachment to Islamic culture (Cook, 2001, p.382). As Noam Chomsky often musingly argues, democracy, as its now practiced, only works if the people are persuaded to agree with what the people in power had already decided (Chomsky, 2002). If we truly wish to see coexistence between East and West, we must learn to be tolerant of others differences, even when they really are different.


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PRESENTATION OF DATA Knowledge in Islam

What is knowledge (ilm in Arabic) in Islam? The first words revealed of the Quran to Prophet Muhammad in the seventh century C.E. were, what means16, Read/Recite! In the name of your Lord, who has created all that exists (Quran, 96:1). The word ilm is mentioned 750 times in the Quran, ranking it third behind Allah (2,800 references), and Rubb (which is usually translated as Lord, but has wider pedagogical connotations as will be explained) at 950 references (Boyle, 2006, p.484).This is the essence of Islam, knowledge; but what kind and for what purpose?

Knowledge has been defined by Arab linguists as the opposite of ignoranceanything that can be conceived of or known... [and] more obvious than to need to be defined (Mutawalee, 2005, p.177).

There are two types of knowledge in Islam, that which is known-what humans have the ability to comprehend in this worldly life-and that which is hidden (Al-Ghayb). Regarding both types there are also two subdivisions, that which benefits (helps one to worship God better) and that which does not (Uthaymeen, 2004, p.33). Regarding knowledge that which is hidden but mentioned by name in revelation, either in the Quran or Sunnah, (i.e.: the true nature of God, the angels, heaven, hellfire, etc.), Muslims are still obligated to believe in it-the first characteristic mentioned of the characteristics of the believers in the beginning of the Quran is that they believe in the hidden (Quran, 2:2). Some knowledge might be unbeneficial or could even harm humans. For example, when some polytheists from prophet Muhammads tribe came to ask him about when the Final Hour (Judgment day) would be, Allah (Arabic for God) told him to say the knowledge thereof is with my Lord (alone). None but He can reveal as to when it will occur-Allah goes on to explain that humans knowing when judgment day would be would be a huge burden on them (Quran, 7:187). Allah kept this knowledge hidden so that humans would keep competing in righteousness till death, because in reality it is unbeneficial knowledge since a persons opportunity to perform good deeds will end at death and they wont be resurrected till judgment day. Similar in meaning is when prophet Muhammad was asked by a Bedouin about the appointment of judgment day saying, When will The Hour be ?" The prophet replied to him, "What have you prepared for it? The man said, "The love of Allah and His Messenger." The Prophet replied, "You will be with those whom you love"" (Al-Qarnee, 2000, pgs.19-22). Well mention three points of benefit from this hadeeth: one of prophet Muhammads teaching techniques when responding to questions, was to direct the questioner to the more beneficial question they should be asking as seen here (Al-Shareef, 2010). The second point that the ulamaa have commented on, is that knowing how to ask the appropriate question at the appropriate time is half of all knowledge (not literally, but just to emphasize the point) (Mekki, personal correspondence, April 10, 2010). The third benefit that the ulamaa have highlighted is the importance of good company since one will be with those whom he loves in the afterlife, for good or bad (Mekki,


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personal correspondence, April 10, 2010); this is of importance for the discussion on peer influence to come. Nonetheless, the Islamic perspective of knowledge is that Allah has made available the two types of knowledge that can be of benefit to us (if we use them to improve society), revelation and the ability to use our senses to gain empirical knowledge. Ill elaborate on the former, then the latter.

In Islam, acquisition of knowledge (ilm)-the two types that can be known being that gained through revelation and that gained through the senses-is justified and directed by the provision that all knowledge gained be used in worship of the creator (Halstead, 2004, p.520) (worship being widely defined as anything that pleases God as outlined in the Quran and Sunnah, from fasting to sexual relations with ones wife (Muslim vol. 2A, p.187). As God commands in the Quran, Say (Oh Muhammad) undoubtedly, my Salat (prayer), my sacrifice, my living, and my dying are for Allah, the Lord of the 'Alamin (mankind, jinns and all that exists) (Quran, 6:162). Accordingly, the most important type of knowledge in Islam is theological, meaning understanding the will and nature of Allah through the Quran and Sunnah so that one may live by it (Uthaymeen, 2004). Only after a theological foundation would an individual know how to live their life Islamically (meaning proper moral conduct) no matter what field or practice they went into professionally. Proper character ensures knowledge is used for the benefit of society; a chemical scientist with the intention to build the most dangerous weapons for the highest bidder (as has been often the case for some while)doesnt benefit us with his/her academic knowledge. Hence, character education in Islam is analogous to the role played by civic education in Western secular societies. Emphasizing the importance of moral education, prophet Muhammad said I have only been sent to correct peoples manners (Al-Shareef, 2010). In fact, it is through these proper manners (understood broadly from the original Arabic khuluq to mean proper interaction with ones Lord, family, society, etc.), that God would teach humans that which would benefit them (Quran, 2:282).

On the virtue of theological knowledge, Allah mentions in the Quran, Allah and the angels, and those with knowledge bear witness that none has the right to be worshipped but He and that He always sustains his creation in justice (Quran, 3:18). According to Arabic Balaagha (study of eloquent Arabic speech, particularly in the Quran), the subjects mentioned in such a verse are listed in descending order of importance (wa or and has different meanings depending on the context) (Umm Qataadah; personal communication, April 3, 2010). Therefore, Allah has placed the testimony of faith of those that have knowledge of Him, meaning his nature, will, and names and attributes, after that of the Testimony of Allah Himself and the angels. So great is having true faith in Allah, meaning with ones heart, speech, and actions, that Allah chose the best of his creation, the angels, and then the best of mankind, the most knowledgeable of his worshippers, to testify to the most amazing thing possible, the whole reason that Allah created the universeto be worshipped alone without any partners (Al-Khattaabi, 2006, p.142; Mutawalee 2005, p.179). Al-Jawziyyah-a 13th


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century Hadeeth/Exegesis alim-commented on this verse saying, undoubtedly this is a testimony to the uprightness of those with true knowledge because Allah will not use as a witness except those who are trustworthy (Mutawalee 2005, p.179). Allah even commands his own prophet, considered the best of mankind, in the Qur'an, to ask Allah for even more knowledge (Quran, 20:114). Ibn Abbas, the companion of prophet Muhammad who prophet Muhammad named Turjamaan (the explainer) of the Quran for the entire ummah (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, p.100-102), narrated that when theological knowledge is mentioned in the Qur'an, that it refers to beneficial knowledge of Islam, meaning that which is lived by, and righteous deeds (Al-Jawziyyah, 2004, p. 58). In support of this, one will not find a verse in the Quran of those that start with those who have true belief not immediately followed by the phrase and do righteous good deeds before delving into descriptions about them (going to paradise, etc.). Subsequently, prophet Muhammad described the circles of knowledge (this was the structure of the gatherings) as gardens of paradise (Al-Bukhari, vol. 4B, pgs.233-235).

Regarding a hierarchy of importance for the individual, there are two broad categories of theological knowledge. The first type is that which is obligatory on every individual (fard ayn), the bare minimum of understanding ones obligations as a Muslim: basically the 6 articles of faith, rights of Allah, then others rights over a person (like their family and community), and the 5 pillars of Islam so that he or she can worship Allah properly. This knowledge is obligatory and a person would sin by not learning it. The 2nd type of knowledge is that which is recommended but not obligatory as long as someone in the community attains it (fard kifaaya), like inheritance and business laws, where if some do it, then it is not required of the rest of the community-except if they specifically deal with the issue (like a family lawyer knowing inheritance laws for example). In sum, whatever knowledge one has, they should use it to please Allah by acting upon it, in which case it would be a proof that attests to their faith on judgment day; and if they did not act by it, then it would be a proof against them. As some ulamaa have commented, Knowledge is the roots [of the tree of truthfulness17], its branches are truthfulness, and its fruits are righteous actions (Mutawalee 2005, p.181).

The references to the virtue of theological knowledge, due to its positive relationship with faith, in the Quran are numerous (Al-Zumur: 9, Al-Rad:19, Al-Anam:114, Al-Israa:106-108, Al-Ankaboot: 49, Al-Room: 55-56, etc.); in the Sunnah, we also have numerous examples like the following:

Whoever treads a path to seek theological knowledge, Allah will make him18 tread one of the paths towards Paradise. The angels lower their wings out of contentment for the seeker of theological knowledge; the inhabitants of the heavens and the Earth, even the fish in the depths of the sea ask forgiveness for the learned person. The superiority of the alim over the worshipper is like the virtue of the moon on the night when it is full, over all of the stars. Indeed, the ulamaa are the inheritors of the Prophets, and the prophets do not leave behind dinar nor dirham [currency that was used in


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the Arabian peninsula], but rather, they leave behind knowledge. So whoever takes it, has acquired an abundant portion" (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, pgs.103-104; Muslim, vol. 1B, 1990, pgs. 708-7110).

This hadeeth alone has the essence for teachers to promote a culture of knowledge in their classrooms. The first benefit of seeking Islamic knowledge is that it has the highest reward, paradise.

The second is that the angels themselves acknowledge this human being and lower their wings in approval of his/her actions. The third fruit of seeking knowledge is that everything between the heavens and earth, even the fish in the sea, are asking forgiveness for this person seeking Islamic knowledge; and if the reader has noticed, all of this has not been just specifically for major ulamaa of Islam. This is simply a person trying their best with a sincere intention to please God by learning more about their Lord and messenger and what they have commanded from him or her so that they can live by it. Only the fifth and sixth characteristics mentioned in the hadeeth are in regard to the tremendously high status of one who actually becomes a alim of Islam, their status over the average worshipper; the alim who has gained this tremendous wisdom and God-consciousness in his actions due to his knowledge and teaches it to others, is like the moon compared to the rest of the stars. This is an analogy that prophet Muhammad uses (use of analogies will be elaborated on); we know how amazing the moon is because PM has mentioned in another hadeeth (Muslim, vol.1B, 1990, p.708-710) that the people of paradise are going to see Allah as clear as we see the moon in this life. He specifically highlighted the moon because of its high status compared to the rest of the stars. Then he said that the ulamaa are the inheritors of the prophets, and the prophets did not leave behind dirham nor dinar, but rather they left behind knowledge, so whomever obtains it, has surely obtained a tremendous thing. This is a tremendous status as Abdullah ibn Mas'ud, the companion of prophet Muhammad, explained whoever attains Islamic knowledge, it is as if he has acquired prophethood between his shoulders, except that he was not directly revealed to (Al- Jawziyya, 2004, p.58). It should be noticed here also, that Ibn Mas'ud described the knowledge being between the shoulders, referring to the heart, and not the mind like some would assume, because the heart is the king of the body and soul (Al-Ghazali, 2009, p. 36).The focus on utilizing knowledge to purify the heart is particularly because it is what motivates a person to be the best or worst of people irrespective of what empirical knowledge one has. If students and teachers view seeking knowledge as an act of worship, then this is a powerful motivation given the harsh socio-economic conditions in Muslim countries. Once, teachers and students have this appropriate intention, then it becomes obvious that once one has theological knowledge they will need other types of knowledge (like empirical knowledge) to develop the institutions needed to develop their society. This is not anything particularly innovative to state, since as will be shown this was how most of Islamic Higher Education functioned historically.

In any case, it is suffice to mention that Allah declared that having true knowledge of the testimony of faith is one of the seven conditions for its


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acceptance19; that is how extremely critical theological knowledge is in Islam. As mentioned in chapter Muhammad, Allah commands know, have true knowledge, that no one has the right to be worshipped except Allah and seek forgiveness for your sins (Quran, 47:19). The ulamaa have highlighted here how true knowledge was presented as a command before the command of doing actions (seeking forgiveness) (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, pgs.96-97; Al-Qarnee, 2000, p.6)-this affirms what was mentioned shortly regarding the importance of knowledge for doing actions. In Modernist discourse, belief is an opinion or point of view, but in Islam, Allah describes true belief as having certain knowledge of something, just as certain as one would be of any other knowledge attained by the senses (if not more). Because if one knows there is a paradise and hellfire for example, they will act correspondingly; as Allah commands the family of prophet David, He says Do [not say] thanks/ praise (Quran, 34:13). If teachers can relay to students that knowledge is to be lived by, then they will carry this belief on to the study of empirical knowledge as well and both types of knowledge would engage students to participate in their education, creating transformative learning experiences in the classroom.

The Quran has also praised knowledge that is attained through the senses, empirical knowledge.

Allah has made this type of knowledge even capable of raising the status of animals; Allah says, Lawful for you is what is caught by those animals and birds which you have taught and trained as Allah has commanded you, so eat from what they catch for you, but pronounce the name of Allah as you command them, and be conscious of Allah. Most definitely, Allah is swift in holding accountable (Quran, 5: 4.). Accordingly, Tafseer ulamaa20 have highlighted how this verse shows the valuable status of knowledge. The prey that this trained and taught animal catches for a person is permissible to eat; but if it were untaught and had just killed the prey on its own, this meat would be impermissible to eat. The only difference between the two cases here was that the animal has been taught and trained to catch prey in a specific way (Ibn Kathir, vol. 3, 2000, pgs.97-101). We can add here that this knowledge was knowledge gained through the senses, since this animal was taught by a human to perform a certain task in a specific manner. This knowledge is not directly related to paradise and hellfire for example, but this knowledge has made a certain type of human activity more easily accessible, attaining food. As long as this human utilizes this food for some beneficial reason, like to feed himself or someone else so that they can fulfill their daily responsibilities, then this has been a positive use of empirical knowledge. On the other hand, if this knowledge was used to simply hunt for sport, killing animals with no pragmatic need to, then this knowledge would be blameworthy. Subsequently, Allah has made permissible the use of empirical knowledge-the dog using its senses to learn from the human-to facilitate permissible human needs.

However, the most obvious example on the importance of empirical knowledge in Islam is that in the Quran, Allah describes things that are supposed to prove Gods existence to humans as ayaat.


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These ayaat (lit: signs, proofs, verses [of the Quran], evidences) that are mentioned in the Quran and are supposed to lead humans to acknowledge God are of two types: things that can be sensed (i.e.: empirical science) and textual revelation itself. The Quran that exists today, and matches all known manuscripts around the world dating as far back as the seventh century, describes with intricate detail:

human embryonic development (stage by stage), how the mountains serve as pegs in the earth so that it doesnt shake, the origins of the universe, functions of the cerebrum, the zone of separation between fresh and salt water in the pacific ocean, the internal waves of the ocean, and the precipitation process-details and processes that we did not discover or fully comprehend until the modern science of the 20th century (Ibrahim, 1997, pgs. 5-27). This raises an important question; why would such things be mentioned which no one would be able to prove till hundreds of years later? At the same time, there are countless Quranic injunctions rhetorically questioning humans, after mentions of Allahs signs, do they not listen/ ponder/see/reflect (yasmaoon, yatafakuroon, yubsiroon, yatadabbaroon) on these signs? One cannot go more than five pages without coming across such verses. In one chapter, Allah mentions that some of his signs are in Al-Afaaq (depths of space) (Quran, 41:53), which we havent been able to even get a glimpse of till modern technology was developed. Without a doubt, if humans were not to use their senses to discover the world around them, they would never have realized these amazing miracles/signs all around them. Throughout most of history since the Qurans revelation, most of the aforementioned scientific phenomena would have been taken at face value to be true as part of believing in the Quran, but not empirically proven until the work of various Muslim scientists much later. No one would have benefited from these particular signs of Gods existence (and for Muslims, additional scientific evidence of the Qurans divine origin) without empirical research. Evidence that Muslim ulamaa responded to the aforementioned exhortations to research, inquire, and examine the universe is seen in the many scientific contributions in Muslim societies throughout history.

Empirical science was never a shunned endeavor in the Muslim world. One could cite numerous cases in the fields of History like that of Ibn Athir and Ibn Kathir, in Ophthalmology like Ibn Al-Haytham, in Sociology like Ibn Khaldun (who is considered the founder of modern Sociology), in Medicine, like Al-Nafisi, or Al-Jabbar, who invented Algebra. In fact, ulamaa would rarely specialize in just one field of the empirical sciences, but rather many, unlike the Renaissance Man of the Renaissance. A perfect example is Abu Biruni who specialized in Chemistry, Physics, and Astronomy (and was one of the leading ulamaa to invent the scientific method)-Muslim ulamaa even constructed the first public hospitals during the Baghdad caliphate (Berkey 1992; Najeebabadi, vol.1, 2000).

However, in general, the Quran and Sunnah are not particularly worried with ensuring humans seek empirical knowledge because it is taken for granted that humans will not forget or neglect worldly issues since they are all around them. As prophet Muhammad mentioned, I dont fear for you


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poverty, but rather I fear for you that worldly issues would overwhelm you (Muslim, vol.4B, 1990, pgs. 738-740). Hence, the Quran and Sunnah focus on teaching proper moral conduct as a universal constant, so that humans will use any other types of knowledge they acquire throughout time for societal benefit.

As supportive evidence to the aforementioned perspective toward the empirical and scriptural forms of knowledge is the principle in Islamic Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) known as maa laa ya tim Al waajib illaa bihi fahuwa waajib (lit: whatever obligatory deed cannot be accomplished except through a particular method, then that method also becomes obligatory21There is no way to establish rule of law and the social services that Islam guarantees to people in Muslim societies-like for example free education and healthcare, Zakah (an obligatory form of charity for the poor), etc.-without Muslims who care about these moral issues and then take the means to develop them. This would not contradict the research previously cited on Higher Education today in the Muslim world which showed that students become more Islamically oriented upon entering Higher education (which is almost universally secular), the complete opposite pattern of what happens in the West (Cook, 2001, p. 382). One hypothesizes that the deliberate and obvious removal of Islamic theology and any other related material by most authoritarian regimes in the Muslim world, particularly over the last 20 years, forces students to have to learn Islam on their own, while still pursuing the societal capital of a university education to achieve their professional objectives and social reform efforts. It would seem cognizance of the inherent complimentary nature between theological and empirical knowledge in Islam is already evident to many youth in the Muslim world, and accordingly would not be difficult to employ in motivating students to utilize both in working towards social reform in Muslim countries.

While we are on the point of motivations for seeking knowledge in Islam, it would be opportune to highlight to teachers and students the importance that Islam puts on Commanding the Good and Forbidding the Evil-the Islamic analogue to social activism. Allah says You Muslims are the best of peoples ever raised up for mankind; you enjoin goodness and forbid evil, and you believe in Allah (Quran, 3:110). Linguistically, according to the science of Balaagha mentioned earlier, by citing the commanding of good and forbidding of evil as the first characteristics of such Muslims, these become the defining characteristics of Muslims who can earn the title of best of peoples ever raised up for mankind. God doesnt have a chosen people according to Islam by virtue of the mere name they ascribe to themselves, color or ethnicity (Quran, 49:13). Muslims only earn the mercy of God, which allows them to enter paradise, through their actions. For example, even Muslims can be punished through billions of years in hellfire to be purified of their sins before eventually entering paradise, if they sincerely believed in the testimony of faith (the belief that no one has the right to be worshipped except Allah and Muhammad is His messenger). Proving ones sincerity to God requires action. Exegesis ulamaa have highlighted how this characteristic is so important that Allah has


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mentioned it before faith itself, not because it is more important, but because Allah structures some verses like this in the Quran to stress a particular concept. In another verse, Allah specifically commands Let there arise out of you a group of people inviting to all that is good, enjoining goodness, and forbidding all evil. And it is they who are successful (Quran, 3:104). But as we have discussed, there is no beneficial action without proper knowledge. It is not hard for some people to be saalihoon (righteous people; sg. saalih), but Allah praises even more in the Quran the Muslihoon (those who call to righteousness in the society; sg. Muslih). In many verses Allah enumerates accounts of evil and righteous people in the past and how they received their due recompense; however, despite the existence of large amounts of evil people at a particular time, Allah vows to not destroy an area as long as there are still some Muslihoon among them (Quran, 11:117). Once we have established the importance of both types of knowledge and how they must be used to meet Muslims societal objectives, who are the ones that will teach the power of education to our youth? The Muslihoon in the field of education are the teachers. Through the motivation that they are engaging in a tremendous act of worship such as commanding the good and forbidding the evil as Muslihoon, teachers will be able to engage their students to participate in actively working for social justice. Spiritual motivation is a powerful stimulus in causing social change, particularly if it already exists as a visible force in the society. One last example of the active nature of Islamic pedagogy can be brought to light in the story of Maryam.

Even Jesuss own mother, Maryam (Mary), who is considered one of the best four women in Islam and has a chapter named after her in the Quran, was not merely provided relief and sustenance by asking Allah for it. When Mary was forging through the pains of child birth (and was horrified of what people might assume of her pregnancy, since she was not wed), she did not lose hope. After wearily collapsing under a palm tree for shade, Mary supplicated to her Lord, but God did not help her immediately. Rather, God told Mary, at the apex of her pain, to stand up and shake the palm tree for it to bring down dates for her sustenance. Only then did God cause the fruits to fall down (Quran, 19:16-26). This is a very powerful event, because even if one gathered a whole crowd of people they would not be able to manually budge a palm tree. This event exemplifies the principle that God only helps those who help themselves. Allah says, Allah will not change a peoples condition until they change that which is within themselves (Quran, 13:11). Islamic pedagogy stresses an assiduous work ethic of doing ones part and then relying on God for the results.

Who will teach our children proper moral conduct and how to effectively contribute to society? Who can cultivate childrens critical thinking skills so that they can grow up to develop innovative local solutions for local problems except teachers? Parents spend limited time with their children globally. Egypt is an excellent case study for discussing educational issues of the Middle East since it provides a motley of the North African and Gulf socio-economic/ cultural contexts. After school, most students in Egypt for example, spend the rest of their day with private tutors. During school,


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children spend the most time with teachers and peers at school. We are lacking role models and leaders all around the world, and as is being argued here, teachers are one of the most direct opportunities to establish such role models who will offer students practical examples of not only academic content and morals, but how to utilize them to be an active participant in society. Muslim societies will not change by themselves, and teachers are in a pivotal position to be Muslihoon and create others who will change society through their education as well. Now that we have discussed the different types of knowledge in Islam and their purpose, lets see how some scholars have proposed to teach that knowledge; what is Islamic pedagogy?

Islamic Education: Content or Pedagogy? I have actually discovered very different findings on Islamic pedagogy

dependent on whether the language of publication was English or Arabic, so Ill start with the English literature since this would be more likely to be familiar to the reader. When Islamic pedagogy is mentioned in the West, the most common research recalled is usually the work of The International Institute for Islamic Thought. The International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) was established in 1981 as a private, non-profit, academic and cultural institution dedicated to promoting research related to Islamic thought and contemporary social sciences; it has branches all around the world. The International Institute for Islamic Thought started the Islamization of Knowledge project during the 1980s with two main objectives: to reconcile the Muslim identity through Islamization of the Social Sciences and thought [and] rejuvenate the study of Islamic history as a legacy and foundation for developing Islamic thought and methodology (IIIT, 1989, pg. xiv). The founders yearned a system that enlightens students with practical knowledge in light of Islamic values (IIIT, 1989, pg. xiii), suggesting reconciliation of the secular and Islamic branches of education in the Muslim world as one of the pivotal steps in constructing such a system; they even made some suggestions on how to go about obtaining such funding (IIIT, 1989, pg.14). But what does it mean to Islamize knowledge? Can all knowledge be Islamized and if so, what would be the pragmatic benefits of doing so? And lastly, what concerns us the most; does such a system include specific teaching methods derived from the Quran and Sunnah?

In attempting to answer these questions, Ishaq Farhan provides a typical IIIT response (Al-Attas, 1980; IIIT, 1989; IIIT, 2000) to these questions: secularization is responsible for the decline of Islamic thought in the Muslim world since the fall of the Khilafa (caliphate) at WWI and the holistic (which doesnt differentiate between revelation and empirical knowledge) Islamic perspective of life must be revived by being superimposed on the content of all academic disciplines (particularly the social sciences, which are highly based on Western philosophy) to tackle intellectual stagnation (in a culturally relevant manner) (Farhan, 1989).

First of all we must address the incompleteness of the above presuppositions. If we analyze the quality of scholarship in the Islamic as well as empirical sciences in the Muslim world, they have been on the decline since at least the initial political decline of the Islamic empire, which


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we could roughly date as starting way before colonization in the early 15th century-with major setbacks occurring at pivotal moments like the loss of the final part of Spain in 1492 and the colonization of most parts of the Muslim world in the 18th and 19th centuries (particularly cultural/political centers like the subcontinent and Egypt), by Western European powers. Although the Ottoman caliphate still preserved some remnants of Muslim identity up until the formal collapse at WWI, the power and influence of the Islamic world was waning much before this. With the loss of political and military power in the region (for various reasons outside the scope of this paper), the Muslim empire had also long since begun to decline in academic scholarship (Daly, 1998). However, Farhan is correct in asserting that the more official secularization process that took hold after WWI severely intensified this process. Theres no concept of secularism in Islam; the longest verse in the Quran for example (an entire page long), details the conditions for conducting business transactions (Quran, 2:282). Secularism did add an identity crisis to an already worsening situation. As Al-Ghazali notes, education starts at home-with the mother at its foundation-the school, the mosque, the street, and the state (Al-Ghazali, 2010, p.44). Contemporary ulamaa such as Shaykh Bin Baz have outlined similar visions of Islamic pedagogy (Al-Khattaabi, 2006, p.229).

Regarding the notion of Islamizing the discipline of education Farhan understandably stresses the importance of the Islamic belief that seeking knowledge is an act of worship and a responsibility placed on intellectuals to use it for societal good as is mentioned in the Quran (Quran, 33:72), but he does not specifically define what Islamic education is (Farhan, 1989, p.308). Farhans suggestion of providing all students with a minimum basic working knowledge of the various branches of Islamic theology (Farhan, 1989, p.312) is commendable and integral to the vision of Islamic pedagogy in this paper as well. In fact, such has already been in practice throughout most of Islamic history, ra

The Need for an Islamic Pedagogy

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