THE MYTH OF OSIRIS IN THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PYRAMID TEXTS A STUDY IN NARRATIVE MYTH David Stewart BA (Hons)/MA University of Auckland A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Centre for the Study of Ancient Cultures School of Philosophical, Historical and International Studies Monash University December 2014
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THE MYTH OF OSIRIS IN THE
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PYRAMID
TEXTS
A STUDY IN NARRATIVE MYTH
David Stewart
BA (Hons)/MA University of Auckland
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Centre for the Study of Ancient Cultures
School of Philosophical, Historical and International Studies
Monash University
December 2014
ii
Under the Copyright Act 1968, this thesis must be used only under the normal
conditions of scholarly fair dealing. In particular no results or conclusions should be
extracted from it, nor should it be copied or closely paraphrased in whole or in part
without the written consent of the author. Proper written acknowledgement should be
made for any assistance obtained from this thesis.
I certify that I have made all reasonable efforts to secure copyright permissions for third-
party content included in this thesis and have not knowingly added copyright content
to my work without the owner's permission
iii
ABSTRACT
This thesis intervenes in the longstanding debate concerning the late development of
myth in ancient Egypt by testing the notion that a myth is essentially narrative, and by
challenging the belief that during the Old Kingdom, narrative myth only existed in the
oral sphere, if at all. It does so by investigating the appearance and use of the myth of
Osiris in the Pyramid Texts. Focussing on the form that mythic thought took during the
Old Kingdom, it examines how this was actualised in the royal mortuary literature.
This thesis argues that the unhelpful divergence of scholarship on myth,
conceptualising it as either narrative, following a sequential or coherent pattern, or non-
narrative, as a network of associations and connections between gods, is a result of
scholars’ adherence to narrow definitions of myth. The multifaceted nature of myth
prevents the effective use of definitions to delineate its conceptual borers. Through a
contextualising approach, this thesis looks beyond a definition as a primary analytical
tool.
This study has three major directions of investigation. The first is the collection,
translation and analysis of the core material relating to the Osiris myth. The emphasis of
this aspect of the study is on the relationships between deities, which comprise the
building blocks of the mythic ideas in the Pyramid Texts. The second direction of this
study involves the idea of the fluidity of the Egyptian pantheon; that different gods
could undertake the same roles within the actions or events of the myth. This facet of
the study will test the idea that before a canon was set, mythic ideas were fluid and
subject to variation. The spatial and temporal patterns of distribution comprise the
third course of analysis in this study, aimed at developing a deeper understanding of
the interplay between text and monument.
This thesis demonstrates that a low level of narrativity in the Pyramid Texts does not
preclude the existence of a narrative mythic structure. Variability is shown to be an
operative force in the Pyramid Texts, which prioritise the inclusion of different
traditions over their exclusion, without concern for strict coherence. The way in which
individuals chose to arrange the texts informs us about their religious priorities. The
increased incorporation of the myth, reflected in the spatial and temporal distribution of
the texts, shows the changing religio-political landscape of the Old Kingdom, as the
Heliopolitan priesthood rose in prominence.
Myth emerges from this thesis as an ever changing phenomenon, subject to the ebbs and
flows of social, religious and political currents. If we are to understand its complexity
we must situate it in its cultural and temporal milieu.
iv
STATEMENT
This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other
degree or diploma in any university or other institution. To the best of my knowledge
this thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person,
except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis.
David Stewart
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It would not have been possible to complete this doctoral thesis without the
encouragement and support of those around me. First and foremost I would like to
thank my principal supervisor Associate Professor Colin Hope, for supporting and
educating me throughout these past five years. Colin has been a consummate
supervisor and he is one of the smartest people I know. He is the kind of academic I one
day hope to become. His constant support, advice and encouragement have been
instrumental throughout the process of my doctoral candidature and this project would
not have been completed without him. I will be forever indebted to him for the
knowledge he has bestowed upon me, be both professionally and personally. I am also
very grateful to my second supervisor Dr Gillian Bowen, whose attention to detail drove
me to finally learn to punctuate prose. Her insightful comments have been influential in
the development and execution of this project.
I would also like to thank my fellow postgraduate students, who helped to create a fun
and intellectually stimulating environment every day. We have all been there for each
other at one time or another, and I am grateful to have had such a wonderful group of
people to share this time with. I will always remember the many wonderful lunches
and fun activities we have had. Special thanks must go to Johanna Petkov; in an often
lonely journey with many peaks and troughs, her friendship and guidance have been
appreciated beyond words. I will always be thankful for our many talks over coffee,
during which we discussed any and all issues, from writing and the frustrations of
higher degree research, to politics and changing fashion trends. She provided me with
distraction when needed and the motivation to finish my thesis, when I could not
muster it myself. For that, and reasons too numerous to commit to writing, I will be
forever in her debt. I must also extend my gratitude to Caleb Hamilton, for his
unrelenting energy and enthusiasm, which has been a source of inspiration for me; Dr
Charlotte Greenhalgh, for her invaluable advice and support during this last year; and
Amy Pettman, for our many chats and her wealth of knowledge about Old Kingdom
Egypt. Thank you all so very much.
I will be eternally thankful for all of my family, their unconditional love and support
mean the world to me, and I would never have come this far without their
encouragement to chase my dreams. Mere words on a page cannot express the thanks I
have to be the son of Allan and Nicky Stewart. They have sacrificed so much to afford
me the opportunities they did not have, I am grateful every day because of it. I can
never repay the amount of love, care and support they have given me, even separated
vi
by thousands of kilometres. I will spend the rest of my life trying. My sister, Ashleigh,
has been my best friend all my life and I love her dearly. She has undoubtedly been my
rock, ever-present and steadfast in her support. She is a constant source of inspiration
to me and the strength she has shown in a difficult life has given me strength in my
own. Her drive and determination seem inexhaustible. I thank her for her love,
friendship, guidance, numerous skype calls, and above all else her unwavering belief in
me, even if and especially when I did not believe in myself. She will never comprehend
just how important she has been to the successful completion of this thesis. In the time
it has taken me to write my thesis, my brother Iain and his wife Rebecca have created a
wonderful and loving family with their two children, Ella and Oscar. Their love and
support have been no small contribution to this project.
Finally I must thank my friends in both Australia and New Zealand, without them I
would have surely gone insane. In particular, thanks must go to my flatmate Raf, who
has put up with me through this long process, always being there to listen and pour me
a glass of wine at the end of the day. Thank you.
A doctoral thesis is as much an individual achievement as it is a testament to the
support system of the candidate. In the second regard I have been blessed and will be
forever thankful.
vii
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................... ii
STATEMENT ................................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................. v
CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................... vii
ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................................. x
APAW Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
ARA Annual Review of Anthropology
Archéo-Nil Archéo-Nil: Bulletin de la société pour l’étude des cultures prépharaoniques
de la vallée du Nil
ASCS Australasian Society for Classical Studies
BIFAO Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale
CR Centennial Review
DE Discussion in Egyptology
ENiM Égypte nilotique et méditerranéenne
GM Göttinger Miszellen
HTR Harvard Theological Review
HR History of Religions
JAA Journal of African Archaeology
JAAR Journal of the American Academy of Religion
JANER Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt
JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
JEOL Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Gezelschap ‘Ex Oriente Lux’
VI
JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JSAS Journal of the Serbian Archaeological Society
JSRC Jerusalem Studies in Religion and Culture
JSSEA Journal of the society of the Study of Egyptian Antiquities
LÄ Lexikon der Ägyptologie
LingAeg Lingua Aegyptia
MÄS Münchner Ägyptologishce Studien
MDAIK Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts
MIFAO Mémoires publies par les membres de L’Institut français d’archéologie
orientale du Caire
OBO Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis
OIP Oriental Institute Publications
OLA Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta
RdE Revue d’Égyptologie
RHR Revue de l'Histoire de Religions
SAK Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur
SAOC Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilisation
xi
SAWW Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Phil.hist.
Klasse
SPAW Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil-hist.
Klasse
UGAÄ Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens
VA Varia Aegyptiaca
ZÄS Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskude
ABREVIATIONS OF PYRAMID TEXT LOCATIONS:
ROOMS: B Burial chamber
Bs Burial chamber, sarcophagus
P Passageway between the burial chamber and the antechamber
A Antechamber
SP Passageway between the antechamber and the serdab
C Corridor
Cs Corridor, south section
Cm Corridor, middle section
Cn Corridor, north section
V Vestibule
APs Ascending passageway, south section
APn Ascending passageway, north section
WALLS, SECTIONS, REGISTERS: /E East wall
/Eg East wall, gable
/Eh East wall, horizontal
/iB Interior bottom
/iE Interior east wall
/iL Interior lid
/iN Interior north wall
/iS Interior south wall
/iW Interior west wall
/N North wall
/Ne North wall, east end
/Nw North wall, west end
/Nwh North wall, west end, horizontal
/S South wall
/Se South wall, east end
/Sw South wall, west end
/Swh South wall, west end, horizontal
/W West wall
/Wg West wall, gable
/Wh West wall, horizontal
A-F Sections
i-v Registers
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
: INTRODUCTION 1.1
During the late Old Kingdom the pyramids of the kings and queens were inscribed with
a set of texts designed to maintain their existence in the afterlife for all eternity. These
are now known as the Pyramid Texts. They remained in use from the reign of Unis in
Dynasty 5 until the end of the Old Kingdom and also are attested in private tombs of the
Middle Kingdom.1 They have been found in the pyramids of ten kings and queens thus
far at Saqqara; Unis, Teti, Pepi I, Ankhesenpepi II, Merenre, Pepi II, Neith, Iput II,
Wedjebetni and Ibi.2 Comprising the oldest corpus of Egyptian religious texts they are
the most important textual source for the study of early Egyptian thought, belief and
cult practice. The Pyramid Texts appear in the reign of Unis essentially fully formed,
with alterations and additions made to each corpus, particularly during the reign of
Pepi I. Their origins lie in the oral discourse of the Memphite and Heliopolitan
theologians, although some texts surely predate this, and through a process of
entextualisation were made concrete in the pyramids. This appears to have coincided
with the rise in Heliopolitan thought, which is central to the Pyramid Texts overall. The
process of entextualisation3 is crucial for understanding their origins. It refers to any
practice of transforming oral discourse into a textual form. This transformed the
1 Antonio Morales, “The Transmission of the Pyramid Texts into the Middle Kingdom:
Philological Aspects of a Continuous Tradition in Egyptian Mortuary Literature” (PhD diss.,
University of Pennsylvania, 2013). 2 Due to the state of preservation and publication of the majority of the Queen’s pyramids this
study has focussed on the pyramids of the kings and also that of Neith, the best preserved
pyramid of a queen. The texts of all the pyramids have been included in the appendicies of this
study for completeness. 3 This process is expanded upon in 1.4: Theory and Methodology.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
2
mortuary recitations of both Memphite and Heliopolitan origins into writing during the
Fifth Dynasty. This appears to have been initiated by the priestly class for the benefit of
the king’s existence in the afterlife. The majority of texts analysed in this study reflect
the Heliopolitan sacerdotal tradition. That is, the priestly oral discourse, which made its
primary concern the events surrounding Osiris.
The function of the Pyramid Texts, in common with all mortuary literature, was to
enable the deceased, primarily the king, to become an akh through the uniting of the ba
and the ka after their separation from the body.4 Their ritual origin has imposed upon
them a form that lends itself to short statements without specific details. Indeed much
of the cultural knowledge needed to understand the Pyramid Texts is lacking.5
Nevertheless, it must be kept in mind that the monumentalisation of the texts separated
them from their ritual. They were primarily a silent codification of well-known ritual,
designed to encapsulate the tomb of the king but not necessarily be read aloud.6 The
thoughts rather than the ritual actions of the ancient Egyptians take precedence in this
study, while keeping in mind their ritual nature, which affects their form and function.
4 Harold Hays, The Organization of the Pyramid Texts: Typology and Distribution, 2 vols. (Leiden and
Boston: Brill, 2012), 1; James Allen, The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts, Writings from the Ancient
World 23 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005), 7-8; Winfried Barta, Die Bedeutung der
Pyramidentexte für den verstorbenen König (München: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1981), 104-105. 5 Chris Eyre, The Cannibal Hymn: A Cultural and Literary Study (Liverpool: Liverpool University
Press, 2002), 3 suggests that a solution could be sought in anthropological studies focusing on the
choice and meaning of words, mythical allusions, symbolic forms of reference and ideological
context. 6 On the connection between the Pyramid Texts and the funeral see Hartwig Altenmüller, Die
Texte zum Begräbnisritual in den Pyramiden des Alten Reiches, ÄA 24 (Wisenbaden: Otto
Harrassowitz, 1972). See also Hays, Organization, 1:36; Harold Hays, “Funerary rituals (Pharaonic
Period),” in UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, ed. Jacco Dieleman and Willeke Wedndrich, Los
Angeles 2010. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1r32g9zn; Jennifer Hellum “The Presence of Myth
in the Pyramid Texts,” in Egyptology in Australia and New Zealand 2009: Proceedings of the
Conference held in Melbourne September 4th-6th, ed. Christian Knoblauch and James Gill (Oxford:
BAR 2012), 41-46.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
3
This study seeks to intervene in the long standing debate concerning the late
development of myth in ancient Egypt. Myth is a difficult phenomenon to understand
in many cultures but it proves especially so for ancient Egypt. The juxtaposition of a full
pantheon of gods, and the absence of narrative myths about them in the textual record,
has created the perception that the ancient Egyptians had no myth until at least the
Middle Kingdom, and more likely the New Kingdom. While scholarship has begun to
recognise the complex nature of myth in ancient Egypt, even exploring the idea of non-
narrative myth, widespread agreement on the form of mythic thought and its
appearance in textual sources is lacking. This study provides a mediating voice to the
divergent scholarship, in which the usefulness of restrictive definitions to our
understanding is challenged. The centrality of the myth of Osiris to the Pyramid Texts
enables a detailed study of its form and the mechanisms of its incorporation into the
royal mortuary religious texts of the Old Kingdom. In undertaking a re-examination of
the material present in the Pyramid Texts, one of the primary aims of this study is to
determine to what extent the existence of a mythic structure can be determined, and
what form it took.
: HISTORY OF SCHOLARSHIP 1.2
The Pyramid Texts have been the subject of ongoing study7 since their discovery in 1880
by Maspero8 and original publication by Sethe.9 More recently, there has been much
7 The most comprehensive bibliography on the Pyramid Texts is Hays, Organization, 2:691-712.
See also, Allen, Pyramid Texts, 419-420; Erik Hornung, The Ancient Egyptian Books of the Afterlife,
trans. David Lorton (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999), 159-162, Nadine Gilhou and Bernard
Mathieu, “Cent dix ans d’étude des Textes des Pyramides (1882-1996). Bibliographie,” in Études
sur l’Ancien Empire et la nécropole de Saqqâra dédiées à Jean-Philippe Lauer, ed. Catherine Berger and
Bernard Mathieu (Montpellier: Université Paul Valéry, 1997), 233-244. 8 Gaston Maspero, Les Inscriptions des Pyramides de Saqqarah (Paris: Bouillon, 1894). See also,
Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids. The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt’s Great Monuments (New
York: Grove Press, 2001) 39-41; Ronald Ridley, “The Discovery of the Pyramid Texts,” ZÄS 110
(1983): 74-80.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
4
work on reconstructing the fragmentary pyramids by the MAFS.10 This work has added
a wealth of information to the largely fragmentary nature of the Pyramid Texts;
however, it must be noted that the full publication of the texts of the pyramid of
Merenre is still lacking. With this new information regarding the Pyramid Texts,
studies such as the current project are in a far better position to analyse the material.
Additionally, there have been numerous translations of the texts.11 A review of the
literature is instructive before this study commences, in order to understand fully the
theory with which this project engages. First, the treatment and definition of myth will
be explored from the perspective of general studies. The task of defining myth has been
attempted many times over and so an overview of these attempts is needed. Then, the
concept of myth can be analysed from an Egyptological point of view, highlighting the
problems that have arisen from past analyses and definitions of myth in ancient Egypt.
9 Kurt Sethe, Die Altägyptischen Pyramidentexte nach den Papierabdrücken und Photographien des
Berliner Museums (Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1908). 10 Jean Leclant et al., Les Textes de la Pyramide de Pépy Ier, 2nd ed. MIFAO 118 (Le Caire: Institut
Français d'Archéologie Orientale, 2010); Élise Bène, “Les Textes de la paroi nord de la chamber
funéraire de la pyramide de Téti,” in Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Egyptologists,
ed. Jean Claude Goyon and Christine Cardin (Leuven: Peeters, 2007), 1:167-182; Catherine Berger-
El Naggar, “Des Textes des Pyramides sur papyrus dans les archives du temple funéraire de Pépy
Ier,” in D’un monde à l’autre: Texts des pyramides et textes des sarcophages, ed. Susanne Bickel and
Bernard Mathieu (Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 2004), 85-88; Bernard Mathieu,
“Modifications de texte dans la pyramide d’Ounas,” BIFAO 96 (1996): 289-311; Jean Leclant, “Pépi
Ier, VI: à propos des §§ 1726 a-c, 1915 et *2223 a-c des Textes des Pyramides,” in Mélanges Gamal
Eddin Mokhtar, ed. P. Posner-Kriéger (Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 1985), 2:83-
92; Jean Leclant, “À la pyramide de Pépi I, la paroi Nord du passage A-F,” RdE 27 (1975): 137-149. 11 Claude Carrier, Textes des Pyramides de l’Égypte ancienne. 6 vols (Paris: Éditions Cybele, 2009-
2010); Allen, Pyramid Texts; Raymond Faulkner, The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1969); Alexandre Piankoff, The Pyramid of Unas (Princeton: Princeton University
press, 1968); Samuel Mercer, The Pyramid Texts in Translation and Commentary I-VI (New York:
Longmans, 1952); Kurt Sethe, Übersetzung und Kommentar zu den Altägyptischen Pyramidentexten, 4
vols. (Glückstadt: J. J. Augustin, 1935). It should be noted that all translations in this study are the
authors’.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
5
: MONOMYTHIC INTERPRETATIONS OF MYTH 1.2.1
Mythic discourse truly exploded in the late Nineteenth Century with the Victorian
preoccupation with the ‘savage’, the Other, who was seen as the antithesis to the
advanced culture of Western Europe. In order to understand the ‘savage’ their myths
were most commonly analysed. This in turn led to five major approaches in dealing
with myth that are still utilised in modern myth scholarship.
- Comparativism
- Psychoanalysis
- Functionalism
- Ritualism
- Structuralism
Comparativism seeks material from different cultures in order to explain the origins of
myth, excluding any explanation of the social or symbolic content. This school of
thought, most notably evident in the work of Frazer,12 lacks context for the explanation
12 James Frazer, Folklore in the Old Testament (London: Macmillan, 1919); James Frazer, The Golden
Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (London: Macmillan, 1959). See also William Robertson
Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (Edinburgh: A. and C. Black, 1889), who follows the
comparative method but on a regional scale before moving global unlike the purely global scale
of Frazer. Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1968) undertakes a comparative analysis of myths in order to ascertain the universal
symbolism contained within them. F. Max Müller, Chips from a German Workshop, (London:
Longmans, 1868) reflects a subset of the comparative approach often termed the mythopoeic as
he focuses on the mythic language of the Vedas in order to understand Greek myths. Likewise,
Ernst Cassirer, The Logic of the Cultural Sciences, trans. S. G. Lofts (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 2000) who argues that the creation of myth was an end in itself as myth was just a way of
using language for expressive purposes. While the comparative approach has come under heavy
criticism it still remains in modern scholarship. Alan Dundes “The Anthropologist and the
Comparative Method in Folklore,” Journal of Folklore Research 23, 2/3 (1986): 125-146, asserts the
usefulness of the Finnish method of comparative study and Robert Segal, “In Defense of the
Comparative Method,” Numen 48, 3 (2001): 339-373 who offers a persuasive argument for the
usefulness of Frazer and Smith’s version of comparativsim. See also, Howard Eilberg-Scwartz,
The Savage in Judaism: An Anthropology of Israelite Religion and Ancient Judaism, (Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1990); Wendy Doniger, The Implied Spider: Politics and Theology in Myth
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
6
of myth, assuming that all societies develop in the same way across space and time.
More troubling is the insistence on the sameness of myth, the implication that all myth
is derived from the same ideas that the existence of an Ur-myth implies. Freudian and
Jungian thought have pervaded myth scholarship with the notion that myth is reflective
of the unconscious.13 While the two approaches differ remarkably in their focus either
on the individual in Freudian thought, or on society as a whole in Jungian scholarship,
they both see in myth the psychological workings of people. The value of this approach
is clear,14 but used in isolation it fails to take into account the disparity of cognitive
function in different myths, that some might bear upon psychological matters more than
others.15
13 Sigmund Freud, The Interpretations of Dreams, (New York: Macmillan, 1951); The Standard Edition
of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, ed. James Strachey et al., vol. 9, Delusions and
Dreams in Jensen’s Gradvia (1907 [1906]) (London: Hogarth Press, 1959), 141-154; The Collected
Works of C. G. Jung, ed. Gerhard Adler et al., trans. R. F. C. Hull, vol. 9/2, Aion: Researches into the
Phenomonology of the Self (London: Routledge and Kegan, 1959); The Collected Works of C. G. Jung,
vol. 6, Psychological Types (London: Routhledge and Kegan, 1971), 510-523. See also Robert Segal,
Jung on Mythology (London: Routledge, 1998); Andrew Samuels, Jung and the Post Jungians
(London: Routledge, 1985). For cogent critiques on the theories see Susan Sontag, Against
Interpretation and Other Essays (New York: Picador, 1966) and Jack Carloye, “Myth as Religious
Explanations,” JAAR 48, 2 (1980): 175-189. 14 Alan Dundes, “Earth Diver: Creation of the Mythopoeic Male,” American Anthropologist: New
Series 64, 5 (1962): 1032-1051 who clearly shows the value that a psychological approach can
contribute to the understanding of a myth. 15 The dialogue between A. Dundes and S. Hollis regarding the Late Egyptian story of the Two
Brothers is indicative of the importance placed on psychology to the exclusion of all other modes
of interpretation. Alan Dundes, “Projective Inversion in the Ancient Egyptian “Tale of the Two
Brothers”,” Journal of American Folklore 115, 457/458 (2002): 378-394; Susan T. Hollis, “Continuing
Dialogue with Alan Dundes Regarding the Ancient Egyptian “Tale of the Two Brothers”,” Journal
of American Folklore, 116, 460 (2003): 212-216.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
7
The function of myth on a sociological level has been the focus of Functionalism since its
development by Durkheim.16 Instead of studying myths for their content, functionalism
seeks to explain their use within a society. In this way they reflect social values and
structures and thus help to codify morality and maintain the solidarity of a group of
people. Myth strengthens tradition within a society by tracing its roots back to a higher
supernatural reality. These theories often over-emphasise the sociological level of a
myth and lose the individual.17 They also cannot account for social customs that
continue even after the meaning behind them is lost.18
The primacy of ritual in its relationship with myth has been the focus of Ritualism.19
16 Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, trans. Joseph Swain (New York:
Dover Publications, 1915) who argued that myth expressed in word what ritual did through
action and that myth reflected social values. Bronislaw Malinowski, Magic, Science and Religion
and Other Essays (New York: Doubleday, 1954) follows the functionalist views of Durkheim but
differs by focussing on a pragmatic view of myth in that it served as a foundation for and warrant
of its customs and institutions. See also William Goode, Religion Among the Primitives (London:
Collier-Macmillan, 1951); Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic books,
1973); Clyde Kluckhohn, “Myths and Rituals: A General Theory,” HTR 35, 1 (1942): 45-79; W.
Comstock, The Study of Religion and Primitive Religion (New York: Harper and Row, 1972). 17 For critiques of the functionalist approach see Ian Jarvie, The Revolution in Anthropology
(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964) who states that functionalism cannot account for
social change. Hans Penner, “The Poverty of Functionalism,” HR 11, 1 (1971): 91-97 argues that
the theory is not a valid theory of religion at all. 18 J. Cocker, “Ceremonial Masks,” in Celebration: Studies in Festivity and Ritual, ed. Victor Turner
(Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1982), 78. 19 The likes of Smith, The Religion of the Semites; Frazer, The Golden Bough and Aylward Blackman
and Samuel Hooke, Myth and Ritual: Essays on the Myth and Ritual of the Hebrews in Relation to the
Culture pattern of the Ancient Near East (London: Oxford University Press, 1933) can be seen as
precursors to ritualism proper. The clearest framing of the school of thought is given by Jane
Harrison, Themis: A Study of the Social Origins of Greek Religion (New York: Meridian Books, 1963).
Harrison provides a complex account of myth as an explanation for ritual arising at a time after
the original reason is lost. See also, Jane Harrison, The Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908); Edmund Leach, Political Systems of Highland
Burma: A study of Kachin Social Structure (London: Athlone Press, 1954) who argues that myth and
ritual are both different methods of communicating the same message; Lord Raglan, “Myth and
Ritual,” in Myth: A Symposium, ed. Thomas Sebeok (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1958),
76-83 defends the position of the ritual school arguing that myth is needed to validate rite though
the stating of the details of the rite; Robert Graves, The Greek Myths (Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1960) states that myth can only be defined as the reduction to narrative shorthand of ritual. A
broadening of ritualism can be seen in Kluckhohn, “Myths and Rituals” and Dabney Townsend
Jr., “Myth and Meaning,” CR 16, 2 (1972): 192-203.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
8
Myths considered this way are explanations of ritual. They provide a reason for
performing a rite, often arising in response to the disappearance of the original reason.
The strict correlation between myth and ritual asserts the dominance of ritual that it
does not necessarily deserve. The high degree of variability between societies will
inevitably mean that the importance of ritual and myth will differ greatly between
them.20 If ritualism highlights an important aspect of myth, it cannot provide the only
reason for its existence; myth could have an efficacy of its own.
Structuralism attempts to analyse myth in terms of the way in which its message is
conveyed, its medium rather than its message.21 This approach focusses on finding the
‘deep’ or embedded structures that underlie those on the ‘surface’. The significance of a
myth is seen not in the narrative itself but in the structure. This type of analysis is based
on the assumption that myth is a misunderstood language and needs decoding.22 It
20 For a critique of the ritual approach see Joseph Fontenrose, The Ritual Theory of Myth (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1971) who argues against the strict correlation between myth and
ritual using the Enuma Elish text read during the Babylonian New Year festival to demonstrate
that it has no correlation with ritual acts. See also Paul Veyne, Did the Greek Believe their Myths?:
An Essay on the Constitutive Imagination (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983) who states
that very few myths actually explain rites; Geoffrey Kirk, The Nature of Greek Myths
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974) who argues the great variability of societies means that the
importance of ritual would vary between them. 21 The first formulation of structuralism comes from Vladimir Propp, Morphology of the Folktale
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968) who looked at folktales proper and noticed that different
content could perform the same function in stories. The classic formulation of the theory is by
Claude Lévi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest
Schoepf (Middlesex: Penguin, 1993). See also, Claude Lévi-Strauss, “The Structural Study of
Myth,” in Myth: A Symposium, ed. Thomas Sebeok (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1958),
50-66; Claude Lévi-Strauss, “The Story of Asidiwal,” in Structuralism in Myth: Lévi-Strauss, Barthes,
Dumézil and Propp, ed. Robert Segal (New York: Garland, 1996), 135-183; Bob Scholte, “The
Structural Anthropology of Claude Lévi-Strauss,” in Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology,
ed. John Honnigman (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1973), 637-716 who gives a worthy summary of
the theory. 22 Peter Munz, When the Golden Bough Breaks: Structuralism or Typology? (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul, 1973), 16
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9
imposes its own logic onto texts, rather than discovering it in them.23 The insistence that
myth behaves in this way at all times assumes too much sameness between societies.
Despite their differences these approaches share one similarity, they each insist upon
one single definition of myth; for example, myth contains aspects of the psyche, or myth
is ritual. Their multiplicity, on the other hand, points to the diversity of myth itself and
that there can be no one definition.24 Myths differ greatly in their form and function
across societies and the same text can be read by different people with different
approaches and result in different interpretations.25 A restrictive definition leads to a
restrictive view of myth characterised by the statement “myth is”. Myth can perform
different functions simultaneously and be instilled with multiple layers of meaning
designed to increase its effectiveness. More recently, scholars have identified the
diverse functions and flexible nature of myth in their approaches, termed
polyfunctionality. Myths may undergo many transformations during their transmission
resulting in several classifications at one time.26 This suggests a need to move away
from monomythic interpretations. Kirk27 argues for the multifunctionality of Greek
myth, emphasising the fact that there can be no single comprehensive theory of myth.
Similarly, Birrell says of Chinese myth that it can be read in many different ways and at
23 William Doty, Mythography: The Study of Myths and Rituals (Tuscaloosa and London: The
University of Alabama Press, 2000), 282. For other critiques see Geoffrey Kirk, Myth, Its Meaning
and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), 49 who
argues that Lévi-Strauss only uses myths from totemistic societies rather than Semitic, pre-
Hellenic or Indo-European societies where myth might work differently; Jack Goody, The
Domestication of the Savage Mind (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1977), 105, who argues
that a system of interpretation, such as a list, can only be rendered through writing and is thus
transformed. In describing myth Lévi-Strauss does not account that his own system of
interpretation is also a product of language and is thus transformed through language. 24 Kirk, Nature of Greek Myths, 7. 25 Lawrence Grossberg, “Is There a Fan in the House? The Affective Sensibility of Fandom,” in The
Adoring Audience, ed. Lisa Lewis (London: Routledge, 1992), 52. 26 Doty, Mythography, 37 27 Kirk, Nature of Greek Myths, 171
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10
different levels.28 The forward to her volume on the problem of Chinese myth reads like
a coherent statement of the problem in Egypt:
For a long time…people had thought that China had a dearth of myth, or they even
considered that China was a nation that had no myths at all…. China did not enjoy
the phenomenon of gifted poets like Homer and Hesiod of the ninth and eighth
centuries B.C., who retold ancient myths in an eloquent literary mode. In the
Chinese case, myths at first appeared in a piecemeal fashion, in a variety of versions,
fragmented and truncated, and were collated as mythological material only fairly
late, if at all…In their very diversity,…the myths have been used by a great many
different authors. Significantly, they have been used piecemeal, and so they have
not suffered a complete reworking at the hands of literary authors or others. One
might argue that in their present fragmentary state, preserved in a large number of
classical books, they must appear as Greek and Roman myths once did before
Homer, Hesiod or even Ovid transformed, reshaped, and rewrote them. 29
Likewise, Goebs sees in Egyptian myth a flexible nature that could adapt and change
depending on the context, but that was nevertheless contingent on an underlying
structure.30 This variability and adaptability allowed myth to be useful in a variety of
contexts. Thus, a definition must be kept broad reflecting the variable nature of myth;31
although it must be kept in mind that an over broad definition can run the risk of
28 Anne Birrell, Chinese Mythology: an Introduction (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins
University Presss, 1993), 20. On the polyfunctionality of myth see Christianne Sourvinou-
Inwood, “Myths in Images: Theseus and Medea as a Case Study,” in Approaches to Greek Myth, ed.
Ordered Universe: Approaches to the Anthropology of Religion (Boulder, Westview, 1995), 126. 29 Yuan K’o, forward to Chinese Mythology, by Anne Birrell (Baltimore and London: The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1993), xi-xii. 30 Katja Goebs, “A Functional Approach to Egyptian Myth and Mythemes,” JANER 2, 1 (2002): 42. 31 An example of this type of definition can be found in Doty, Mythography, 33-34.
CHAPTER ONE
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11
straying to the opposite extreme of the monomythic, skating over the significant
differences between myths.32 By their very nature definitions are restrictive by being
exterior to the phenomenon they seek to explain.33 The definition of Fishbane, from his
work on Rabbinic myth, provides an example of a definition that is both broad enough
and restrictive enough to describe the phenomenon adequately:
We shall understand the word ‘Myth’ to refer to sacred and authoritative accounts
of the deeds and personalities of the gods and heroes during the formative events of
primordial times, or during the subsequent historical interventions or actions of
these figures which are constitutive for the founding of a given culture and its
rituals.34
EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES: THE PROBLEM OF NARRATIVE 1.2.2
Within Egyptology, a significant amount of scholarship has been devoted to attempting
to understand myth. Early treatments assumed the existence of myth, endeavouring to
reconstruct cults and their myths based on the fragmentary evidence.35 Later
scholarship has suggested a late development of Egyptian myth; an idea which has only
recently begun to change. Schott was the first to formulate this notion, arguing that
there was no myth in Egypt during predynastic times, and that only traces could be
32 Milton Scarborough, Myth and Modernity: Postcritical Reflections (New York: The State University
or New York Press, 1994), 29. 33 Lawrence Hatab, Myth and Philosophy: A Contest of Truths (La Salle: Open Court, 1990), 17. 34 Michael Fishbane, Biblical and Rabbinic Mythmaking (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 11. 35 Heinrich Brugsch, Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter (Leipzig: J.C. Heinrichs 1891); Kurt
Sethe, Urgeschichte und älteste Religion der Ägypter (Leipzig: DMG, 1930), who argues that myths
could be mapped onto actual historical events. This has been largely criticised but has received
some positive attention from J. G. Griffiths, The Conflict of Horus and Seth from Egyptian and
Classical Sources: A Study in Ancient Mythology (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1960);
Herman Kees, Der Götterglaube im alten Ägypten (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1941); Rudolf Anthes,
“Remarks on the Pyramid Texts and the Early Egyptian Dogma,” JAOS 74, 1 (1954): 35-39; Rudolf
Anthes, “Egyptian Theology in the Third Millenium B.C.,” JNES 18, 3 (1959): 169-212, who argues
that the Osiris cycle originates from the family tree of the gods in turn originating from the
coronation ritual; J. G. Griffiths, The Origin of Osiris and his Cult (Leiden: Brill, 1980), who assumes
the existence of the myth and analyses it using classical sources.
CHAPTER ONE
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12
found in the Pyramid Texts.36 Schott examined the use of demonstrative pronouns in
the Pyramid Texts, observing that the later corpora used pronouns indicating a further
distance ‘there’, compared to the earlier use indicating a close distance ‘here’. For Schott
this was proof that over time the gods withdrew from being immediate in ritual, to
existing in a mythical realm, which was established at the same time.37 He imposed a
chronological order on different genres of early religious38 texts but failed to recognise
that all of the genres he identified were already present in the Pyramid Texts of Unis.
Ultimately his exposition of early Egyptian religion is based on the unfounded
assumption of the distancing of the world of the gods. Otto39 differs in his approach,
questioning the assumptions held by Schott and focusing on the actual usage of myth in
ritual. Although differing from Schott in the reasons for the operation of myth, he
nevertheless ascribes to a similar theory. For Otto, myth explains ritual, once the
original meaning was changed or forgotten. Rituals begin without reference to myth
and over time incorporate myth until they become re-enactments in the Late Period.
Despite this weakness, the most important contribution of Otto’s work is his notion of
permanent or fixed aspects within a flexible mythology. These mythic schemata or
constellations encapsulate the relations between actors, for example in the Mother-Son
scheme.40
36 Siegfried Schott, “Spruen der Mythenbildung,” ZÄS 78 (1942): 1-27; Siegfried Schott, Mythe und
Mythenbildung im alten Ägypten, UGAÄ 15 (Hildesheim: G. Olms, 1964). See also, Günter
Rudnitsky, Die Aussage über "das Auge des Horus": eine altägyptische Art geistiger Äusserung nach
dem Zeugnis des Alten Reiches (Copenhagen: Munksgaard,1956); Hubert Roeder, “Ägyptisches und
Ägyptologisches zum “Auge des Horus”,”GM 138 (1994): 37-69, who all align with Schott in his
assertion of the primacy of ritual over myth. 37 Schott, Mythe und Mythenbildung, 33-34. See also Hanna Jenni, “The Old Egyptian
Demonstratives pw, pn and pf,” LingAeg 17 (2009): 119-137, who concludes differently. 38 Schott, Mythe und Mythenbildung, 28-54. 39 Eberhard Otto, Das Verhältnis von Rite und Mythus im Ägyptischen, SAHW. 1958, no. 1
(Heidelberg: Winter 1958). 40 Otto, Das Verhältnis von Rite, 26.
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13
The work of Assmann has had the most profound effect on scholarship. He argues that
none of the allusions to myth found in the early literature have a fixed structure that
would allow the identification of myth.41 Assmann attempts a rethinking of the concept
of myth as it applies to Egypt, rather than using preconceived model of interpretation
based on literary myths from Greek and Roman sources. He rigidly defines myth as
narrative. Furthermore, the narrative qualities he imposes on myth are considerable;
myth must be told in sequential episodes that are logically or causally linked through
the actions of the actors or gods, who must have motives for their actions. In order for
this to happen, the gods must be anthropomorphic or at least have human motives and
since myths are set in the past, there must be an ontological distance between the
human world and the gods. For Assmann, these conditions are only met in the Middle
Kingdom, and then only fully in the late New Kingdom, the period in which the
Contendings of Horus and Seth originated; this text satisfies all the criteria for it to be
considered myth by Assmann. While most scholars have accounted for the limited
number of mythic narratives by postulating the existence of an oral tradition, Assmann
rules out myth entirely even in the oral domain. Instead of myth, he opts to use his own
formulation of the constellation; groupings of deities and the relations between them.42
According to Assmann these constellations do not amount to narrative themselves but
might be used as episodes in a mythic narrative. An example would be the Father-Son
constellation, which is structured around the funerary cult, where the duties of the
funeral were taken care of by the eldest son of the deceased.43 Mythically, this is
41 Jan Assmann, “Die Verborhenheit des Mythos in Agypten,” GM 25 (1977): 7-43 42 Assmann, “Die Verborgenheit,” 14. This term is adopted from Otto but defined differently.
This conception changed slightly in a later article to be termed Icon, Jan Assmann, “Die Zeugung
des Sohnes: Bild, Spiel, Erzählung und das Problem des ägyptischen Mythos,” in Funktionen und
Leistungen des Mythos: Drei altorientalische Beispiele, ed. Jan Assmann, Walter Burkert and F. Stolz,
OBO 48 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1982). 43 Jan Assmann, Stein und Zeit Mensch und Gesellschaft im alten Ägypten (München: Wilhelm Fink
Verlag, 1991), 128-134.
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14
expressed in statements referring to Osiris and Horus, but what differs between the
mythical constellation and a narrative myth is that the action takes place in the present.
Assmann is not clear how mythical narratives are supposed to have developed from
this. Evidently, once the identities of the gods filling the roles in the constellation
became fixed and several constellations were ordered and thought of as being in the
past, then mythical narratives could exist. This does not happen on the level of the text
but on a new higher order structure called the genotext, which can then be realised on
the level of the phenotext as a non-narrative mythical statement or eventually as
narrative myth.44 Rather than narrative myths appearing as a new way of explaining
older concepts, Assmann stresses the notion that narrative myths were a completely
new phenomenon in the Middle Kingdom. They rethought the entire notion of the
divine world. Into this system Assmann later introduces the notion of the icon instead
of constellation.45 In his later article, iconicity refers to the non-narrative core of myths,
the exact opposite of constellations in his first article. Myths are made of icons and
myths take the form of stories.46 Assmann is variously criticised for his narrow
definitions and appraisal of early evidence.47
44 Assmann, “Die Verborgenheit,” 39. 45 Assmann, “Die Zeugung.” See also Jan Assmann, Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom: Re,
Atum and the Crisis of Polytheism, trans. Anthony Alcock (London and New York: Kegan Paul
International, 1995), 38-39. 46 Jan Assmann, The Search for God in Ancient Egypt, trans. David Lorton (Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 2001), 112. 47 See the critique of John Baines, “Egyptian Myth and Discourse: Myth, Gods and the Early
Written and Iconographic Record,” JNES 50 (1991): 83-92.
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15
Building upon his work on the concept of decorum,48 the rules governing what could be
depicted or written, where, and by whom, Baines proceeds to discuss the idea of myth.
He counters the arguments of Assmann, effectively arguing that anthropomorphism
and a distance between the world and the gods were not needed in order for myths to
exist.49 Baines also differs in his conception of myth, calling it a centrally sacred
narrative.50 In this he dispenses with the restrictive notions of Assmann, preferring to
say that narrative is transitive; that the situation at the end differs from the situation at
the beginning.51 Baines questions the importance of myth to the overall religious
schema of the Old Kingdom, when ritual texts show a preference for lists, tables and
encyclopedic knowledge. Further to this, in his discussion of the relationship of myth
and literature, Baines asserts the importance of narrative as a quality for the
identification of possible examples of myth; however, he goes on to say that the form of
a myth’s realisation does not need to display much narrative coherence. He thus makes
a distinction between a myth and its realisation.52
48 The term was first used in Egyptology by John Baines, “Temple Symbolism,” Royal
Anthropological Institute News 15 (1976): 10-15. See also, John Baines, “Restricted Knowledge,
Hierarchy, and Decorum: Modern Perceptions and Ancient Institutions,” JARCE 27 (1990): 20
where decorum is defined as “a set of rules and practises defining what may be represented
pictorially with caption, displayed, and possibly written down”; John Baines, “Society, Morality,
and Religious Practise,” in Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths and Personal Practise, ed. Byron
Shafer (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1991), 123-200; John Baines, “Prehistories of
Literature: Performance, Fiction, Myth,” in Definitely: Egyptian Literature: Proceedings of the
symposium “Ancient Egyptian literature: history and forms”, Los Angeles, March 24-26, 1995, ed.
Gerald Moers (Göttingen: Lingua Aegyptia, 1995), 17-41; Heather Lee McCarthy and Heather
McCarthy, “The Osiris Nefertari: A Case Study of Decorum, Gender, and Regeneration,” JARCE
39 (2002): 173-195. 49 Baines, “Egyptian Myth,” 91-92; 97-98. 50 Baines, “Egyptian Myth,” 91. See also his comments in John Baines, “Myth and Literature,” in
Ancient Egyptian Literature: History and Forms, ed. Antonio Loprieno. (New York: E. J. Brill, 1996),
Continuing this line, Baines offers three criteria of myth: first, myths do not frequently
incorporate humanity, instead they explain how current world came to be and so their
temporal setting must precede the present. Second, the context of the cosmos as a whole
must also include its eventual destruction. Third, material central to the Egyptian
understanding of the world did not have a narrative character.53 These points do not
relate directly to the existence of myth, as Baines assumes its existence for early periods,
but argues that it was not the primary vehicle for the transmission of fundamental
beliefs and values. Instead, a pantheon in which variable, yet complementary, identities
could exist, provided a different way of comprehending reality. If the existence of myth
in the Old Kingdom appears solid, it remains to be seen how mythic thought was
actually characterised. Baines argues that we can have no access to myth, that any
single realisation of the narrative or the core elements transforms the myth.54 Some texts
might exhibit a large transformation, while others show relatively little and the task left
would be to investigate the variable relationship between myth and literature. Baines’
analysis focuses on literary texts rather than religious material and so the situation he
describes might not necessarily apply to the Pyramid Texts. Nevertheless, his assertion
of the primacy of narrative has had a lasting effect on scholarship,55 which might need
revision.
Bickel rejects the notion that a myth is inseparable from its narration, arguing for a
tableau of ideas.56 The formulations within the Pyramid Texts, such as speeches or
53 Baines, “Myth and Literature,” 365. 54 Baines, “Myth and Literature,” 375. 55 See for example, Vincent Tobin, “Divine Conflict in the Pyramid Texts,” JARCE 30 (1993): 93-
110; Jürgen Zeidler, “Zur Frage der Spätentstehung des Mythos in Ägypten,” GM 132 (1993): 85-
109. The prevalence of this notion has lead scholars such as Hays, Organization, 1:120 n. 485, to
comment “this is not at all to assert that the Pyramid Texts embody proper myths.” 56 Susanne Bickel, La Cosmogonie Égyptienne avant le Nouvel Empire, OBO 134, (Göttingen:
Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1994), 263-273.
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17
epithets, give details about the gods, but do not need to follow a structured and
immutable sequence as narrative would. Coherent mythological discourse is pointed to
by Willems as unnecessary, as each mythological statement should be studied in its own
context.57 Van Dijk disregards narrative in his definition of myth as:
A statement that seeks to explain social reality and human existence in symbolic
terms by referring to a world outside the human world and to events outside human
time, but that makes the present situation meaningful and acceptable and provides a
perspective on the future. 58
Myth is thus more complex and meaningful than a narrative. More recently Goebs,
following Assmann’s conceptions of the genotext and phenotext,59 suggests that a lack
of coherence on the phenotextual level would not preclude the idea of a coherent
genotext; although, this does not necessarily need to be the case.60 In using the idea of
cultural memory,61 she argues that myths could extract and adapt information from the
sum of cultural knowledge, which did not need to be formulated in a coherent
manner.62 Hellum alternatively suggests that myth in the Pyramid Texts comprised the
interaction between the physical walls of the pyramids and the writings upon them,
creating a sacred space within which mythic ideas could operate. In this formulation,
57 Harco Willems, The Coffin of Heqata (Cairo JdE 36418): A Case study of Egyptian Funerary Culture of
the Early Middle Kingdom (Leuven: Peeters, 1996), 324. 58 Jacobus Van Dijk, “Myth and Mythmaking in Ancient Egypt,” in Civilisations of the Ancient Near
East, ed. Jack Sasson (New York, 1995), 3:1699. 59 Assmann, “Die Verborgenheit,” 37-39. It should be noted that her conception differs slightly
from that of Assmann. 60 Katja Goebs, “Functional Approach to Myth,” 32. See also Katja Goebs, “Egyptian Mythos as
Logos: An Attempt at a Redefinition of ‘Mythical Thinking’,” in Decorum and Experience: Essays in
Ancient Culture for John Baines, ed. Elizabeth Frood and Angela McDonald (Oxford: Griffith
Institute, 2013), 127-134, in which she argues, using cognitive brain mapping, that mythical
thinking uses similar brain functions to the use of language and by extension that ‘mythical
thinking’ existed well in advance of narrative myth. 61 Jan Assmann, Das kulturelle Gedächtnis: Schrift, Erinnerung und politische Identität in früen
Hochkulturen (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1992). See also Jan Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten
Studies, trans. Rodney Livingstone (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006). 62 Katja Goebs, “Functional Approach to Myth,” 33.
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18
each aspect (religious, semiotic, architectural and literary), is vital to the function of the
texts overall in creating a non-narrative ‘metamyth’.63 This seems an attractive prospect
as it unifies the textual with the architectural in a cohesive statement, but it does not
allow for the texts to be myth in their own right. It is only in conjunction with the
architectural sacred space that the mythic allusions functioned.
The supposed late development of myth is based purely on the preserved literary
record, which makes it fundamentally implausible.64 The existence of myth in the Old
Kingdom seems to be on firm ground, what remains is the question of the form of myth
and mythic thought. The preceding discussion has demonstrated that definitions of
myth are numerous and varied, reflecting the nature of myth itself. Definitions are
largely exterior to the phenomena they describe and their usefulness can be quite
limited. More importantly, the discussion has highlighted the need to question the
notion that a myth is at its core, narrative. Mythic thought during the Old Kingdom
could have been comprised mainly of constellations, without the need for a narrative on
the textual or oral level. Conversely, it could have been characterised by narrative
structures on the oral level but non-narrative formulations on the textual. The question
remains open.
THE AIMS OF THE PRESENT STUDY 1.3
The shift in scholarship from the identification of myth within the Pyramid Texts, to the
exploration of its use has opened many avenues of research. A comprehensive study of
63 Jennifer Hellum, “Toward an Understanding of the Use of Myth in the Pyramid Texts,”
(forthcoming), Hellum makes three mythic ideas the focus of her investigation, the cosmography
of the sky, the aetiological perception of the sun’s movement through the sky and the myth of the
king’s ascent and progress through the sky. See also Jennifer Hellum, “Myth in the Pyramid
Texts”; Jennifer Hellum, “The Presence of Myth in the Pyramid Texts” (PhD diss., University of
Toronto, 2001). 64 Eyre, The Cannibal Hymn, 33 n. 12.
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19
the myth of Osiris, arguably the most important myth in Egyptian religion, is lacking in
regards to its appearance in the Pyramid Texts. In response to the above discussion, this
study sets out to investigate the appearance and use of the myth of Osiris in the
Pyramid Texts. More specifically, this study will test the notion that a myth is
essentially narrative. The primary focus will be an understanding of the mechanism of
incorporation of Osiris and events surrounding his death into the Pyramid Texts,
focussing on the form they take. Three research questions are central to this
examination:
- To what extent do the Pyramid Texts contain the myth of Osiris?
- What form does mythic thought take in the non-narrative texts?
- How was the myth of Osiris conceptualised in the Old Kingdom?
In order to answer these research questions this study has three major directions of
investigation. The first is the collection, translation and analysis of all the Pyramid Texts
pertaining to the events about the death of Osiris, particularly those mentioning his
relationships with other deities. This aim comprises the main analysis of this study and
has a further three research questions directing it:
- Which are the Pyramid Texts that convey the events and actions concerning
Osiris?
- What are the patterns of content seen within this group of texts?
- What information do the texts reveal about the events and actions surrounding
Osiris?
This collection of texts is unique within scholarship and allows the possibility of a
textual analysis in relation to myth and narrative. The analysis of the content of the
texts involves the establishing of criteria, for the classification of the texts within a wider
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20
schema. The emphasis of this aspect of the study is on the relationships between deities
that can be identified. These relationships comprise the building blocks, so to speak, of
the mythic ideas in the Pyramid Texts and are fundamental to our understanding of
mythic thought. It is understood that this form of classification is exterior to the internal
structure of the Pyramid Texts65 but it is proposed that grouping the texts in this way
may aid in understanding the importance that mythic motifs held.
The second direction of this study involves the notion that the identities in the Pyramid
Texts were fluid and variable; that different gods could undertake the same roles within
the actions or events being described.66 This section has two research questions:
- To what extent do the relationships between the deities exhibit variation?
65 There has been debate over the internal structure of the Pyramid Texts and how they are to be
read. Joachim Spiegel, Das Auferstehungsritual der Unas-Pyramide (Wisenbaden: Harrassowitz,
1972) developed the theory that the epigraphic chambers within the pyramid represented the
journey of the king to the sky with the burial chamber being equated to the Duat and the
antechamber to the Akhet. This is followed and expanded upon by James Allen, “Reading a
Pyramid,” in Hommages à Jean Leclant, ed. Jean Leclant et al. (Cairo: Institut Français
d’Archéologie Orientale, 1994), 1:5-28, who divides the corpus of texts in those which appear in
the burial chamber and consist of an offering ritual and resurrection texts and those that appear
in the antechamber and consist of texts designed to help the king in his journey to the Akhet;
David O’Connor, “The Interpretaion of the Old Kingdom Pyramid Complex,” in Stationen:
Beitra ge zur Kulturgeschichte A gyptens, Rainer Stadelmann gewidmet, ed. Heike Guksch and Daniel
Polz (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 1998), 135-144 who applies the same reading to the above
ground complex; Deborah Vischak, “Common Ground between Pyramid Texts and Old
Kingdom Tomb Design: The Case of Ankhmahor,” JARCE 40 (2003): 133-157 argues that the elite
during the Old Kingdom used the design of the tomb in order to reflect their views on the
afterlife and their journey through it; this idea was applied to anepigraphic royal pyramids by
Nils Billing, “Monumentalizing the Beyond: Reading the Pyramid before and after the Pyramid
Texts,” SAK 40 (2011): 53-66, following the ideas of Allen, Billing analyses the anepigraphic
pyramids pre and post-dating the use of the Pyramid Texts for mythological significance with the
conclusion that “mute” chambers would have had the same significance despite the lack of texts.
See also Harold Hays, “Unreading a Pyramid,” BIFAO 109 (2009): 195-220, who argues against
the interpretation of Allen as there are texts concerning the Duat and Akhet in both the burial
chamber and the antechamber rendering a cosmological reading of the tomb complex untenable. 66 Goebs, “Functional Approach to Myth”, who emphasises that the variability of myth in the
Pyramid Texts was underpinned by a structure that remained the same despite the differing
identities used within the texts. See also Baines, “Myth and Literature,” 364; Erik Hornung,
Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many (London: Routledge and Keegan Paul,
1983).
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21
- How does this variation, or lack of variation, inform on the use of the
relationships within the Pyramid Texts?
This aspect of the study will test the conception that before a canon was set down,
mythic ideas were fluid, and subject to variation during their initial formation.67 The
degree of variation, or non-variation, can point to the relative fixity or fluidity that an
idea held within the theology of priesthood. The reasons for this variation can inform
upon the purpose and form of myth in the Old Kingdom.
The study’s third course of analysis focuses on the patterns of distribution of these texts.
It is assumed that they were not placed randomly on the walls of the pyramid
substructure, and so through an in-depth analysis of the different groupings of texts as
well as their placement on the walls of the tombs, patterns can be discerned. Two
research questions inform this direction of study:
- What are the patterns of distribution that the texts concerning Osiris exhibit
within the Pyramid Text corpora?
- What do these patterns indicate about the use of the myth of Osiris?
This area of analysis relates primarily to the purpose of the texts within the Pyramid
Texts as well as within a wider context of elite Egyptian society. The consistency or
inconsistency of these patterns informs on the position that myth held within the texts
overall, in particular where the efficacy of the texts was felt to be most potent within the
tomb. These aspects of this study will converge to answer the main research questions
67 Doty, Mythography, 138. Doty distinguishes between three phases of vitality; primary myth,
implicit myth and rationalised myth. The first myth addresses itself to the needs of a society to
answer significant problems, there is no narrative and inconsistencies are often present. Implicit
myth sees the core story become widespread as orthodoxy is established. Rationalised myth
occurs when the original is no longer accepted, with new myths challenging the old world view,
the old myth is preserved through incorporation into the new understanding.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
22
regarding the form of myth and its purpose within the Pyramid Texts.
THEORY AND METHODOLOGY 1.4
In studying the appearance and use of myth in the Pyramid Texts, the process by which
the Pyramid Texts were founded provides a useful framework for the study overall.
This is the process of entextualisation, first used by Bauman and Briggs.68 It refers to
any process of transforming oral discourse into a textual form. In the case of the
Pyramid Texts this transformed the mortuary recitations associated with the funeral into
writing, fundamentally changing the use of the texts. According to Hays,69 neither the
sacerdotal nor the personal70 texts were composed for the purpose of tomb decoration.
They were derived from scripts to be recited in a ritual setting, and so their origins lay
in the cultic practise of ritual recitation on a collective (sacerdotal), and individual
(personal) level. 71 Through the process of editing, the primary aim of the texts shifted
from an oral, operative form, to a mute, static form. Their efficacy came not from the
68 Richard Bauman and Charles Briggs, “Poetics of Performance as Critical Perspectives of
Language and Social Life,” ARA 19 (1990): 59-88. The idea is utilised by Andrey Rosowsky,
“Religious Classical Practise: Entextualisation and Performance,” Language in Society 42 (2013):
307-330 with regards to religious classical practises in the United Kingdom. For its use in relation
to the Pyramid Texts see Harold Hays, Organization, 1:90-92 and 1:198-203; Morales,
“Transmission of the Pyramid Texts,” 10. 69 Hays, Organization, 1:202. 70 The distinction between these two types of texts is given below. 71 Hays, Organization, 1:252.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
23
power of the spoken word, but from the visual properties of the hieroglyphs.72 As such,
they are representations of ritual acts, a monumentalisation that takes the text into a
non-performative role.73 This is demonstrated effectively by Hays for the Offering
Ritual (Group A) and so by extension, the entire corpus of texts.74 This contradicts the
assertions of Assmann in his division of the Pyramid Texts into two categories,
Totenliturgien and Totenliteratur.75 The process by which the Pyramid Texts were
transformed from oral script to monumental inscription is important for understanding
their purpose, and thus any mythic thought held within them. The decision to adorn
the pyramid substructure of Unis at the end of Dynasty 5 signalled a shift in thought
and understanding by the priesthood. The choices made for the inclusion of material
72 Jan Assmann, “Creation through Hieroglyphs: The Cosmic Grammatology of Ancient Egypt,”
in The Poetics of Grammar and the Metaphysics of Sound and Sign ed. Sergio La Porta and David
Shulman, JSRC 6 (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2007), 17-34, who explores the power of creation that
language, spoken but above all written, had in ancient Egypt. See also Robert Ritner, The
Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice, SAOC 54 (Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1993), 36-
38, who makes the link between Egyptian magic and writing; Mark Smith, Traversing Eternity:
Texts for the Afterlife from Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 64-65
and 212, who argues that in Ptolemaic and Roman times, the presence of recitation spells in a
tomb was a guarantee of the ritual act. In anthropology it was Bronislaw Malinowski, Coral
Gardens and Their Magic: A Study of the Methods of Tilling the Soil and of Agricultural Rites in the
Trobriand Islands I (New York: American Book Company, 1935), 76-77, who first identified the
power of performative speech, followed by John Austin, How to do Things with Words, The
William James Lectures delivered at Harvard University 1955 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962).
Other scholars have followed the views of Austin about the illocutionary function of the word;
John Searle, Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language (London: Cambridge Press, 1969),
Stanley Tambiah, Culture, Thought, and Social Action: An Anthropological Perspective
(Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1985), 123-126 and Stanley Tambiah, “The Magical
Power of Words,” Man n.s. vol. 3 no. 2 (1968): 175-208. 73 That is not to say that the texts were not performed. It is highly likely that the oral
performative aspect of the texts was preserved in the cultic practise of the priesthood situated
above ground level. In the below ground context the Pyramid Texts were separated from this
tradition and so lost their performative aspect. 74 Hays, Organization, 1:90-92. 75 Jan Assmann, “Verklärung,”in LÄ 6, ed. Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto and Wolfhart
Wetendorf (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz, 1986), 998-1006; Jan Assmann, “Egyptian Mortuary
Liturgies,” in Studies in Egyptology Presented to Miriam Lichtheim, ed. Sarah Israelit-Groll
(Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1990) 1:2; Jan Assmann, Images et rites de la mort dans l’Égypte ancienne
l’apport des liturgies funéraires (Paris: Cybele, 2000) 31-32; Jan Assmann, Tod und Jenseits im alten
Ägypten (Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck, 2001) 322, 335 and 338; Jan Assmann, Altägyptische
Totenliturgien Band 1. Totenliturgien inden Sargtexten des Mittleren Reiches (Heidelberg:
Universitätsverlag C. Winter, 2002) 13 and 18.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
24
and placement on the walls of specific texts can help determine the relations between
content and the belief behind them. It is thus crucial for this study to maintain an
understanding of this theory and how it relates to mythic thought in the Old Kingdom.
The preceding discussion, on the history of Egyptological discussions on myth, has
highlighted a particular problem in the defining of the concept. That is, the primary
attribute of narrative. The growing scholarship exploring non-narrative myth suggests
that as a theoretical and methodological framework, narrative is inappropriate as a
defining characteristic of myth. This is the origin of the problem of the theory of the late
development of myth in ancient Egypt, and while much work has been done to rectify
this conception, the notion of narrative myth remains in much of scholarship. As a
means of testing this notion, in relation to the primary aim of this study, the approach
taken here has been to dispense with the concept of narrative as a means of testing its
applicability to religious thought in the Old Kingdom Egypt. This method has been
informed primarily by the theoretical formulation of Goebs.76 Her grouping of texts into
structural relationships between two actors and an action that relates them, serves as a
valuable analytical tool for non-narrative texts. These structural parameters are
employed in this study to facilitate a content based analysis, which seeks to group
spatially distinct texts together based on their content. It is acknowledged that this
structure is exterior to the Pyramid Texts themselves and is thus imposed upon them by
the author, it nevertheless allows for modes of interpretation otherwise unavailable.
76 Goebs, “Functional Approach to Myth.” See more recently Martin Pehal, Interpreting Ancient
Egyptian Narratives: A Structural Analysis of the Tale of Two Brothers, The Anat Myth, The Osirian
Cycle, and The Astarte Papyrus (Fernelmont: EME, 2014) who extends the idea of an underlying
structure to his own structural formulation of “configurational coherence” that superseded the
need for strict narrative coherence.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
25
The notion of relationships77 has been utilised within a classification system, allowing
the grouping of similar textual material despite its physical separation within the textual
corpus. The Pyramid Texts identified as relevant to this study are thus first grouped
into one of four sets, denoting a series of relationships between two deities; that is Osiris
– Seth, Osiris – Horus, Osiris – Isis and Nephthys and Horus – Seth. Within these sets
the various relationships are identified, typically taking the form of an action between
the two deities and it is these relationships that form the basis of the investigation. This
analysis focusses on the content of the texts, rather than their form, and emphasises how
the relationship is established and characterised in the Pyramid Texts overall. Relating
this back to the key criterion of narrative will allow a more definitive stance on the
applicability of the characteristic to the conception of myth.
The second area of enquiry comprises a study of the notion of variability with regards to
the Pyramid Texts. Again here the work of Goebs78 has been beneficial in providing a
framework of analysis. She demonstrates that the Pyramid Texts are subject to
variability in the relationships that comprise the mythic material. More than one deity
could perform the same action without contradiction or incoherence. This largely has to
do with the non-narrative nature of the Pyramid Texts and their lack of an overriding
temporal logic, which would dictate the need for consistency in the identification of
roles. Additionally, the combination of various regional theologies could account for
such discrepancies. The methodology employed in this section is an in-depth study of
the different deities that could replace the core relationships established in the second
chapter. These texts comprise the variant text corpus referred to throughout this study
77 This idea is akin to the constellations of Assmann, but is utilised in a different manner in this
study. 78 Goebs, “Functional Approach to Myth.”
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
26
and provide the opportunity to evaluate the extent to which myth in the Pyramid Texts
exhibits variation.
The methodology used in the third area of investigation incorporates a statistical
analysis of the groupings and placement of the Pyramid Texts identified as related to
Osiris. For this analysis the divisions within the Pyramid Texts provide a valuable
framework for the identification of distribution patterns. In particular the work of
Hays79 has provided the most comprehensive conceptual tools with which to work. The
distinction of the performance settings of sacerdotal and personal, the former being
identifiable primarily in the burial chamber while the latter appear mainly in the
antechamber, has been invaluable to this study and has revealed much about the mythic
thought.80 The identification of these original settings of performance relies on the
analysis of the edited texts establishing whether they were originally in the first or
second person. Sacerdotal texts were recited by priests for the benefit of the deceased
and refer to him or her in the third person. They are identical to the performance of
rituals such as the Opening of the Mouth where the ritual was performed on behalf of
the beneficiary, who could not play a vocal role themselves. Personal texts on the other
hand were performed by the beneficiary themselves and refer to him or her in the first
person. In addition, the framework surrounding the further division of Pyramid Texts
into groups81 has been utilised effectively by this study. This division of texts is based
on the placing of the same texts next to each other in different pyramids. While there
are borrowings and editing changes, certain groupings are identifiable, which can
provide a further frame of reference when searching for patterns of distribution. For the
79 Hays, Organization; Harold Hays, “Old Kingdom Sacerdotal Texts,” JEOL 41 (2009): 47-94. 80 This distinction was first observed by Assmann, “Egyptian Mortuary Liturgies,” 14. See also
Allen, “Reading a Pyramid,”18; Jan Assmann, Tod und Jenseits. 81 Hays, Organization, 1:79-123
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
27
analysis, these distinctions are combined with a more general search for patterns within
the pyramids themselves. The numbers of each set82 of texts across the pyramids is
analysed in order to gauge patterns over time. The groups (A-O) and types (sacerdotal
or personal) of texts are analysed within each set separately in order to ascertain the
patterns of use of particular elements. Last, a comprehensive analysis of the locations of
the texts within each set is unertaken both as an entire corpus combining all the
pyramids and also each pyramid separately. Here, the location divisions given by
Allen83 have proved the most up-to-date and are utilised throughout this study. In all
cases both the core and variant texts84 have been analysed in the same fashion.
82 The term ‘set’ here refers to all the texts relating to two gods, for example those that relate
Osiris and Seth or Osiris and Horus. This is formulated in this study using the formula Osiris –
Seth. 83 James Allen, A New Concordance of the Pyramid Texts, 6 vols. (Brown University, 2013), available
at https://www.dropbox.com/sh/0xo88uy04urnz0v/o16_ojF8f_ 84 The term ‘core’ relates to the texts which have been determined to compose the major idea
within the Pyramid Texts while the ‘variants’ are those which identify a different deity in the
same role.
28
CHAPTER TWO: THE CORE RELATIONSHIPS
: INTRODUCTION 2.1
The identification of the textual material from the Pyramid Texts that relates to Osiris is
the primary task of this study. Due to the lack of an easily recognisable coherence to the
text corpora, the study of the textual material is complicated. In order to facilitate
analysis, the content itself has been the guiding criterion for grouping textual material
together. The primary aim of this chapter is thus to establish what patterns of content
can be observed and categorise the texts accordingly. Similar to the constellations of
Assmann, this categorisation system revolves around whom the deities involved are
and what actions they perform. The larger textual units, which incorporate all the texts
referring to a specific deity, have been labelled as ‘sets’. There have been four such sets
identified in this study:
- Osiris – Seth
- Osiris – Horus
- Osiris – Isis and Nephthys
- Horus – Seth
Within these sets a further distinction is made regarding the actions taken between the
two deities involved. These actions can be taken by one of the actors towards the other
or towards an object.85 These actions have been labelled as the ‘relationships’ and it
85 This categorisation follows the work of Goebs, “Functional Approach to Myth,” 44, where the
structural relationships in the Pyramid Texts are classified according to three criteria. Either
Actor A performs and action for Actor B, Actor A stands in a kinship, social or geographical
relationship with Actor B, or Object A stands in relationship of need, location or similar to Actor
B.
CHAPTER TWO
THE CORE RELATIONSHIPS
29
these that form the basis of analysis in this study. Analysis will take the form of a
detailed study of the content in the individual texts and what they can reveal about the
actions and events surrounding Osiris. A broader analysis is undertaken at the end of
this chapter in regards to the textual material in its entirety. Of particular interest here
is the problem of narrative, discussed in the introduction. The approach taken here has
been to analyse the textual material without narrative in mind as a defining
characteristic of myth. Its applicability to the concept can thus be investigated through
an understanding of the form of the textual corpus. The extent to which these texts do,
or do not, reflect a narrative structure is of primary importance to a discussion about the
form and function of myth during the Old Kingdom in Egypt.
: OSIRIS – SETH 2.2
Texts that relate Osiris and Seth together are dominated by the negative actions taken by
Seth towards Osiris. This idea was entrenched in the rules of decorum, which made its
appearance limited and convoluted. Additionally texts have been identified that were
aimed at the denial of the actions Seth took towards Osiris and the protection of Osiris
from further harm. There are four relationships identified in this set:
- Seth – Kills – Osiris
- Seth – Bears – Osiris
- Osiris – Located in – Nedit
- Osiris – Protected/Saved – Seth
The relationships between Osiris and Seth are predicated on the notion of the death of
Osiris at the hands of Seth to which other relationships either contribute more
information or aim at remedying the situation.
CHAPTER TWO
THE CORE RELATIONSHIPS
30
: SETH – KILLS – OSIRIS 2.2.3
In the relationship Seth – kills – Osiris the action of murder on the part of Seth is
analysed. There are 15 texts86 that are concerned with this action, which is relatively
small given the overall corpus of Pyramid Texts.
NUMBER OF CORE TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
SETH – KILLS – OSIRIS
PYRAMID CORE TEXTS
UNIS 3
TETI 5
PEPI I 13
MERENRE 7
PEPI II 12
NEITH 4
This is not unsurprising due to the restrictions of decorum, which did not allow for the
dissemination of such an event. The number of texts87 that appear in each pyramid is
detailed in the table above. Texts appear in every pyramid from the reign of Unis with a
significant increase in the number of texts in those of Pepi I and Pepi II. The most
schematic of the texts are PT 280 and 380, identical in form, which simply mention an
evil deed being attributed to an anonymous actor. Presumably this could refer to the
murder of Osiris by Seth in an indirect way. Both texts appear as personal texts in the
antechamber of the pyramids and thus fall into the minority of this group overall, which
could explain the lack of any specific details. Similarly PT 306 also mentions this event
indirectly:
86 PT 218, 280, 306, 357, 380, 419, 474, 477, 478, 532, 576, 580, 606, 664E, 670. 87 Note that a more detailed discussion of the significance of the number of texts is given in
section 4.2 of this study.
CHAPTER TWO
THE CORE RELATIONSHIPS
31
Has he killed you, his heart having said that you would die for him? Behold, you
have become a more permanent wild bull than he.
As does PT 474:
He has come against you having said that he would kill you. He will not kill you,
this Pepi is the one who will kill his opponent and he will establish himself against
him as the most established wild bull.
Both texts mention the actual act of killing but lack the identification of the specific actor
involved, although again a strong assumption would be Seth. PT 580 lies in this same
vein identifying the killer of Osiris as “Father-striker, killer of one greater than you.”88
Placed in the mouth of Horus, the text goes on to detail the actions of striking, killing
and cutting up, taken by Horus against the killer of his father. Elsewhere Horus is also
mentioned in response to an un-named attacker as in PT 670:
He (Horus) has hit for you the one who hit you as a Bull, and he has killed for you
the one who killed you, as a wild bull.
And PT 664E:
Osiris NN, I am Horus. I have come that I may protect you from your opponent
because of what he has done to you.
Horus is named as the one who must respond to the attack in either an offensive or
defensive way while the attacker, Seth, remains unidentified. In PT 357 this anonymity
changes as Horus is again charged with helping Osiris but Seth is named as the attacker:
It is Horus who will redeem what Seth did against you.
This identification also occurs in PT 218:
It is what Seth and Thoth have done, your brothers who do not weep for you.
88 This title only appears in this text and refers to Seth indirectly as the one who killed the father
of Horus. The sign used for the word strike hwi is the twist of flax with a stick attached to the top,
which gives the determination for the action of striking or beating.
CHAPTER TWO
THE CORE RELATIONSHIPS
32
Although Seth is mentioned specifically as the one who acts against Osiris, the specific
action, the murder, is lacking. Presumably this was already clear given the status of the
deceased. The identification here of Thoth in the same role as Seth is unusual as the god
is normally a helper of Osiris akin to Horus. PT 419 also mentions Seth directly;
however he is the one trying to correct what he has done:
Seth has annulled that which he did to Teti on his 8th day.
In an almost identical text, PT 670, it is Horus rather than Seth who acts in this capacity:
He (Horus) has annihilated what was done against him on his 8th day.
These are most likely references to the mummifying process89 with the indirect mention
of the murder of Osiris. Other texts are far more explicit in their mention of the death of
Osiris and only appear in the pyramids of Pepi I, Merenre or Pepi II indicating that the
idea of the murder may have lost some of the taboo associated with it in previous
editions of the texts. PT 478 mentions the search by Isis and Nephthys for Osiris adding
the detail that “his brother Seth having cast him down on his side in Ghesti.” Similarly
PT 532:
They have found Osiris after his brother Seth threw him down in Nedit.
While the locality changes90, Seth is still identified as the one who kills Osiris as is also
the case in a similar text PT 576:
Osiris was placed on his side by his brother Seth, but he in Nedit moved for his
head was raised by the sun, his abomination is sleep, he hates weariness.
89 Griffiths, Origin of Osiris, 56-57. The origins of mummification could be very early: Françoise
Dunand and Roger Lichtenberg, Mummies and Death in Egypt (Ithaca and London: Cornell
University Press, 2006), 5-12; Salima Ikram and Aidan Dodson, The Mummy in Ancient Egypt:
Equipping the Dead for Eternity (London: Thames and Hudson, 1998), 15. The natural desiccation of
bodies in contact with the dry conditions once buried is pointed to as being the catalyst for the
emergence of mummification proper. The practise may actually date as far back as the Neolithic
Period according to Jana Jones et al., “Evidence for Prehistoric Origins of Egyptian
Mummification in Late Neolithic Burials,” PLoS ONE 9, 8 (2014): e103608,
doi: 10.1317/journal.pone.0103608. 90 See sections 2.2.3 and 3.2.3 for the relevant discussion on the location of the death of Osiris.
CHAPTER TWO
THE CORE RELATIONSHIPS
33
Lastly, PT 606 identifies Osiris indirectly as “the one to whom what is painful was done
to him by his brother Seth.” A further text, PT 477, is a long and detailed text and
framed much like a court proceeding with Seth91 apparently trying to defend himself
against the charges of murdering Osiris. Horus and Thoth appear as the helpers of
Osiris as they make him stand before the Dual Ennead. Geb then speaks a curse against
Seth:
This curse which was made by the gods against you in the official’s enclosure in
Heliopolis, because you threw Osiris to the earth.
Although Seth makes claims that Osiris was the one who attacked Seth, Osiris gains
governance over the sky, the Horus mounds and the Seth mounds. This is probably the
most detailed text which concerns the death of Osiris at the hands of Seth as it includes
not only the event itself but also the repercussions and outcomes.
: SETH – BEARS – OSIRIS 2.2.4
The next relationship concerning Osiris and Seth sees Seth charged with bearing Osiris
most likely as a punishment for his actions. There are 12 texts92 which name Seth in the
role of bearing Osiris. Interestingly the pyramid of Unis has no texts, which could be
reflective of the relative importance of this idea to the text editors at the time. In this
relationship Osiris is the active participant in making Seth carry him in only one case,
PT 71B which reads:
Osiris NN, seize him for yourself. (Seth) go under Osiris NN.
In this case Seth is named and Osiris is commanded to make Seth bear him.
91 For an analysis of the text from the perspective of a courtroom scene see Bernard Mathieu, “Un
épisode du procès de Seth au tribunal d’Héliopolis,” GM 164 (1998), 71-78. 92 PT 71B, 71C, 356, 357, 366, 368, 369, 371, 372, 593, 606, 673.
CHAPTER TWO
THE CORE RELATIONSHIPS
34
NUMBER OF CORE TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
SETH – BEARS – OSIRIS
PYRAMID CORE TEXTS
UNIS 0
TETI 7
PEPI I 14
MERENRE 8
PEPI II 11
NEITH 8
In PT 71C Horus commands Osiris to place Seth under himself:
Horus in Osiris NN, seize him. (Seth) go under this NN. Slaughter the one who
has stood up. Seize him. Take for I have given him to you. Place him under you
and do not let him be far from you.
While Osiris is the one doing the action it is commanded by Horus who takes the active
role in the spell, in fact it is most often Horus who is more active in these spells, such as
in PT 356:
Horus has seized Seth and placed him for you under you that he might lift you up
and tremble under you in the earth’s trembling.
Similarly PT 368 and 369 have Horus placing the opponent of Osiris under him. While
the opponent is not named, the identification of Seth is likely given his naming in other
texts of this sort. PT 371 and 372 follow the same lines with PT 372 identifying Thoth as
a helper as well:
Horus has caused that Thoth get your opponent and he has placed you on his back
so that he will not thwart you.
Apart from Horus, the Ennead is also responsible for Seth bearing Osiris as in PT 366:
CHAPTER TWO
THE CORE RELATIONSHIPS
35
The Great Ennead will protect you, they have given to you your opponent under
you. “Bear the one who is greater than you”, they said against him in your
identity of the Great Saw Shrine.
And PT 606:
“We will not let him be free of bearing you forever father Osiris NN” says the
Dual Ennead about you, father Osiris NN. 93
PT 593 is similar in its identification of the Ennead placing Seth under Osiris with only
slight phrasing differences. These texts are framed in the same way but merely seem to
switch who actually places Seth under Osiris. In other texts Seth is not placed under
Osiris but is simply identified in the role. PT 357 says:
He will swim under you, as he bears the one who is greater than he.
Seth having to swim under Osiris could be in reference to Osiris’ power of the
inundation or possibly an indirect reference to his drowning mentioned elsewhere in
the Pyramid Texts. Lastly, PT 673 simply says that:
Nor can Seth be free of bearing your burden.
The inertness of Osiris in the action of this relationship suggests that the carrying of
Osiris by Seth was a punishment for his crime, although this is not made clear in the
texts themselves. The importance of the event is demonstrated by the appearance of the
Great and Dual Enneads who take charge in making Seth perform his duties and the
designation of Osiris as “greater than” Seth is indicative of the relative positions of the
deities to each other following the successful prosecution of Seth. Thus the Pyramid
93 The term Ennead (psDt) refers generally to a group of nine gods, although their number could
exceed this. In the Pyramid Texts the Great Ennead is most often referred to but the Lesser
Ennead is also mentioned. The Dual Ennead is a combination of these two. See R. Weill, “Le
verbe d’existence PA et ses dérives,” RdE 6 (1951): 49-88; J. G. Griffiths, “Some Remarks on the
Enneads of Gods,” Orientalia 28 (1959): 34-56; Anthes, “Egyptian Theology,” 194-97. See also
Winfried Barta, Untersuchungen zum Götterkreis der Neunheit, MÄS 28 (München, Deutscher
Kunstverlag, 1973); Winfried Barta, “Bemerkungen zum Götterkreis der Neunheit,” Bibliotheca
Orientalis 33 (1976): 131-34.
CHAPTER TWO
THE CORE RELATIONSHIPS
36
Texts not only contain the action of the murder itself but also the consequences of the
action.
: OSIRIS – LOCATED IN – NEDIT 2.2.5
The relationship Osiris – Located in – Nedit relates to a series of texts that place Osiris in
the geographical location of Nedit, which is described as being the place where Osiris
dies or is found dead.94 There are 10 texts95 overall which mention Osiris being in Nedit
but they do not appear significantly until the reign of Pepi I.
NUMBER OF CORE TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
OSIRIS – LOCATED IN – NEDIT
PYRAMID CORE TEXTS
UNIS 1
TETI 1
PEPI I 10
MERENRE 5
PEPI II 8
NEITH 7
The appearance of at least one text in the pyramids of Unis and Teti shows that the
locality was at least known as the place of the death of Osiris but, due to decorum, could
not be mentioned in detail. The majority of the texts identify Osiris as being in Nedit,
94 The exact location of Nedit is unknown and is generally thought to be a mythical place name. It
could also be linked to the verb ndj which means “to throw down”. See Reinhard Grieshammer,
“Nedit,” in LÄ 4, ed. Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto and Wolfhart Wetendorf (Wiesbaden: Otto
Harrasowitz, 1982) 372. See also Karola Zibelius-Chen, Ägyptische Siedlungen nach Texten des Alten
Reiches (Reichert: Wiesbaden, 1978), 134 who argues a connection between the name Nedit and
was given to this idea during these reigns.102 The identification of Horus as the son of
Osiris is found in two forms: either the deceased is likened to Osiris with an action of
Horus being described as performed for his father, or Horus performs an action which
is done towards his father Osiris. PT 32 is a short text of the first type found on the
north wall of the burial chamber of every pyramid103 repeated many times:
These cool waters Osiris; these cool waters NN have come from your son, have
come from Horus.
With reference to the regenerative powers of the inundation this text simply identifies
Horus as the son of the deceased who is Osiris. Three similar texts all mention the
“goings” of the deceased and Horus. PT 612 reads:
Indeed this going of you, my father NN, is like when Horus went to his father
Osiris.
Likewise PT 659:
Indeed, this your going; indeed these goings of yours, are the goings of Horus in
seeking his father Osiris.
And PT 665D:
Indeed this going of yours, NN, is that which Horus said to his father Osiris.
While the texts are slightly different they all relate the action of Horus seeking Osiris
who is identified as his father with the action of going, which the deceased must
102 The lower number of texts in the pyramid of Merenre is not taken as a lowering of the attention
paid to the idea but a consequence of lack of preservation of texts from the pyramid. 103 The pyramid of Merenre has this text on the east wall of the burial chamber with no repetition
throughout the pyramid.
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44
perform in order to leave the tomb. In PT 21 Horus opens the mouth of the deceased104
which is likened to the action he performed for Osiris:
Horus has opened the mouth of this NN, Horus has parted the mouth of this NN
with that with which he parted the mouth of his father, with that with which he
parted the mouth of Osiris.
This is similar to PT 540 where the mouth of the deceased is opened by the little finger
of Horus who also opens the mouth of his father Osiris in the same way. PT 605
mentions the green eye-paint placed on the deceased which is linked to the same action
by Horus for his father Osiris. PT 690 identifies Horus coming to the aid of the deceased
in the same way that he did for his father, the implication being that he will revive him
in the same way. Lastly, PT 418 differs slightly in that it identifies the action of the
deceased in relation to the action of Horus towards Osiris:
Greetings to you unguent, greetings to you who is before Horus whom Horus has
put on the brow of his father Osiris. NN will put you on his brow like Horus put
you on the brow of his father Osiris.
Here the deceased places the unguent on his own brow, which is likened to the action of
104 PT 21 occurs as part of the Offering ritual just before the Opening of the Mouth ritual. Ann
Macy Roth, “The psS-kf and the ‘Opening of the Mouth’ Ceremony: A Ritual of Birth and
Rebirth,” JEA 78 (1992): 113-147, argues that the Opening of the Mouth ritual was based on a
ritual sequence aimed at ensuring newborns and young children could be nourished. See also
Ann Macy Roth, “Fingers, Stars, and the ‘Opening of the Mouth’: The Nature and Function of the
nTrwj-Blades,” JEA 79 (1993): 57-79; Ann Macy Roth, “Buried Pyramids and Layered Thoughts:
The Organisation of Multiple Approaches in Egyptian Religion,” in Proceedings of the Seventh
International Congress of Egyptologists ed. Chris Eyre (Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters, 1998), 991-1003.
The idea of nourishment was also applied to statues and the bodies of the deceased with the
connotation of birthing or re-birthing. The deceased would thus come to life or the statue be born
through the Opening of the Mouth ritual. The role of Horus as the son was thus to help revive
his father. See also Harold Hays, “The Worshipper and the Worshipped in the Pyramid Texts,”
SAK 30, (2002): 153-167, who argues that like the Pyramid Texts, the Opening of the Mouth ritual
was understood to be fluid in its operation. Texts within the Pyramid Texts could move position
and placement within the corpora and the Opening of the Mouth could be effective in both a
temple and mortuary setting which themselves sat in a wider ritual milieu from which aspects
could be drawn upon as needed.
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45
Horus doing the same for Osiris who is identified as his father. In other texts, Horus is
related to Osiris more simply with an action of Horus simply identified as being
performed for his father. PT 173 places Horus in the role of gathering up the dead
Osiris with the added detail that he is his father:
Osiris NN, Horus has come that he might gather you, you are his father.
PT 247 is more schematic simply identifying Horus as “the one who is commanded to
act for his father.” The identity of the one making the command is omitted while the
familial relationship is made clear indicating its importance. PT 416 is another simple
text that mentions a garment made by Horus for his father and, likewise PT 760, which
reads:
That Horus equips the gate of his father Osiris.
While the action being undertaken is different, the focus is on the family relationship
behind the action. PT 748, an offering text, mentions the eye paint which is placed on
Osiris by Horus but, in contrast to PT 605, this text does not mention the deceased in the
same context, rather it refers to the eye paint itself, which is identified as the paint used
by Horus on his father. Lastly, PT 305 is a personal text which reads:
A ladder has been tied by Horus in front of his father Osiris.
This simple text again mentions the action of Horus for his father but its origin in the
personal texts highlights that this idea was important not just for the priestly texts but
also for the personal knowledge which would have allowed the deceased to transform
into the next life. These texts place Horus in different contexts; however, they
emphasise the family relationship constantly, which could be the motivation behind the
action being taken. It is not simply on behalf of Osiris that this is done but on behalf of
the father of Horus.
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46
: HORUS – SAVES/PROTECTS – OSIRIS 2.3.2
The relationship Horus – Saves/Protects – Osiris is characterised by the actions of Horus
in protecting his father from Seth or from unnamed assailants. There are 18 texts105 that
place Horus in this role. They only appear from the pyramid of Teti, indicating the idea
was a later addition.
NUMBER OF CORE TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
HORUS – SAVES/PROTECTS – OSIRIS
PYRAMID CORE TEXTS
UNIS 1
TETI 6
PEPI I 13
MERENRE 12
PEPI II 18
NEITH 10
This is also apparent in the much higher number of texts in the pyramid of Pepi II where
the notion of Horus saving and protecting Osiris seems to have become much more
important. In just over half of the texts in this relationship, Osiris is named specifically
as the recipient of the protection and saving of Horus. PT 541 is the most detailed in
this:
Strike Seth and save this Osiris NN from him until dawn. Horus has become
powerful in his saving of his father, this Osiris NN himself.
The more active side of Horus is shown here, as he strikes Seth in order to save Osiris
from him. The important temporal detail of dawn is given as a cut off for when Seth
must be held at bay until. In other texts, Seth is not mentioned by name but simply as
Isis is identified as the Mourning Goddess in three texts. PT 667A has the Mourning
Goddess “summoning” the deceased as Isis. PT 674 and PT 728 are of the same form
but use a different action:
Let the Mourning Goddess call out to you as Isis.
Nephthys, on the other hand, is only identified specifically in the role of Mourning
Goddess once. PT 665A reads:
Let the Mourning Goddess call out to you as Nephthys.
This could indicate that a greater importance was placed on Isis in this role over
Nephthys. In addition there are three texts, PT 412, PT 553, and PT 676, which mention
the Mourning Goddess without any specific identification. PT 412 expresses a wish:
Let the Mourning Goddess call out to you.
PT 553 and 676 are identical, reading:
Let the Mourning Goddess wail for you.
PT 412 appears from the pyramid of Teti while PT 553 and PT 676 appear from the
pyramid of Pepi I with PT 676 only being attested in the pyramids of Pepi II and Neith.
This suggests that the action of wailing itself was a later addition or change to the
corpora. PT 466 is different again, naming the “Great Mooring Post” rather than the
Mourning Goddess who “wails” for Osiris, his state of suffering, referenced in the text is
presumably a reference to death. PT 259, which only appears in the pyramid of Teti,
identifies Isis and Nephthys as the two attendants:
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It is the sister of NN, the Lady of Pe113, who cries out for him and the two
attendants (Isis and Nephthys) who mourned for him having mourned Osiris.
PT 482 adds more detail to the situation by describing the sound of Isis and Nephthys
crying in their mourning for Osiris:
They114 have come to Osiris on account of the noise of the crying of Isis and
Nephthys.
A similar text, PT 670, expands on this further:
They have come to Osiris NN at the sound of Isis weeping, at Nephthys’
screaming, at the lamentations of those two Akhs for the Great One who comes
from the duat.
PT 701A identifies Isis and Nephthys as the sisters of the deceased Osiris and describes
their actions of mourning saying that they will “bewail” and “awaken” the deceased.
The resurrecting of Osiris by Isis and Nephthys is thus linked with his being mourned.
PT 767 also uses the term “wail” to describe the mourning of Osiris. PT 535 is a longer
text in the form of a recitation by Isis and Nephthys:
113 The Lady of Pe also appears in PT 258 “It is his sister, the Lady of Pe who cries out for him.”
Pe appears to have been a semi mythological place akin to Nedit of Ghesti as is associated with
the site of Buto in the Delta see Hartwig Altenmüller, “Buto,” in LÄ 1, ed. Wolfgang Helck and
Eberhard Otto (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz, 1975), 887; Madeleine Cody, “Wadjyt, Wadjet,” in
The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, 1st ed, ed. Roger Bagnall et al. (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell,
2012), 7036-7037,
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15412. The Lady of Pe is associated with
Wadjet owing to the name of Buto as pr-wADit literally “The house of Wadjet.” In a later tradition
at the temple of Hathor at Dendera Wadjet takes the role of the nurse of Horus as he is raised at
Khemnis, Barbara Lesko, The Great Goddesses of Egypt (Norman: The University of Oklahoma
Press, 1999), 75. Horus is also associated with Pe in later traditions becoming “Horus of Pe” with
clear links to the Osiris myth in the Late Period as the son of Isis/Wadjet at Buto or sometimes
Khemnis, see J. G. Griffiths Plutarchs De Iside et Osiride (Cambridge, Universtiy of Wales Press,
1970) 47, 54, esp. 18, 357F; Jacques Vandier, Ouadjet et l’Horus léontocéphale de Bouto. À propos d’un
bronze de Musée de Chaalis (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1976), 54-58, Anaïs Tillier, “Sur
la place d’Horus dans l’ennéade héliopolitaine,” ZÄS 140 (2013): 72; The clear association with
Isis and Wadjet makes the appearance of the later in the Pyramid Texts in connection with Isis
and mourning warranted. It is interesting that this identity is not followed through after the
reign of Teti possibly indicating that the name of Isis more specifically became more important. 114 “They” are identified in the text as the gods of Pe, but their exact identities are left unknown.
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Recitation by Isis and Nephthys. The Wailing Bird has come, the Kite has come;
it is Isis and Nephthys. They have come in search of their brother Osiris, in
search of their brother, this NN. Haste, Haste! Weep for your brother Isis, weep
for your brother Nephthys, weep for your brother. Isis sat down with her two
arms on her head, Nephthys has grasped the tip of her breasts for their brother
NN, baby-like on his belly.
Here, Isis and Nephthys are identified in their most well-known guise of the kite115 and
the wailing bird as they weep for Osiris. The added details of the texts place Osiris in a
familial relationship with Isis and Nephthys as he is called their brother. More
important are the details surrounding the situation of the mourning. It is after they had
searched for Osiris and found him that they mourn him. This provides a temporal
coherence, not apparent in other relationships. The women adopt the typical mourning
pose of women in ancient Egypt, placing their arms on their head or grasping their
breasts.116 PT 535 is the only text that provides details about the physical actions of the
women associated with mourning rather than the sounds. Lastly, a number of very
short texts, 337, and 690 mention mourning in a more general way and do not mention
Isis or Nephthys specifically. They are placed in this set due to the context of mourning
and probably related to Isis and Nephthys rather than another deity. The relationship
115 The kite is a bird of prey with a very shrill cry which is thought to have been suggestive of the
cries of mourning women. See Richard Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient
Egypt (New York: Thames and Hudson, 2003), 147-48. 116 As part of the funeral, particularly during the New Kingdom, visible mourning had to be
undertaken by women. See Lynn Meskell, Private Life in New Kingdom Egypt (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 2002), 189-193; Salima Ikram, Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt (Harlow:
Longman, 2003), 184-85; Emily Millward, “Visual and Written Evidence for Mourning in New
Kingdom Egypt,” in Current Research in Egyptology 2011: Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual
Symposium Durham University 2011, ed. Heba Abd El Gawad et al. (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2012),
141-46. The mythic prototype for mourning was Isis and Nephthys, see C. J. Bleeker, “Isis and
Nephthys as Wailing Women,” Numen 5 (1958): 1-17; Assmann, Death and Salvation, 115-18, 167-
68, 268-69 and 288-89; Hartwig Altenmüller, “Zum Ursprung von Isis und Nephthys,” SAK 27
(1999): 1-26; Emily Teeter, Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2011), 138-139.
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63
Isis and Nephthys – Mourn – Osiris shows a varied amount of detail from simple
identifications of the deities as mourning goddesses to longer texts providing the actual
situation in which the mourning is said to have occurred. It clearly shows the
importance of the role of Isis and Nephthys in the death of Osiris and by extension the
death of any individual.
: ISIS AND NEPHTHYS – SEARCH FOR – OSIRIS 2.4.2
The relationship Isis and Nephthys – Search for – Osiris provides details about the
search for Osiris after his death. The texts are typically longer and situate Osiris as the
brother of Isis and Nephthys. There are four texts 117 in this relationship, which is fairly
low considering the importance placed upon this aspect in later traditions.118
NUMBER OF CORE TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
ISIS AND NEPHTHYS – SEARCH FOR – OSIRIS
PYRAMID CORE TEXTS
UNIS 0
TETI 0
PEPI I 6
MERENRE 1
PEPI II 4
NEITH 0
The texts only appear from the reign of Pepi II indicating that the relationship, if it
existed before this time, was not the subject of attention by the text editors. Due to the
117 PT 482, 535, 694A, 767. 118 The role Horus and Geb perform in this relationship will be discussed in 3.4.2 of this study. It
is difficult to discern a core relationship and variant due to the low numbers of texts which could
speak to the variability of the idea. As Isis and Nephthys are more commonly placed in this role
from the Middle Kingdom onwards this tradition has been maintained in this study. This issue
will be more fully explored in 3.4.2 when the variant texts are discussed.
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64
nature of the texts dealing with the death of Osiris, it is presumed that the rules of
decorum could have prohibited the inclusion of the texts; although, this does not
necessarily have to be the case. The content of the texts reveals some interesting details.
PT 767 identifies both Isis and Nephthys as Elder and Great Goddesses before
mentioning their search:
The two Elder Goddesses shall speak, the two Great Goddesses shall wail, they are
Isis and Nephthys who sought you and found you.
Not only the search, but also the logical consequence, the finding, is mentioned here. In
PT 482, Isis acts alone indicating her relative importance to Nephthys. As was noted in
the relationship Isis and Nephthys – Mourn – Osiris, the goddesses can both take the
role individually, but here it is only Isis who assumes a role in the action:
Your eldest sister who collected your flesh and folded your hands, who sought you
and found you upon your side on the shore of Nedit.
Once again the combination of the search and the outcome of it are combined into one
text, with the added detail here of the location of Nedit. This links with the relationship
Osiris – Located in – Nedit and provides the geographical backdrop for the search. PT
535, already cited above, is less detailed and has the pair of goddesses searching for
Osiris who is identified as their brother:
They have come in search of their brother Osiris, in search of their brother, this
NN.
Lastly, having already found Osiris, in PT 694A the sisters command him to stand up, a
phrase commonly used with reference to the deceased waking up from death:
’I have found (him), I have found (him)’ said Isis, ‘I have found (him)’, said
Nephthys when they saw Osiris on his side in the riverbank. O Osiris raise
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65
yourself for me said Isis, stand up for me said Nephthys… my brother I have
searched for you.
PT 694A provides the most vivid account of the search describing the shock of Isis and
Nephthys at finding Osiris on the side of a river and their desire to resurrect him. The
geographical location of Osiris is lacking in the text, which leaves the question of
whereabouts of the river open. This relationship provides a great deal of information
about Isis and Nephthys and their search for Osiris, despite the fewer number of texts.
Rather than simple identifications, the texts are longer and use detailed scenes to
describe how the search is undertaken and the eventual finding of Osiris.
: ISIS AND NEPHTHYS – FIND – OSIRIS 2.4.3
The logical conclusion of the search for Osiris is the finding of him by Isis and
Nephthys, which is detailed in the relationship Isis and Nephthys – Find – Osiris. This
has been treated as separate from Isis and Nephthys – Search for – Osiris, because of the
inclusion within this relationship of texts that describe the finding independent of the
search. There are eight texts119 within this relationship. Every text appears in the
pyramid of Pepi II and there is only one occurrence of a text before this time. The search
for Osiris was thus known before the time of Pepi I despite a lack of texts in the
relationship Isis and Nephthys – Search for – Osiris, but it was only deemed important
enough for inclusion in a major way from the reign of Pepi I. Turning to the texts
themselves, PT 357 is the only text to appear in every pyramid, except that of Unis, and
reads:
Isis and Nephthys have seen you, they have found you.
119 PT 357, 482, 532, 534, 593, 694A, 732, 767.
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66
Found on the east wall of the burial chamber in most attestations,120 this brief text lacks
detail beyond the act of finding. Its placement around the deceased speaks to the
importance of the mere act of finding Osiris.
NUMBER OF CORE TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
ISIS AND NEPHTHYS – FIND – OSIRIS
PYRAMID CORE TEXTS
UNIS 0
TETI 1
PEPI I 9
MERENRE 3
PEPI II 6
NEITH 3
Similar in their brevity, PT 534 and 732 reports the finding of Osiris by Isis and
Nephthys generally. PT 534 does not name the two goddesses specifically but the
plurality of finders makes Isis and Nephthys the most likely identities:
You having been found by them as one who shakes.
PT 732 does name Isis but has her finding Osiris on his mother’s thighs, which is unlike
any other text in this relationship:
Your sister Isis finding you upon the thighs of your mother.
PT 593 gives more details in a longer text:
Your two sisters Isis and Nephthys have returned to you after having retreated
from where you are. Your sister Isis has taken hold of you, having found you
black in your name of Great Black.
120 The pyramid of Neith differs in the placement of this text, housing it on the west wall of the
burial chamber instead.
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67
No location is given for Osiris but again the act of finding him is of primary importance
and Isis takes action against Osiris’ feeble state once this is done. Interestingly, Isis and
Nephthys are said to have left Osiris and come back to him. This is only seen in PT 593
and could indicate a detail absent from other texts, or possibly a different tradition
entirely regarding the events that took place. PT 694A is different again in that it gives
the direct speech of Isis and Nephthys upon finding Osiris:
“I found, I found” said Isis, “I found” said Nephthys when they saw Osiris on his
side on the riverbank. Ho Osiris raise yourself for me said Isis, stand up for me
said Nephthys… “my brother I have searched for you.”
Osiris is found dead on a riverbank in this case, which could be an allusion to his death
by drowning. The manner of his death is not detailed due to the rules of decorum and
also that it may not have been as important to the texts as the action of finding itself.
Similar to other texts, the first action taken by the sisters is to resurrect him. PT 482
provides a location for the death of Osiris saying that Isis found him in Nedit:
Your eldest sister who collected your flesh and folded your hands, who sought you
and found you upon your side on the shore of Nedit.
Similarly, PT 767 identifies Isis and Nephthys together with the phrase “sought you and
found you” but lacks the geographic detail of PT 482. Lastly, PT 532 adds not only
geographic detail but identifies Seth as the murderer of Osiris:
Isis and come, Nephthys has come, one of them from the west, one of them from
the east, one of them as a wailing bird and one of them as a kite. They have found
Osiris after his brother Seth threw him down to the earth in Nedit.
This text, only found in the pyramids of Pepi I and II, gives the most detail about the
situation and clearly identifies that the search for and finding of Osiris occurred because
of his murder by Seth. PT 532 demonstrates that the relationships were inextricably
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68
linked. It is not just that Osiris died and was found that was important. It was that he
died at the hands of Seth, was placed in Nedit and was searched for and found by Isis
and Nephthys that was important as well.
: ISIS AND NEPHTHYS – JOIN/UNITE/ASSEMBLE – OSIRIS 2.4.4
In the relationship, Isis and Nephthys – Join/Unite/Assemble – Osiris the situation
described is the bringing together of the body parts of Osiris as part of the resurrection
process. As was noted previously there is only one mention of Osiris being
dismembered, meaning that these references could be reflective of the need of the
deceased to gather themselves together in order to go into the next life. PT 606121 leaves
the interpretation of these texts as references to the dismembering of Osiris open;
although, it is important to note that none of the texts in this relationship bear the idea
of dismembering out.122 There are four different words123 used to describe this situation
and texts have been grouped here due to the similarity of meaning. Seven texts124 relate
Isis, Nephthys and Osiris in this way. The majority of texts are attested in the pyramids
of Pepi I and II but there is less of a difference in the number of texts than in previous
relationships. Focussing on the content of the texts, PT 218 is the most schematic;
appearing in every pyramid except Merenre, it commands Isis and Nephthys to gather
and unite Osiris:
Isis and Nephthys, gather (him) together, gather (him) together! Unite (him),
unite (him)!
121 “I have come for you that I might clean you, cleanse you, make you live, gather your bones for
you, collect for you your loose parts, and assemble for you your dismembered parts”. 122 A possible interpretation could be a reference to the Predynastic burial practice of pre-burial
dismemberment, see David Wengrow and John Baines, “Images, Human Bodies and the Ritual
Construction of Memory,” in Egypt at its Origins: Proceedings of the International Conference “Origins
of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”, Kraków, 28th August – 1st September 2002, ed.
Stan Hendrickx et al. OLA 138 (Dudley: Peeters, 2004), 1097-1100. 123 The words used in this relationship are Xnm, dmD, iab, inq. 124 PT 218, 357, 364, 366, 482, 631, 670.
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69
NUMBER OF CORE TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
ISIS AN NEPHTHYS – JOIN/UNITE/ASSEMBLE – OSIRIS
PYRAMID CORE TEXTS
UNIS 1
TETI 4
PEPI I 7
MERENRE 4
PEPI II 7
NEITH 2
Likewise PT 357, which simply states “Isis has united you.” In PT 482 Isis is identified
as the eldest sister of Osiris and reads:
Your eldest sister who collected your flesh and folded your hands, who sought you
and found you upon your side on the shore of Nedit.
Coupled with the notions of searching, finding and the location of Osiris’ death, this text
introduces the idea of collecting the parts of Osiris although any mention of putting
Osiris back together is lacking. Nephthys is identified in PT 364 as the one who gathers
the limbs of Osiris together:
Nephthys has gathered all your limbs for you, in her identity of Sheset, Lady of
Builders, and made them sound for you.
The added detail of making the limbs of Osiris sound implies further action beyond
merely gathering but putting Osiris back to a healthy state of being. PT 631 also has
Nephthys acting alone joining the limbs of Osiris together:
I (Nephthys) have united my brother and joined together his limbs.
PT 366 has the sisters working together as they guard Osiris:
Isis and Nephthys have guarded for you in Asyut…gathering you so that you do
not become angry.
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70
More detailed is PT 670:
Your libation has been libated by Isis and Nephthys has cleaned for you, your two
elder and great sisters who have collected your flesh, raised your limbs and caused
your eyes to appear on your head.
Isis and Nephthys not only collect together the parts of Osiris, but they make the limbs
live again through raising and cause Osiris to have eyes, thus bringing all the
constituent parts of the deceased god back to life.125 The texts of the relationship imply
the dismemberment of Osiris even if they do not make it explicit. The inclusion of Isis
and Nephthys into this idea further solidifies their mortuary role in helping the
deceased god live again in the next life.
: ISIS – CONCEIVES HORUS – OSIRIS 2.4.5
The family relationship between Horus and Osiris was explored earlier in this chapter
showing that Horus as the son of Osiris is emphasised to a great extent within the
Pyramid Texts.
NUMBER OF CORE TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
ISIS – CONCEIVES HORUS – OSIRIS
PYRAMID CORE TEXTS
UNIS 0
TETI 1
PEPI I 3
MERENRE 3
PEPI II 3
NEITH 2
125 Salvation from death was thought of in terms of piecing the body back together, Assmann,
Death and Salvation, 31-38.
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71
The conception of Horus by comparison receives relatively little attention. There are
three texts126 that detail the conception of Horus by Isis and Osiris. This could be
attributed to the rules of decorum as there are more texts under Pepi I, Merenre, Pepi II
and Neith than the earlier pyramids. The overall low number of texts indicates that it
was not as important for the Pyramid Texts than other relationships. Turning to the
content of the texts, they are generally long texts giving many details about the situation
of the conception. PT 366 and PT 593 are almost identical, with the former containing
more detail, reading:
Your sister Isis has come to you aroused for your love, you have placed her on
your phallus so that your seed might come into her, sharp as Sothis and Sharp
Horus has come out of you as Horus in Sothis.
Here the actual event is described in detail rather than simply alluding to it, showing
that a notion of the how it happened existed and could be used within the Pyramid
Texts.
PT 518 is less detailed merely referring to the event:
Stand up for yourself Osiris and command NN to those on the causeway Sound of
Heart north of the Marshes of Rest, like you commanded Horus to Isis on the day
you impregnated her.
The conception was given a great deal of detail, meaning its lack of inclusion in the
Pyramid Texts was probably a purposeful edit rather than a lack of thought on the
matter. There are still details missing from the account such as its relative timing to
other events; the tradition of a post-mortem conception from later sources could have
been a later addition to the story, but the question must remain open. Clearly the
importance of the text lay not in its chronological placement, but in the event itself. The
126 PT 366, 518, 593.
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72
conception of the rightful heir to the throne and the embodiment of the living king was
enough detail to include.
: ISIS AND NEPHTHYS – CALL OUT/SUMMON – OSIRIS 2.4.6
The last relationship between Isis, Nephthys and Osiris details the actions taken by the
goddesses in calling out to or summoning Osiris. There are 20 texts127 in the
relationship. They are almost exclusively attested in the pyramids of Pepi I and II,
which coincides with other relationships about Isis and Nephthys. The disparity
between the pyramids of Teti and Pepi I is similar here compared to Isis and Nephthys –
Mourn – Osiris and shows a later increase in the importance of the idea.
NUMBER OF CORE TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
ISIS AND NEPHTHYS – CALL OUT/SUMMON – OSIRIS
PYRAMID CORE TEXTS
UNIS 0
TETI 1
PEPI I 18
MERENRE 7
PEPI II 17
NEITH 11
The texts within this relationship are characteristically short simply identifying a
goddess specifically or indirectly as one who calls out to the deceased. In PT 422 the
goddesses are identified together in a wish:
Let Isis speak to you and Nephthys call to you.
In all other instances of a goddess being named in this manner it is only Nephthys who
Horus “who became strong through the injury that was done to him” without reference
to what the injury was or who inflicted it. PT 271 provides more detail:
Horus and Seth shall take the arms of NN and take him to the Duat. He who has
been dealt an eye injury, protect from the one of the command.
This text identifies Horus as having received an eye injury. PT 277 and PT 386 are
similar in form, reading:
Horus has fallen on account of his eye.
PT 356 and 357 mention Horus taking his eye back from Seth, implying that he was the
culprit of the injury. PT 327 is equally as vague saying:
Horus’s fetcher desire NN for he has fetched his eye.
PT 455 refers to the curative powers of the spittle of the gods, which helped cure Horus
of the “evil that was against him after Seth acted against him” while PT 667A refers to
the outflow from Osiris in the same capacity:
Supply the outflow that comes from Osiris that Horus may be cleaned from what
his brother Seth has done to him.
PT 570 mentions a time “when Horus’s eye had not be ripped out”, and finally, PT 475,
PT 686, PT 97 and PT 163 mention Horus getting or acquiring his eye, referring to the
injury which saw it removed in the first place. All of these texts are very general and
only mention the injury of Horus without too much detail. This may have been because
the detail was already known and not necessarily important to elucidate in each text.
There are many more texts, mostly appearing in the offering ritual, which deal with the
different actions that Seth takes against the Eye of Horus. The most numerous texts
mention Seth taking the eye of Horus. PT 78 simply states:
Osiris NN, I have fetched for you Horus’s Eye to your forehead, which he took.
PT 119, PT 159 and PT 188 use the phrase “carried off” to refer to Seth taking the Eye of
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Horus, while PT 192 gives the same sense with a different phrase:
Here is Horus’s Eye which he ran away with. Horus has given it to you.
These texts give the sense of movement in that Seth removed the Eye of Horus and then
took it somewhere else rather than just referring to the act itself. PT 186 does refer to the
act alone, reading:
Osiris NN, here is Horus’s green Eye131 which he seized. Horus has given it to
you.
This is echoed in PT 524 and 708, which are close to identical:132
NN has become clean in the purification which Horus made for his Eye. NN is
Thoth who protected it, NN is not Seth who seized it.
Seth also captures or traps the Eye of Horus as in PT 156:
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye, which he captured. Open your mouth
with it.
Or PT 182:
Here is Horus’s Eye which he entrapped. Horus has given it to you.
In PT 168 Osiris is commanded to “prevent him from snaring it”, which also gives the
sense of trapping the Eye of Horus. Lastly, two texts refer indirectly to Seth taking the
Eye of Horus. PT 653C mentions Osiris seeing half of the Eye of Horus in Seth’s hand
and PT 696A refers to the linen, which was used to wipe the Eye of Horus after it was
“torn out of Seth’s fingers”. Although slightly different, each of these texts refers to the
taking of the Eye of Horus by Seth. A number of texts refer to the action of Seth as
“pulling out” rather than taking. PT 89, PT 112, PT 121, and PT 124 all read the same:
131 The colour green was associated with purification and revival. The eye of Horus was thus an
offering through which Osiris would live again. It was connected with the maintenance of
cosmic order and harmony, Tatiana Sherkova, “The Birth of the Eye of Horus: Towards the
Symbolism of the Eye in Predynastic Egypt,” in Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of
Egyptologists, Cambridge 3-9 September 1995, ed. Chris Eyre (Leuven: Uitgeverij, 1998), 1064. 132 PT 708 differs slightly referring to Osiris directly as “you” rather than indirectly.
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Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye, which he pulled out.
The same text being repeated four times suggests that this act was important to the
relationship between Horus and Seth and may have comprised the primary action
thought to have been taken by Seth. Differing slightly, PT 163 and PT 164 command
Osiris to prevent Seth from tearing the Eye out:
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye, prevent him from tearing it out.
PT 126 refers to the Eye of Horus being stolen by Seth. Rather than offering the Eye, as
in other texts, here the culprit is offered up to Horus:
Osiris NN, here is the one who stole Horus’s Eye.
The exact nature of the offering is unclear but the actions of Seth are made explicit.
Once the Eye was taken from Horus by Seth there are texts which detail what was done
to it Seth. PT 111 refers to Seth trampling the Eye:
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye which Seth trampled.
While PT 88 commands the protection of the Eye against this action. In two texts, PT 90
and PT 145, Seth eats the Eye of Horus:
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s little Eye, which Seth ate.
The intention behind this action is not made clear in the text, but there was enough of a
concern for PT 154 to command that Osiris prevent Seth from swallowing the Eye. PT
501C is a longer text not from the offering ritual:
Horus groaned on account of his eye of his body, when he had eaten it and
swallowed it and the Ennead saw it. Seth rasped on account of his testicles.
Horus conveyed his semen into the anus of Seth. Seth conveyed his semen into
the anus of Horus.
Here the injuring of Horus is given much more detail further indicating that the
swallowing of the eye of Horus by Seth was an important aspect of the events. The text
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goes on to detail the so-called homosexual episode between Horus and Seth.133 This
event is known from later sources in much more detail, but its appearance here shows
the antiquity of the idea. Put together, these texts detail the different actions which Seth
took against the Eye of Horus both during the act of taking as well as after. Three
additional texts do not fit into any distinguishable category or action. PT 562 simply
says that the Eye will not be given over to the “wrath” of Seth, without any details as to
what this wrath would entail. PT 74 describes the actions of Seth as causing
“devastation” upon the Eye of Horus, and lastly, PT 653B says that Seth “calculated” on
the Eye of Horus. It is unclear as to what this action might actually be. Lastly, there are
texts which deal with the escape or rescue of the Eye of Horus from Seth. PT 135 has the
Eye of Horus presented to Osiris with the added detail that it came from Seth’s
forehead. It has been included here given that the Eye is being taken from Seth and
given to Osiris. The exact meaning of the text is unclear but may be related to Seth
swallowing the Eye of Horus and it escaping by bursting from his head.134 PT 56 is
more explicit reading:
NN, Take to yourself Horus’s Eye which was rescued for you. It cannot be far
from you.
PT 652 mentions Seth as the one whom the Eye is being rescued from and Horus, with
the first person “I”, as the one who does the rescuing. PT 658A provides the same detail
133 This episode has its antecedents here in the Pyramid Texts but is more fully developed in later
sources, particularly the Contendings of Horus and Seth preserved on Papyrus Chester Beatty I, 11,
2-12. For the most recent treatment of the ‘homosexual’ interaction between the gods see Alessia
Amenta, “Some reflections on the ‘Homosexual’ Intercourse between Horus and Seth,” GM 199
(2004): 7-21; See also, Michèle Broze, Mythe et roman en Égypte ancienne: les aventures d’Horus et Seth
dans le papyrus Chester Beatty I. OLA 76 (Leuven: Peeters, 1996); Griffiths, Horus and Seth, 41-46. 134 Alan Gardiner, Late-Egyptian Stories (Bruxelles: Édition de la Fondation égyptologique Reine
Élisabeth, 1932). In the Late Egyptian story of The Contendings of Horus and Seth the same
situation occurs at 12,11-12,12“Then Thoth said to it “Come out from the top of his head. ” And it
emerged as a golden solar disk upon Seth’s Head.” The slight difference is that it is not the Eye of
Horus being mentioned here but the semen of Horus, nevertheless the similarity in the latter
version may derive from the situation in the Pyramid Texts.
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in a different form:
Horus has rescued his eye from Seth and given it to you.
There are also three texts which mention the Eye of Horus escaping from Seth of its own
accord. PT 47 and 54 use the same formula of the offering texts, reading:
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye, which escaped from Seth.
Finally, PT 359 is a long text which details the escape of the Eye of Horus from Seth:
Horus has wailed for his eye, Seth has wailed for his testicles. Horus’s eye jumped
and it made landfall on the other side of the Winding Canal so that it might save
itself from Seth, having seen Thoth on the other side of the Winding Canal.
Horus’s eye jumped up on the other side of the Winding Canal and it made
landfall on Thoth’s wing on the other side of the Winding Canal to the eastern
side of the sky in order to contend against Seth over that eye of Horus. NN will
cross with you on Thoth’s wing to the other side of the Winding Canal to the
eastern side of the sky for NN will be contending against Seth over that eye of
Horus.
While Thoth appears as a helper god making sure that the Eye escapes Seth, it is the eye
that saves itself, giving it an agency of its own that is not seen in other texts. While the
causality between the actions of Seth and the injury of the eye of Horus is made evident
in the texts, the reasons for this are left out entirely. Whether this made up a separate
tradition, or whether this was thought of as part of the Osirian action, is uncertain from
the texts themselves due to their lack of contextual detail. The relationship was
obviously important to the offering ritual from the conception of the Pyramid Texts and
remained important throughout their use in the Old Kingdom. The lack of detail was
probably unimportant to the editors who would have known its place in the wider
thought on divine actions.
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: HORUS – CONTENDS WITH - SETH 2.5.3
The relationship Horus – Contends with – Seth concerns the actual struggle between
Horus and Seth. There are 10 texts135 in this relationship.
NUMBER OF CORE TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
HORUS – CONTENDS WITH – SETH
PYRAMID CORE TEXTS
UNIS 4
TETI 7
PEPI 7
MERENRE 2
PEPI II 4
NEITH 1
They appear in all the pyramids, with the majority being attested in Teti and Pepi I.
This shift in the concentration of the texts towards the earlier corpora signifies that the
relationship was important from the beginning of the Pyramid Text’s formation. Over
time it seems to have been included less possibly indicating a diminishing in its
importance over time. The content of the texts reveals some specific details about the
contending of Horus and Seth.
PT 359, mentioned above, for its content about the Eye of Horus also refers to the
deceased as Horus contending with Seth over his Eye:
NN will cross with you on Thoth’s wing to the other side of the Winding Canal to
the eastern side of the sky for NN will be contending against Seth over that Eye of
Horus.
PT 524, which only appears in the pyramid of Pepi I, identifies a location for the contest
NN is the one who prevents the gods from turning away from embracing Horus’s Eye.
This NN sought it in Pe and found it in Heliopolis and then NN removed it from the
head of Seth in the place where they fought there.
As discussed above, Pe is identified as Buto and is associated with an infantile Horus. 136
Pe was thus known to have been the place where Horus spent his childhood from the
Old Kingdom. That the gods would contend in Heliopolis makes sense as well, given
that it was the seat of power for the creator god Atum and the place where judgement
was made. 137 Osiris is identified in other texts as the judge between Horus and Seth. PT
254 identifies him clearly in this role:
NN shall judge between the two contestants in the Great Immersion for his power is the
power of Tebi’s eye and his strength is the strength of Tebi’s eye. 138
PT 407 is similar but simply says:
NN will judge cases and will part the two.
136 Altenmüller, “Buto,” 887-889. 137 The high court was located in Heliopolis and thus would have been well known to be the seat
of judgement in Egypt, Susanne Bickel, “Héliopolis et le tribunal des dieux,” in Études sur l’Ancien
Empire et la nécropole de Saqqâra dédiées à Jean-Philippe Lauer, ed. Catherine Berger and Bernard
Mathieu (Montpellier: Université Paul Valéry-Montpellier III, 1997), 113-122. See also Shafik
Allam, “Egyptian Law Courts in Pharaonic and Hellenistic Times,” JEA 77 (1991): 109-127; Sandra
Lippert, “Law Courts,” in UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, ed. Willeke Wendrich et al. Los
Angeles 2012.
http://digital2.library.ucla.edu.viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz002djg21; Caleb Hamilton, “Aspects of
the Judiciary in the Egyptian Old Kingdom,” (forthcoming). On the use of judgement in the
Pyramid Texts see Caleb Hamilton, “I Judge Between Two Brothers, To Their Satisfaction:
Biographies and the Legal System in the Old Kingdom,” in ASCS 32 Selected Proceedings, ed. Anne
Mackay (ascs.org.au/news/ascs32/Hamilton.pdf, 2011); Caleb Hamilton, “Judgement in the
Pyramid Texts,” (unpublished manuscript, November 1, 2014), Microsoft Word file. 138 The eye of Tebi is associated most with the lunar eye, particularly the injured eye that must be
restored. See Kurt Sethe, “Die Sprüche für das Kennen der Seelen der heiligen Orte (Totb. Kap.
107-109, 111-116),” ZÄS 57 (1922): 30; Alexandre Piankoff, The Tomb of Ramesses VI: Texts, (New
York: Pantheon Books, 1954): 38; Erik Hornung, Das Amduat. Die Schrift des verborgenen Raumes,
ÄA 7 (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1963), 2:45; Dimitri Meeks, “L’Horus de Tby,” in Egyptian
Religion: The Last Thousand Years. Studies dedicated to the Memory of Jan Quaegebeur, ed. W.
Clarysse, A. Schoors and H. Willems (Leuven: Peeters, 1998): 1188; Gyula Priskin, “Coffin Texts
Spell 155 on the Moon,” Birmingham Egyptology Journal 1 (2013): 42.
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While Horus and Seth are not named in these texts, it is assumed that they are being
referred to here. The remaining texts mention the contest and the reconciliation of the
gods. PT 252, which only appears in the pyramid of Unis, identifies the deceased as
making his throne with Osiris who “parted the two gods.” PT 669 is more detailed:
For that NN is (your) brother who comes forth as a wise one, who parts the two brothers
and separates the two fighters and who can split your heads, gods.
PT 510 differs slightly, in saying that Osiris will make Horus and Seth content:
He will content the two gods so that they are content, he will content the two gods
when they are angry.
Differing again, PT 258 and PT 259 are identical texts using the word pacify instead:
NN will spend this day and night pacifying the two adzes in Hermopolis.
The identification of Horus and Seth as adzes is unique here, as is the location of
Hermopolis139 for their contending. This could reflect two different traditions within the
Pyramid Texts and it is telling that these two texts are only found in the pyramid of
Unis and Teti. With the edition of the texts under Pepi I, the location of the competition
may have been moved to Heliopolis to better align with the priesthood. Lastly, PT 308
simply calls Horus and Seth “reconciled gods”, referring to the situation after the
competition where Horus gained ascendancy over Seth. Unlike the other relationships
139 Perhaps by the New Kingdom the theologians of Hermopolis had developed a cosmogony
distinct from that of Heliopolis or Memphis. It centred around four pairs of gods and goddesses
called the Ogdoad who were responsible for the creation of the world and the maintenance of the
rising of the sun and the flowing of the Nile. It is possible this idea was present as early as the
Old Kingdom as Hermopolis was given the name “eight-city”. Kurt Sethe, Amun und die acht
Urgötter von Hermopolis: Eine Untersuchung über Ursprung und Wesen des ägyptischen Götterkönig
(Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften: Berlin, 1929) who collected the evidence for the
ogdoad. See also Lucia Gahlin, “Creation Myths,” in The Egyptian World, ed. Toby Wilkinson
(London and New York: Routledge, 2010), 303-306; Leonard Lesko, “Ancient Egyptian
Cosmogonies and Cosmology,” in Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths and Personal Practice,
ed. Byron Shafer (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1991), 94-96; James Allen,
Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts (New Haven: Yale
Egyptological Seminar, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilisations, The Graduate
School, Yale University, 1988), 20-21; Hornung, Conceptions of God, 221.
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between Horus and Seth, a link is made here between the contendings and the
involvement of Osiris who acts as the judge between them. The use of the word judge
in PT 407 places the contendings in the realm of the legal proceedings much like the
prosecution of Seth for the murder of Osiris.
: DISCUSSION 2.6
This chapter has presented the core set of texts identified in the various relationships
between Osiris, Seth, Horus, Isis and Nephthys. The primary aim of this chapter was to
identify the texts and provide a structure to facilitate analysis. The content of the texts
has revealed aspects of the relationships and the patterns within them.
The Osiris – Seth set is the most important set of texts due to their concern with the
death of Osiris. In this, it is fundamentally different in content than any other
relationship. The murder of Osiris at the hands of Seth was the primary event,
providing the impetus for every other event or action. In all cases within this set Osiris
is the passive participant in the relationship. This is expected given his inert status, but
it highlights the fact that no relationship was concerned with an event prior to his death.
The death of Osiris was the origin point for the texts and all others were dependant on
that event. Every relationship in the Osiris – Seth set is concerned with either the
murder itself or the direct consequences of it. The exception to this is the Osiris –
Protected/Saved – Seth relationship, which is more akin to relationships in other sets in
its aims of remedying the situation of the deceased. The murder is mostly described in
vague terms, with euphemisms for death used rather than explicit details being given.
Even the identities of the deities involved, particularly Seth, are not given in the texts.
The rules of decorum governed the use of the texts so heavily that despite the
importance of the event, it could not be mentioned in a specific way due to its violent
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nature. These rules seem to loosen under the reign of Pepi I as more explicit texts
appear in his pyramid and continue to be used in the subsequent corpora. Closely
linked to the murder itself was the location of the death of Osiris, encapsulated in the
relationship Osiris – Located in – Nedit. This relatively simple relationship provides a
key detail about the events of the death of Osiris. These texts give details about the
geographical location in which the death occurred, going beyond the mere statement of
the event. The location itself is mythic in nature and it indicates a coherent thought
process on the part of the text editors and theologians regarding the event. The fact that
the location was important enough for inclusion within the Pyramid Texts speaks to its
importance within the religious discourse of the Old Kingdom. The aftermath of the
death of Osiris, the eventual punishment of Seth, is also detailed in the relationship Seth
– Bears – Osiris. While it is not stated explicitly that this action was undertaken as part
of a punishment, the fact that it is often done at the command of other deities, such as
Horus and the Dual Ennead, makes the situation of punishment highly likely. The
placing of Seth under Osiris, both physically and metaphorically would have protected
Osiris from the harmful actions of Seth, but also situated him rightfully in the senior and
dominant position. 140
Connected with the murder but less directly related is the protection of Osiris from Seth
in the relationship Osiris – Protected/Saved – Seth. This relationship is very similar to
many others in detailing a situation where Osiris is protected from the general actions of
140 Note that Seth also has positive connotations in relation to the protection of Osiris. In the
Pyramid Texts he helps protect Osiris from snakes, for the collection of texts see Turner, Seth: A
Misrepresented God. Seth is well known as the protector of Osiris and Re from Apophis; David
Fabre “La dieu Seth de la fin du Nouvel Empire à l’époque gréco-romaine entre mythe et
histoire,Ӄgypte, Afrique & Orient 22 (2001): 19-40; Te Velde, Seth, God of Confusion, 99-108. The
distinction between good and evil can be seen as theologically motivated by the struggle of Re
against Apophis and also Osiris and Seth, see Jan Assmann, “Gottes willige Vollstrecker: zur
politischen Theologie der Gewalt,” Saeculum 51 (2000): 161-174.
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Seth. This is done with very general texts using unspecific terminology, as well as very
specific texts mentioning Seth by name. The temporal location of this relationship after
the death of Osiris points to a situation where even after his initial death Osiris was still
in need of protection from Seth. This aligns with the mortuary beliefs of the Egyptians
in other periods, where the deceased had to avoid a second death, which would cease
their existence in the afterlife.141 The dangers of the daily journey to the afterlife are
well attested in the Amduat of the New Kingdom.142 In the Old Kingdom, Seth seems to
represent all the harmful forces that the deceased needed protection from. The Osiris –
Seth texts thus have at their core the murder of Osiris, which provided the reason for the
rest of the events to take place. It was the fundamental motivation behind the mortuary
beliefs and practices of the ancient Egyptians and so would naturally be of utmost
concern in the mortuary literature of the Old Kingdom. The content of the texts reflect
an anxiety about the death of a god, the prototypical king of Egypt, which is reflective of
their complex worldview. The texts seek to provide a divine archetype for a troubling
event, the death of a king.
In the Osiris – Horus set of texts there are two specific ideas presented: the succession
patterns of the Egyptian kingship, and the positive actions taken by Horus towards
Osiris. Regarding the succession patterns, the family relationship between Osiris and
141 The Judgement of the Dead in the New Kingdom represented Seth, the enemy, as both split
into the guilt of the deceased and the heart-swallowing monster. Fail the judgement, that is fail to
be protected from the enemy Seth, and the deceased suffered a second death, ceasing to exist. See
Assmann, Death and Salvation, 76. 142 Andreas Schweizer, The Sungod’s Journey through the Netherworld: Reading the Ancient Egyptian
Amduat, ed. David Lorton (Ithaca and New York: Cornell University Press, 2010); Barbara Richter,
“The Amduat and its Relationship to the Architecture of Early 18th Dynasty Royal Burial
Chambers,” JARCE 44 (2008): 73-104; Erik Hornung, “Das Amduat,” in In Pharaos Grad: die
verborgenen Stunden der Sonne, ed. Erik Hornung et al. (Basel: Factum Arte, 2006), 21-27; Erik
Hornung, “The Amduat,” in Immortal Pharaoh: The Tomb of Thutmose III, ed. Erik Hornung et al.
(Madrid: Antikenmuseum, 2005); Hornung, Books of the Afterlife.
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Horus is stressed in Horus – Son of – Osiris. Horus is referred to as the son of Osiris
constantly throughout the Pyramid Texts, and the idea is inescapably linked to the idea
of hereditary succession, even though the texts do not mention succession specifically.143
This family relationship is not the only one to appear in the Pyramid Texts, as the entire
family tree of the Heliopolitan gods is present, albeit with some incongruities. The
inclusion of the Horus and Osiris relation in this study is focussed upon the implications
it has for the succession of the kingship from Osiris to Horus. The existence of a
coherent pantheon of gods remains an important point, as it indicates a level of
coherence to the religious thoughts about the gods at the time. The implication of the
hereditary succession is made clear in the relationship Horus – Successor of – Osiris,
where texts are dedicated to detailing the situation of Horus attaining the kingship in
preference to Seth. One text, PT 519, even explicitly says that Horus took the kingship
143 Kingship succession was hereditary and thus up held the relationship seen in the Pyramid
Texts where Horus succeeds as the son of the deceased king over Seth as the brother, see Henri
Frankfort, Kingship and the Gods: A Study of Ancient Near Eastern Religion as the Integration of Society
and Nature, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 110. The hereditary nature of Egyptian
kingship is included in the definition of John Baines and Norman Yoffee, “Order, Legitimacy and
Wealth in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia,” in Archaic States, ed. Gary Feinman and Joyce
Marcus (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 1998), 205; this definition is utilised with
reference to Old Kingdom kingship by Miroslav Bárta, “Egyptian Kingship during the Old
Kingdon,” in Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos, Politics and the Ideology of Kingship
in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, ed. Jane Hill et al. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2013), 259. On royal succession and the eventual
desacralisation of Egyptian kingship and succession see Paul Frandsen, “Aspects of Kingship in
Ancient Egypt,” in Religion and Power: Divine Kingship in the Ancient World and Beyond, ed. Nicole
Brisch (Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2008), 62-65. Frandsen argues
that the increasing use of legal terminology such as the imyt-pr to describe the succession of the
new king shows the increasing awareness of the humanity of the king at the expense of his
divinity. The divinity of the king is explored extensively in scholarship, Ronald J. Leprohon,
“Royal Ideology and State Administration in Pharaonic Egypt,” in Civilisations of the Ancient Near
East, ed. Jack Sasson et al. (New York: Scribner, 1995), 1:273-287, who argues that the king was not
thought of a divinity or as a god incarnate but rather the recipient of a divine office. John Baines,
“Ancient Egyptian Kingship: Official Forms, Rhetoric, Context,” in King and Messiah in Israel and
the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar, ed. John Day (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), 16-53, who explores the idea of the King as a token of the divine
in the real world. See also John Baines, “Kingship, Definition of Culture, and Legitimation,” in
Ancient Egyptian Kingship, ed. David O’Connor and David Silverman (Leiden and New York:
Brill, 1995), 3-47, for a dated but worthy summary of scholarship on the topic.
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from Seth, providing a temporal location for the event after Seth had killed Osiris and
taken the kingship illegitimately. This is echoed in PT 260 where the disorder in the
world caused by the wrongful king is referenced as the “disruption in Heliopolis.” That
Horus should inherit because he is the son of Osiris was at the core of Egyptian
succession patterns, which prioritised the son over the paternal uncle.144 The
relationships are thus aetiological in nature providing an explanation for hereditary
succession, a primary explanation of the myth of Osiris overall. It reflects a concern for
the rightful succession to be upheld and indicates the importance of the idea to the
Egyptian kingship.
The other relationships concern the beneficial actions taken by Horus on behalf of
Osiris. The most important of these is probably the resurrection of Osiris. Given the
important role that Isis and Nephthys have as mortuary deities and their singular
involvement in the resurrection of Osiris in later traditions, it is surprising that Horus
takes this role in the Pyramid Texts. This could indicate an early tradition that was
edited to allow for an infant Horus to be born after the resurrection of Osiris, rather than
before, as it seems is the case in the Pyramid Texts. Additionally, Horus also saves,
protects and acts for Osiris, which solidifies his role as a helper deity. Osiris, as the
typical god in need, requires Horus in order to maintain his existence. The particular
role Horus takes is in protecting Osiris from Seth, as well as providing generally for
Osiris, where not much detail is given as to what the provision actually is, shows that
the action itself was more important. The different ways Horus protects Osiris from
144 This idea shows itself to be particularly relevant during the 19th Dynasty when the hereditary
succession pattern was disturbed. The late Egyptian story of the Contendings of Horus and Seth
has thus been interpreted as a legitimisation of the correct succession pattern upheld for
Ramesses V, see Ursula Verhoeven, “Ein historischer “Sitz in Leben” für die Erzählung von
Horus und Seth des Papyrus Chester Beatty I,” in Wege Öffnen Festschrift für Rolf Grundlach zum
Context,” Narrative 3 (1995): 73-84; Gerald Prince, “Revisiting Narrativity,” in
Grenzüberschreitungen: Narratologie im Kontext ed. Walter Grünzweig and Andreas Solbach
(Tübingen: Narr, 1999), 43-51; Gerald Prince, “A Narratological Approach: The Narrator in Le Père
Goriot,” in Approaches to Teaching Balzac’s “Le Père Goriot,” ed. Michal Ginsburg (New York: MLA
Publications, 2000), 90-97; Gerald Prince, “A Commentary: Constants and Variables of
Narratology,” Narrative 9, No. 2 (2001): 230-233. 157 Marie-Laure Ryan, “Toward a Definition of Narrative,” in The Cambridge Companion to
Narrative, ed. David Herman (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 22-
38. Ryan questions the usefulness of a definition as the phenomena is variable, definition is not
always implicitly related to interpretation. 158 Gerald Prince, Dictionary of Narratology, Rev. ed. (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska
Press, 2003), 58.
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The need of a narrator is questionable as there are narrative texts that do not employ
them. This is reflected in a broader definition from Abbott in defining narrative as the
representation of an event159 or a series of events.160 Without an event or action there is
just description indicating the primacy of events to the existence of a narrative.
Narrative has its own time and order and must proceed chronologically from the
earliest to the latest; however, the order events take in a story can be quite different from
the order of events in the narrative discourse.161 The universality of narrative to human
conceptions of the world is commented on by Abbott, who writes that:
As soon as we follow a subject with a verb, there is a good chance we are engaged
in narrative discourse. 162
This aspect of narrative was already noted by Barthes in his seminal work:
Moreover, in this infinite variety of forms, it is present at all times, in all places,
in all societies; indeed narrative starts with the very history of mankind; there is
not, there has never been anywhere, any people without narrative.163
In a more complex definitional schema, Bal discerns three characteristics of narrative:164
- That there are two types of speakers in a narrative text. One does not play a role
in the story whereas the other does.
- There are three layers to a narrative text: the text, the story and the fabula.165
159 On the term event see Peter Hühn, “Event and Eventfullness,” in Handbook of Narratology, ed.
Peter Hühn et al. Narratologia 19 (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2009), 80-97. An
event refers to a change of state and has become a defining characteristic in most definitions of
narrative and narrativity. 160 H. Porter Abbott, The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2002), 12 161 Abbott, Introduction to Narrative, 15 162 Abbott, Introduction to Narrative, 1. 163 Roland Barthes, “An Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative,” New Literary History
6 no. 2 (1975): 237-272. See also Mieke Bal, Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, 2nd
ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), 220, “Not that everything ‘is’ narrative; but
practically everything in culture has a narrative aspect to it, or at the very least, can be perceived,
interpreted as narrative.” 164 Bal, Narratology, 9
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- The contents of narrative are a series of events caused or experienced by actors
presented in a specific manner.
In this conception Bal admits that there can be texts which display all of the features
listed but are still not considered narrative texts. The narrative theory used can only
describe the narrative aspect of a text, which need not be the overriding aspect. The
narrative qualities of the text need not be the dominating characteristic for it to have
narrative qualities.166 In this view narratology defines and describes narrativity not
narrative. That is, it describes the extent to which an object has narrative properties;
narrativity is thus a cultural mode of expression rather than a static genre.167 Ryan also
discerns three characteristics of narrative:168
- Narrative involves the construction of the mental image of a world populated
with individuated agents and objects.
- This world must undergo not fully predictable changes that are caused by non-
habitual physical events.
- In addition to being linked with physical states by causal relations, the physical
events must be associated with mental states and events. This network of
connections gives coherence, motivation, closure and intelligibility and turns
them into a plot.
165 For Bal, the text consists of the words themselves, the use of a medium. The story, is an abstract
idea related to the ordering of events. The fabula is the product of the imagination, the events and
actions themselves. 166 Bal, Narratology, 10. 167 Bal, Narratology, 222. 168 Marie-Laure Ryan, “On the Theoretical Foundations of Transmedial Narratology,” in
Narratology beyond Literary Criticism: Mediality, Disciplinarity, ed. Jan Christoph Meister,
Narratologia 6 (Berlin and New York: Water de Gruyter, 2005), 4.
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She also makes the distinction between narrative and narrativity.169 Narrative can be
achieved by any semiotic object so long as it is produced in order to evoke a narrative.
The audience’s experience of the text is the defining characteristic of narrative; whereas,
narrativity evokes the narrative without intention to do so.170 Narrativity is thus a
variable descriptor of a text, in that different texts can have varying levels of narrative;
in contrast to narrative, which is a fixed class that a text either belongs to or does not.
Ryan notes that questions comparing narrativity are far more likely to illicit broad
agreement than questions asking if a text is narrative or not.171 As a concept, narrativity
is a more effective analytical tool than the concept of narrative alone. A fully narrative
text has sufficient levels of both these attributes, but the degree of narrativity is
subjective and varies greatly from object to object. This variability of narrative presents
itself in definitions as well, as Genette describes the situation of a minimal narrative
occurring:
For me, as soon as there is an action or an event, even a single one, there is a story
because there is a transformation, a transition from an earlier to a later and
resultant state.172
Such minimal narrative can consist of short simple statements such as “the boy ran,”
certainly not very interesting or detailed, but still a narrative under Genette’s
conception.
169 Maire-Laure Ryan, Avatars of Story: Narrative Modes in Old and New Media (Minneapolis:
University of Minneapolis Press, 2006), 10-11. See also, H. Porter Abbott, “Narrativity,” in
Handbook of Narratology, ed. Peter Hühn et al. (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2009),
309-328. 170 Ryan, “Transmedial Narratology,” 6-7. 171 Ryan, “Toward a Definition,” 30. 172 Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse Revisited, trans. Jane Lewin (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1983), 18.
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Two consequences arise from this brief overview of narratology; first is that narrative
does not need to be the dominating characteristic in a text for narrative to occur and
second, narrative can occur in very short segments of text. The situation in the Pyramid
Texts maps onto these concepts very well. Embedded within a largely non-narrative
scheme, the texts that detail the events after the death of Osiris are still reflective of
narrative; or rather they exhibit characteristics of narrativity. Each short text, in so far as
they describe an event or action, can be thought of as having narrative qualities. They
may not satisfy a strict definition such as that of Prince in his insistence of the existence
of a narrator and narratee, but the broader definitions espoused by Abbott and Genette
all the identification of narrative. The texts discussed in this chapter describe events and
actions to do with the Heliopolitan gods, which reflect a level of transitivity required of
narrative. This is exemplified by Osiris, who dies and is revived; a transition from
living to dying to living again. The texts present a world, populated by actors, which
undergoes unpredictable change, the impetus for which was emotive. This satisfies the
three criteria of Ryan for narrative despite the level of narrativity being quite low.173
This low level of narrativity does not preclude the idea of the existence of the narrative
itself and is attributable to the primary function of the Pyramid Texts, as non-narrative
ritual texts. The level of narrativity in texts dealing with the myth of Osiris varies
greatly and it seems that the Egyptians were not concerned with the issue. Full
narrative myth, which displays a high level of both narrative and narrativity, would not
have been appropriate for the Pyramid Texts, but narrative myth did have efficacy to
173 For a study into a text with low levels of narrativity see, Brian McHale, “Weak Narrativity: The
Case of Avant-Garde Narrative Poetry,”Narrative 9 no. 2 (2001): 161-167. See also Brian Richarson,
“What is Unnatural Narrative Theory,” in Unnatural Narratives – Unnatural Narratology, ed. Jan
Alber and Rüdiger Heinze (Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter, 2011), 23-40, who studies narratives,
which are not naturally classed as such.
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some extent. They are embedded within a non-narrative ritual schema but nevertheless
retain their individual status as narrative.
The implications of this line of enquiry go beyond the Pyramid Texts themselves. The
narrative qualities present in the Pyramid Texts imply that mythic thought within
religious discourse was also narrative. The analytical distinction between a genotext
and phenotext illustrates this point further. On the phenotextual level the appearance of
the myth of Osiris in the Pyramid Texts is in a narrative format. It displays a level of
coherence and a possible sequence of events despite the low level of narrativity. This
would imply that on the genotextual level, that is, within the wider religious discourse,
which includes the oral sphere, the myth of Osiris was most likely thought of in a
narrative format as well. Mythic thought did not take the form of non-narrative
constellations, allusive entities, which would have had little efficacy in religious
discourse. As a primary way of conceiving the world, narrative would have been a
more effective tool for describing the world and the changes it went through.
This study approached myth without narrative as a guiding principle as a means of
testing its validity to the discussion of religious discourse in Old Kingdom Egypt.
Contrary to this approach it has been found that as a theoretical and methodological
framework, narrative is important when discussing myth. The universality of narrative
to human expression and thought is inescapable, and it is natural that the Egyptians
utilised narrative in their thoughts about Osiris and his death. This narrative
conception of myth is reflected in the religious textual material of the Old Kingdom,
which despite being predominantly non-narrative exhibits narrative qualities in relation
to events and actions of the Heliopolitan gods. Definitions of myth, in so far as they are
useful, should incorporate narrative, or more correctly narrativity, into them. Under
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such a definition the texts discussed in this chapter should be considered narrative
myth, albeit with a low level of narrativity. They reflect a worldview, ordered
sequentially, which underwent change with events and actions related in enough detail
in order to evoke a known narrative.
113
CHAPTER THREE: VARIABILITY IN THE RELATIONSHIPS
: INTRODUCTION 3.1
Having examined the core relationships in the Osiris myth and shown that their form
approaches narrative, this study now turns to the issue of variability. This aspect of the
investigation focusses on the appearance and use of other deities in the same roles as
those discussed in Chapter Two. Flexible identities or plot lines seem inimical to the
concept of narrative myth as they could cause incongruities in the story, rendering it
incomprehensible and ineffective. The possibility of a low level of narrativity, discussed
in Chapter Two, leaves the question of the purpose of variability in the Pyramid Texts
open. The mutable nature of the Egyptian pantheon has been commented on variously
by scholars174 and shown to allow the Egyptians a flexible and powerful way of
comprehending their world beyond static relationships.175 Goebs effectively
demonstrated the fixed structure that underlined many of the variations in the Pyramid
Texts, commenting that the lack of a fixed structure on the textual level allowed myth to
be adapted to different contexts.176 In general discourse on myth, variability is often
attributed to an early phase of myth before a canon is set down in a fully narrative
174 Goebs, “Functional Approach to Myth,” where the variable nature of Egyptian myth is
analysed and shown to have an underlying structure. The different identities occurring within
myth to perform the same action or role are thus not understood as inconsistencies but rather as a
characteristic of Egyptian myth, which allowed it to be adapted to a variety of different contexts
and purposes. See also Baines, “Myth and Literature,” 364-365; Erik Hornung, Conceptions of God,
125-128. 175 Baines, “Myth and Literature,” 364. 176 Goebs, “Functional Approach to Myth,” 58.
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form.177 This idea remains a possible explanation for the situation in the Old Kingdom,
as later accounts do seem to show a higher degree of narrative coherence. The purpose
of variability in relation to the Osiris myth in the Pyramid Texts deserves further
examination. In particular, the implication for the narrative aspects identified in
Chapter Two requires investigation. This chapter identifies and explores the variant
texts in each set in order to examine these concepts with three foci in mind. First, an
identification of which relationships exhibit variation. Not all relationships may diverge
and while the appearance of variant texts is of primary importance for this analysis, the
absence of change can be just as informative for discussing the use of myth in the
Pyramid Texts. Second, the extent to which variation occurs. Some relationships might
vary to a large degree, while others very little. Understanding possible reasons for this
will help enlighten the purpose of variability overall. In particular, the extent to which
some relationships were already concrete in the minds of the Egyptians and which ones
were fluid can help to show an evolution in the canonisation of the myth, if such a
process was in effect. Finally, the wider implications of variability can be considered.
Its purpose for myth and the interplay between variability and narrative will be
discussed in order to ascertain a deeper understanding of the complexity of the issue of
myth in the Pyramid Texts.
: OSIRIS – SETH 3.2
: SETH – KILLS – OSIRIS 3.2.1
The relationship Seth – Kills – Osiris exhibits no variation at all. In the Pyramid Texts it
is only ever Seth who kills Osiris. It has been shown that the exact identity of the
177 Doty, Mythography, 138, argues for three phases of the vitality of myth moving from the most
potent to the most rationalised. The first phase, primary myth, shows no developed mythic
narratives and inconsistencies occur due to this being the initial formation period. See also
Richard E. Moore, Myth America 2001 (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1972), 19-20.
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attacker is not always stated, but the lack of any other individuals specifically identified
leaves Seth as the only viable candidate in these situations. Likewise, Osiris is the only
deity whom Seth attacks in this way. It was shown in Chapter Two that Horus is also
the victim of the actions of Seth in their contendings; however, this should not be treated
as a variation on the Seth – Kills – Osiris relationship but rather as a separate and
distinct relationship. This lack of flexibility indicates that the ideas surrounding the
death of Osiris at the hands of Seth were well established by the time the Pyramid Texts
were inscribed and could not be modified for any purpose. This is to be expected given
the nature of the act that was committed and the inappropriateness of having more than
one murderer of Osiris. When one considers the level of constraint shown in the
pyramids of Unis and Teti in particular, it follows that the composers of the texts would
not associate other deities with this act.
: SETH – BEARS – OSIRIS 3.2.2
The relationship Seth – Bears – Osiris shows some minor variation in both the
individual who is borne, as well as the one who performs the act of bearing.
NUMBER OF VARIANT TEXTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP
SETH – BEARS – OSIRIS
PYRAMID VARIANT TEXTS
UNIS 1
TETI 1
PEPI I 2
MERENRE 1
PEPI II 3
NEITH 1
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There are five variant texts,178 of which at least one is found in each of the pyramids
analysed as shown in the table above. In four of the texts,179 it is not Seth who bears
Osiris but rather the children of Horus. PT 368 and PT 648 have Horus giving his
children to Osiris so that they can bear him. PT 648 reads:
Osiris NN, Horus has given you his children so that they might bear you and you
might have control over them.
PT 544 and PT 644 differ in that they voice a command that the children should bear
Osiris. PT 644 reads:
Horus’s children, you should go under NN. Carry him. Let there be none of you
who turn back as you carry Osiris NN.
PT 247 deviates in a different way, describing a situation where Seth bears Atum rather
than Osiris:
Seth, he will bear you, he is the one who will bear Atum.
The substitution of Atum into this dynamic could be attributed to his role as the
Heliopolitan creator god. The fact that this text only appears in the pyramid of Unis
indicates that it may have been an early idea, which was subsequently edited out of
later iterations of the Pyramid Texts. Its early inclusion could reflect the importance of
Atum to the overall theology presented in the Pyramid Texts. As the punishment of
Seth became more important to Osirian tradition, the need to include the action of Seth
bearing Atum was superseded. This relationship shows relatively little flexibility as
there are more texts identifying Seth and Osiris in their roles than there are deviations.180
The fact that the variant texts were, for the most part, copied through all of the corpora
means that despite their fewer number, their actions were still important within the
You of the command beware the one who has been dealt an eye injury.
In PT 277 Seth is identified as a snake, which “slithers off on account of his testicles” just
as Horus fell because of his eye. PT 359 is in the same vein but simply mentions the
injuries given to each of the gods:
Horus as wailed for his eye, Seth has wailed for his testicles.
Likewise, PT 386:
Horus has fallen on account of his eye, Seth has felt pain on account of his
testicles.
PT 327 and 475 follow this same pattern but differ slightly in the way they refer to the
injuries. PT 327 refers to the fetcher of Horus and Seth as someone who fetched for
them their injured body part. PT 475 simply commands an unnamed identity, possibly
the deceased, to get the injured body part of the god for them. PT 570 is different in that
it refers to a time when Horus and Seth had not been injured:
That was born before disturbance had come into being, when Horus’s eye had not
been ripped out and Seth’s testicles had not been tied off.
In addition to the injuries, the healing of the gods is mentioned in PT 455 where the
curative powers of the saliva of the gods are shown:
Seth has become clean through it and the evil that was against him after Horus
acted against him was released to the ground.
Equally, PT 667A where the outflow of Osiris is used as a curative force to heal the gods:
That Seth may be cleaned from what his brother Horus has done to him, that this
NN may be cleaned from everything bad against him.
After mentioning that Seth swallowed Horus’ eye PT 501C also refers to Seth rasping in
pain because of his testicles. These texts all give equal importance to both injuries
focusing on the reciprocal nature of them; however, two texts mention the injury of Seth
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by itself. PT 215 simply states:
May you snare the testicles of Seth.
And PT 222:
Being provided as Seth whose raw testicles were pulled off.
While the majority of the texts here show equal attention being paid to both gods with
regards to their injuries, there are many more texts which mention the actions by Seth
taken against Horus and his eye, which suggests that the injury of Horus was of a
higher concern for the text editors. The fact that the injury of Horus always precedes the
injury of Seth in the texts points to its principal position and that the injury of Seth may
have been thought of as retaliation. So, while there is some variation to the relationship,
it mostly focuses on the reciprocal injury rather than Seth being injured in his own right.
: HORUS – CONTENDS WITH – SETH 3.5.3
The last relationship relating the contending of Horus and Seth has no variations. There
are differences in the way the two gods are said to contend, but their identities remain
the same with no other deities taking their place. This makes sense given that this idea
was central to the understanding of the kingship overall. Horus had to contend with
Seth, and only Seth, in order to get the kingship which was rightfully his. Thus no other
deities could take Seth’s place and vice versa.
: DISCUSSION 3.6
This chapter has presented the deviations on the core texts, which were identified in
Chapter Two, in order to understand the concept of variation in the Pyramid Texts. It
has highlighted, in particular, that some relationships vary and some do not, and that
the extent to which the relationships vary differs remarkably. Overall, there are more
relationships that exhibit flexibility, indicating that generally, the relationships
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surrounding Osiris were fluid and could adapt to different contexts and needs.
Of immediate concern to the discussion are the different individuals, who take the role
of other deities in the core relationships. When a different individual is substituted,
most often in relation to an action being taken, the variation only occurs within the
Heliopolitan tradition. This is particularly true of Geb, who appears in almost any
situation, performing any action. He is in involved in genealogical and succession
concerns, he searches for and finds Osiris and he performs all the beneficial actions of
protection, revivification, and joining together of Osiris. His consort Nut also figures
heavily, but only in contexts of beneficial action such as protecting, reviving, and joining
Osiris. This more limited role, compared to Geb, is not unexpected given her primary
attributes of protection and encircling, particularly in relation to her association with the
tomb. Geb it seems, as the patrilineal leader of the Heliopolitan gods, could be inserted
into a wider array of situations and remain effective. Horus, who has a primary role in
the core texts, also appears in the variants. When Horus appears in a variant text he
often takes the roles associated with Isis and Nephthys. Horus searches for and finds
Osiris and also takes part in the joining of him, much like Geb. Conversely, Isis and
Nephthys do not appear in other relationships indicating that the actions they were
effective in were known and static, but the actions in themselves could be shared with
other deities. Atum also figures in the genealogy and succession patterns contained
within the Pyramid Texts, which is expected given his nature as the Heliopolitan creator
god. His minor appearance in other relationships such as the bearing of and calling out
to Osiris indicates a concern during the early iterations of the Pyramid Texts to include
him in other areas as well. Thoth appears in a minor way in the relationships
concerning resurrection and Horus acting against Seth. His inclusion in the Osiris myth
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at this stage is fairly minor and he mostly appears as a counterpart to Horus. It
nevertheless shows the antiquity of his links to the Osiris myth, which can be seen in a
much more significant way in the New Kingdom, particularly in the Contendings of
Horus and Seth. This variation within the Heliopolitan tradition highlights the fact that
different regional traditions did not cross over each other. They were thought of as
distinct cycles in themselves that could flex and change within their own spheres of
influence, but not cross their borders.
The appearance of variation differs between the relationships in that either the first,
second or both elements could change, and they do so to very different extents. This
suggests that there were multiple purposes to the inclusion of disparate aspects. The
changing of the main actor in the relationship generally occurs when the action is
beneficial for Osiris. His protection, searching for, finding and resurrection are all
shared by various deities; however, two relationships show an extremely high level of
divergence in the number of texts and also the identities included. The resurrection of
Osiris by Horus is also performed by Geb, Nut, Seth, Thoth, the deceased themselves
and in one text the hieroglyphs are mentioned in this context. Similarly, the actions of
Isis and Nephthys in the joining together of Osiris are also performed by Geb, Nut,
Horus, Thoth and the deceased. Both of these relationships also have a much larger
number of variant texts than core texts with over a 300% increase in each. The highest
flexibility in the myth was thus related to the beneficial actions performed for Osiris,
particularly in relation to his resurrection. The responsibility of the performance of
these actions was not thought of as being attached to one deity but could be performed
by multiple actors. Given the nature of Horus – Revives – Osiris and Isis and Nephthys
– Join/Unite/Assemble – Osiris, it is understandable that they would have a very high
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number of variant texts. The accumulation of as many attestations of reviving would
have ensured the success of the action where a small number of texts might have been
unsuccessful. The resurrection of the deceased was the primary purpose of the Pyramid
Texts themselves and so this action could not be allowed to fail. The purpose of the
statements remained the same despite the difference in the identity of the actor
involved.212 Flexibility in the nature of identities allowed the full range of statements to
be explored while concurrently making sure they would be effective in achieving their
purpose.
Horus’ protection of Osiris and also the calling out to Osiris by Isis and Nephthys can
also be thought of in this category, although they do not vary to the same extent. The
number of variant texts concerned with the protection of Osiris is fewer than the
number of core texts, but when compared to other relationships it still exhibits a
relatively high level of flexibility. In addition to Horus, Geb, Nut, the deceased and the
Ennead are all involved in this action. The calling out to Osiris, identified as part of the
actions of resurrection, is the exception as the relationship shows a very low level of
flexibility despite being concerned with a beneficial action for Osiris. This suggests that
Isis and Nephthys were thought of singularly in this role. Variation could thus be
utilised in order to increase the efficacy of the Pyramid Texts, apparent inconsistencies
were not only accepted but necessary as part of the purpose of the statements about the
gods.
The changes to a number of relationships point to a very different purpose of variation,
namely the inclusion of alternative traditions. The location of Osiris’ body, the search
212 The continuity of purpose despite differing identities involved is identified by Goebs, “A
Functional Approach to Myth.”
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for and finding of it all display changes suggestive of a different sequence of events in
the myth of Osiris. In the well-known accounts from later periods, as early as the New
Kingdom, the searching and finding of Osiris is done only by Isis and Nephthys. In the
Pyramid Texts, this action is shared primarily with Horus and to a much lesser extent
Geb. Rather than having the same underlying purpose, these texts indicate the existence
of a different tradition where Horus sought for and found his father. This is particularly
evident when analysing the location of Osiris’ body. The variant location of Ghesti is
only seen in texts in which Horus is involved in the searching. Conversely, Nedit is
only used in relation to Isis and Nephthys. This correlation between the location of
Osiris and the identities of the searchers indicates that they existed as two separate
traditions of thought on the events of the Osiris myth. Their inclusion together in the
Pyramid Texts displays a concern on the part of the text editors to represent the two
traditions, but not combine them. Much like the resurrection and joining relationships,
the searching for Osiris has more variant texts than core but involves fewer deities. The
relatively similar number of texts involving Isis and Nephthys and Horus suggests that
he was just as important to the event. This is not reflected in the finding of Osiris, in
which there are fewer variant than core texts. Isis and Nephthys were clearly dominant
in this action, suggestive of the eventual move towards their singular role in later
accounts. The lack of texts identifying Ghesti as the location of Osiris’ body also points
to the dominance of Isis and Nephthys. If the location of Nedit was associated primarily
with the goddesses, its preference in the Pyramid Texts is reflective of an overall
predilection for the inclusion of the tradition involving Isis and Nephthys.
The relationship Seth – Bears – Osiris also shows the presence of possible different
traditions involving the children of Horus and Atum. The lack of appearance after the
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reign of Teti suggests a purposeful editing out of the ideas. The punishment of Seth,
presented in this way, was thus preferred in later pyramids. Likewise, the relationship
Horus – Acts against – Seth in which Thoth appears minimally, indicating the existence
of a tradition including Thoth in the actions against Seth. Overwhelmingly, it is Horus
who appears in this context. The representation of different traditions does not seem to
have had an adverse effect on the efficacy of the Pyramid Texts and, following the
reasoning applied to the resurrection of Osiris, it might have had the opposite effect.
The inclusion of other traditions demonstrates the operative force of variability in
allowing different versions of the myth of Osiris to exist and function together, side by
side. Their existence is highly suggestive of an early stage in the formulation of myth,
before a set chronological order of the events had been established. Just as the
amalgamation of the aspects of the gods resulted in multiple roles, the bringing together
of separate traditions in the Pyramid Texts resulted in multiple versions.
The third purpose of variation is not strictly variation at all. The familial and succession
relationships include other deities such that a full line of descendants is present in the
Pyramid Texts. They are not reflective of a divergent tradition because there is no
inherent contradiction in the statements. The father-son relationship is emphasised
throughout the Pyramid Texts, tracing a line of succession from Horus back to Atum.
The importance of the patrilineal succession to the concept of Egyptian kingship was
thus maintained through the inclusion of not only the most important succession, from
Osiris to Horus, but the entire succession pattern. The link between the Pyramid Texts
and kingship is undeniable, and allowing the various relationships encapsulated in
these texts to exist side by side was a powerful statement about the rightful kingship
succession.
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The relationship Seth – Injures – Horus shows a different sort of variation again. The
majority of the core texts, which were not part of the offering ritual, also appear as
variant texts as they contain the reciprocal idea in one text. Horus is injured by Seth and
then Seth is injured by Horus. The flexibility in the relationship Seth – Injures – Horus is
also not reflective of a divergence in tradition but rather shows the nature of the event
as reciprocal. While there are texts that describe the actions separately, the texts
describing them together clearly show they were thought of as one event. The injury of
Horus was probably more important, as it receives much more attention when
compared to the injury of Seth.
While some relationships vary, others do not, which is equally as informative about the
use of myth. Of the four relationships between Osiris and Seth, two show no variation.
The first is the relationship Seth – Kills – Osiris. It is only Seth who kills Osiris and it is
only Osiris who is killed by Seth. As the primary motivation for most of the
relationships concerning Osiris, the lack of variation makes sense. The heinous nature
of the event and its importance in the Osirian tradition precluded it from being
manipulated. Any variation within the Heliopolitan gods would have had the effect of
creating an incomprehensible myth, rather than a variable and effective statement about
the world of the gods. It would not have been appropriate, for example, to have Thoth
kill Osiris when he is also in the role of helper god for him. This begs the question of the
dual nature of Seth, who has both positive and negative aspects to his character. The
negative aspects of Seth do seem more pronounced in the Pyramid Texts due to his
central role in the Osiris myth, but his dual is not unique. Osiris shows a similar
bifurcation; his origins as a fertility god, connected with the inundation, were
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amalgamated with the attributes of other gods as the cult of Osiris spread.213 It seems
the singular identification of the murderer of Osiris as Seth was well established by the
time the Pyramid Texts were inscribed, it was a part of his nature that was accepted as a
necessity in Egyptian theology. The relationship Osiris – Protected/Saved – Seth also
lacks any variation. As has already been discussed, the identities of those doing the
protecting could vary to a great extent, but the recipient of, and the reason for, the action
did not. This relationship is closely linked to the murder of Osiris, as avoiding the
violence of Seth for a second time was the primary motivation for the protection being
undertaken. In much the same way as the murder, it would make little sense to
substitute another deity for either of these roles.
Where Osiris and Horus are concerned, the majority of the relationships between them
exhibit some variation; the only exception to this is Horus – Acts for – Osiris. Unlike
other relationships in this set, the beneficial actions undertaken in here are less specific.
They refer to actions such as “acting for,” tending,” or “taking account of.” The actions
themselves would not impede the identification of another deity, other than Horus,
performing them, which suggests that it is their general nature that linked them to
Horus. In addition to searching for, finding, reviving and protecting Osiris, Horus was
also responsible for the general wellbeing of Osiris. This is in keeping with his role as
the eldest son, who would have taken primary care of his father and the upkeep of his
mortuary cult. Variation was thus not random, as it might appear on reading the
Pyramid Texts, but purposefully applied for a specific reason.
213 Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, 118-119.
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Similar to the Osiris – Horus set, in Osiris – Isis and Nephthys the majority of
relationships change, with two exceptions. Isis and Nephthys – Mourn – Osiris involves
no deviation of either element. As a direct consequence of the murder of Osiris, the
lack of variation in his identity should be expected, but the static nature of the identities
of the mourners as Isis and Nephthys speaks to their established roles as mortuary
goddesses. Depictions of funerals often show a multitude of mourners, so the singular
identification here of Isis and Nephthys suggests that their roles as the prototypical
mourning women, was established by the time the Pyramid Texts were inscribed. The
few texts that mention the conception of Horus only identify Isis and Osiris in these
roles. The conception of Horus, similar to the murder of Osiris, was a crucial event in
the myth and thus could not be changed. The Heliopolitan family tree was well
established and identifying any other deity, within this schema, as the parent of Horus
would not have been appropriate. Further to this, the succession pattern from Osiris to
Horus needed to be maintained; variation to this would have complicated the situation
to the point of absurdity.
Within the last set of texts, Horus – Contends with – Seth only places Horus and Seth in
these roles. The lack of variation stems from the action being described, the contending
of Horus and Seth over the kingship necessarily had to include only Horus and Seth or
risk inconsistency in the overall mythic situation.
Turning to the wider implications of variation, the fundamental problem of this study,
narrative, becomes more complicated. Variability seems to be contrary to narrative in
implying a lack of coherence, in that it infers the existence of different temporal
situations and events. In all theories of narrative, coherence is implicitly or explicitly a
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primary feature214 but an understanding of the concept, much like narrative itself,
differs. Approaching this in the same way narrative was, from a theoretical point of
view, can clarify understanding.215 Prince does not define coherence specifically,
instead referring to order, in which he makes the distinction between the order in which
events are said to occur, and the order in which they are recounted on the textual
level.216 He notes that the two need not be the same, that a story can be recounted in a
number of different chronological patterns to the understood, logical version.
Sequential ordering can thus be imposed by the reader even if the text presents it out of
order.217 A story can even be told backwards and still retain coherence.218 McAdams
provides the most current thought on this concept, arguing that a listener expects a
story to have a beginning, middle and end. If the narrator does not order the events, the
listener may do it for themselves. They can impose a coherent temporal structure,
where one is lacking in the text.219 Reinhart elicits three conditions for coherence to
exist; connectedness (cohesion), consistency and relevance.220 She focusses in particular
on the linear nature that coherence implies. Sentences must be connected in a formal
and linear pattern for the text to remain coherent or cohesive. This form of coherence
would have been irrelevant for the Pyramid Texts, where there is not a continuous texts
214 Michael Toolan, “Coherence,” in Handbook of Narratology ed. Peter Hühn et al. (Berlin and New
York: Walter de Gruyter, 2009), 45. For a comprehensive, bibliography on the topic of coherence
see Uta Lenk, Sarah Gietl and Wolfram Bublitz, “A Bibliography of Coherence and Cohesion,” in
Coherence in Spoken and Written Discourse: How to Create it and How to Describe it, ed. Wolfram
Bublitz et al. Pragmatics and Beyond New Series 63 (Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John
Benjamins, 1997), 267-295. 215 It must be admitted that this theoretical understanding originates in western discourse and is
not concerned with the cultural traditions of Near-Eastern civilisation. Its inclusion here is used
only as a backdrop for the comprehension of the situation in Egypt. 216 Prince, Dictionary of Narratology, 69. 217 Bal, Narratology, 80-81. 218 Abbott, Introduction to Narrative, 30. 219 D. McAdams, “The Problem of Narrative Coherence,” Journal of Constructivist Psychology 19
(2006): 112. See also Jean Mandler, Stories, Scripts and Scenes: Aspects of Schema Theory (Hillsdale:
Erlbaum, 1984). 220 Tanya Reinhart, “Conditions for Text Coherence,” Poetics Today 1 (1980): 164.
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relating to the myth. The necessity of event sequencing is highlighted by Herman in his
definition of narrative.221 For Herman
Narrative traces paths taken by particularized individuals faced with decision
points at one or more temporal junctures in a storyworld; those paths lead to
consequences that take shape against a larger backdrop in which other possible
paths might have been pursued, but were not.222
Conversely, temporal logic is absent in the definition of a coherent narrative by
Trabasso:
The construction of a coherent representation of a story follows from inferring
relations between state and actions, integrating these events into episodes,
integrating episodes by relating their actions or states, and organizing episodes
into higher-order structures.223
The complexity of the issue of coherence is highlighted particularly well by Giora, who
argues that coherence is independent of cohesion.224 The linear nature implied by
cohesion, as understood by Reinhart, should not be associated with coherence, as
analysis on the textual level, sentence by sentence, is irrelevant.225 Coherence is not
linear, but linked to the coherence of the overall discourse topic.226 The concept of
coherence might not even be applicable to the text, as Givón argues that coherence is not
an objective property of the produced text. Coherence is situated in the mental
processes of discourse production and discourse comprehension, the by-product of
221 David Herman, Basic Elements of Narrative (Chichester and Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 9;
18-19. 222 Herman, Elements of Narrative, 19. 223 Tom Trabasso, “The Development of Coherence in Narratives by Understanding Intentional
Action,” in Text and Text Processing, ed. Guy Denhiere and Jean-Pierre Rossi, Advances in
Psychology 79 (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1991), 297. 224 Rachel Giora, “Notes Towards a Theory of Text Coherence,” Poetics Today 6 (1985): 700. 225 Giora, “Notes Towards a Theory,” 700. 226 Giora, “Notes Towards a Theory,” 710-711
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which is the text.227 Coherence is thus particularly associated with temporality, but this
does not necessarily have to be reflected on the textual level.
The different types of variability in the Pyramid Texts have different implications for
coherence and thus narrative. The variable nature of the beneficial actions aimed at
ensuring success does not seem to imply a lack of coherence. The different individuals
in the Pyramid Texts do not create inconsistency or incoherence, as they do not change
the temporal logic of the myth. Incoherence occurs when a story defies understanding
of how the world works.228 The multitude of deities involved in beneficial action for
Osiris created a powerful statement about the nature of the gods and the resurrection of
Osiris, which superseded the need for coherence. Narrative coherence in the strictest
sense was not appropriate to this kind of religious discourse. Variability seems to have
been accepted as it allowed for different versions to exist and operate side by side, not in
conflict. The preference for Horus over the other deities, and in particular the lack of
Isis and Nephthys in the variants of Horus – Revives – Osiris, points to a known mythic
situation that would have allowed an understanding of the temporal logic of the myth,
despite it lacking on the textual level. The main problem for the cohesion of the Osiris
myth in the Pyramid Texts stems from the appearance of Horus in the searching for and
finding of Osiris. The nature of these texts, as distinct from those of Isis and Nephthys,
suggests the existence of different narrative, which creates an altered temporal sequence
of the Osiris myth. In the same way that a reconstruction of the core texts can result in a
narrative sequence, the variant texts in this case can create a different sequence.
- Horus is conceived and born to Isis and Osiris
227 T. Givón, “Coherence in Text vs. Coherence in Mind,” in Coherence in Spontaneous Text, ed.
Morton Ann Gernsbacher and T. Givón, Typological Studies in Language 31 (Amsterdam and
Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1995), 60. 228 McAdams, “The Problem of Narrative Coherence,” 112.
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- Seth murders Osiris for reasons that are unclear, possibly jealousy.
- Seth hides the body of Osiris in Ghesti and possibly dismembers him in the
process.
- Horus searches for Osiris.
- He finds him.
- Horus resurrects Osiris and Isis and Nephthys join the body of Osiris back
together.
- With his father safe, Horus challenges Seth for the throne of Egypt. In the
conflict Horus and Seth injure each other.
- Horus eventually wins the battle before the Ennead and is given the throne, his
rightful inheritance.
- As punishment for his crime, Seth is charged with carrying the now inert Osiris.
The existence of such an account is difficult to prove, as it disappears from the written
record in later sources. The possibility of the existence of this account in the Pyramid
Texts implies that for the Egyptians, narrative coherence was not a concern. Again, a
known narrative outside of the Pyramid Texts would have allowed the imposition of a
temporal logic on the texts. When understood as part of the cultural and religious
milieu of Old Kingdom Egypt, this apparent inconsistency does not imply a lack of
narrativity; an inconsistency of thought. Rather it is more suggestive of the co-existence
of two ideas. This is more apparent when one considers the lack of variability in some
events. When considered as a whole, the variation and non-variation reveals a myth in
flux, some aspects were already crystallised by the inscription of the Pyramid Texts,
such as Seth’s identity as the murderer of Osiris, while others were yet to be canonised,
such as the identities of the searchers of Osiris.
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The Pyramid Texts show a concern for recounting all the different possibilities in a
comprehensive, although not always coherent, statement of the myth of Osiris. Similar
to the situation described in the previous chapter regarding narrative and narrativity,
the relationship between coherence and narrative is not precise. The impact of the
textual context, that is ritual, cannot be understated. Coherence on the level of a full
narrative would not have been effective in a ritual setting due to the low level of
narrativity in the texts and the Egyptians do not appear to have been concerned with the
issue. The texts can still be thought of as acting on the level of narrative despite the
apparent inconsistencies. An audience, if there was one, would have been aware of the
story and its multiplicity so that a temporal ordering of the events could have taken
place. The inconsistency in the Pyramid Texts regarding the myth of Osiris does not
negate the existence of a narrative myth. Instead, it reveals a highly complex and
evolving phenomenon.
160
CHAPTER FOUR: TEXTUAL DISTRIBUTION
: INTRODUCTION 4.1
This study has had the content of the Pyramid Texts as its primary focus, revealing a
complex narrative scheme of the Osiris myth, which was nevertheless subject to
variability. This chapter now turns to their distribution, in order to deepen the
understanding of the use of myth in Pyramid Texts. Different levels of analysis are
presented here in order to identify what, if any, patterns exist in the textual distribution
of the Osiris myth. First, the numbers of both core and variant texts are analysed
diachronically by set. This aspect of the analysis seeks to ascertain how the Osiris myth
was utilised over time in successive pyramids. Changes in the number of texts included
can be informative for how the use of myth may have changed, indicating different
trends in religious thought. Second, the groups of texts identified by Hays229 are
analysed. The groups constitute the units by which a Pyramid Text corpus was made
up, and concentrations of texts within these units can show how the myth of Osiris was
incorporated into the Pyramid Texts. Third, the categories of texts to which the myth of
Osiris belonged, either sacerdotal or personal, speak to their context of performance.
Finally, the spatial distribution of the texts on the walls of the pyramid chambers can
show where the myth of Osiris was deemed to be most effective. This statistical analysis
goes beyond the issue of the identification of myth in the Pyramids, which was the
subject of the previous chapters, and moves towards a better understanding of the
mechanisms of incorporation to which the myth of Osiris was subjected. This approach
seeks to place the Pyramid Texts in their spatial and temporal context. They did not
229 Hays, Organization, 1:79-123.
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exist in a vacuum but rather had location, in a pyramid, room or wall, and agency in
relation to specific themes.
: THE NUMBER OF TEXTS WITHIN THE PYRAMIDS 4.2
The results of the diachronic analysis of the number of core texts that occur in each
Generally, there was a pattern of expansion in the number of texts included in each
pyramid over time.230 The Pyramid of Unis always has the lowest number of texts in
each set, which might be expected given the relative smaller size of his corpus, when
compared to the later pyramids; 231 however, decorum might have also played a factor.
While reference to certain events appears to be prohibited or restricted by decorum
more than others, in particular the murder of Osiris, the entire narrative of the myth
might have been considered inappropriate to commit to writing at this early stage in the
230 The exception is the Pyramid of Merenre which exhibits a lower number of texts than Pepi I
and II. This is attributed to a lack of preservation rather than a lack of actual texts. 231 Unis has about 230 texts, Teti has about 300, Pepi I has about 740, Merenre has about 422, Pepi
II has about 682 and Neith has about 308 texts. The number of Pyramid Texts in total has been
estimated at about 900 as this is subject to change with the discovery of new texts.
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evolution of the Pyramid Texts. No matter the cause, by the reign of Pepi I it appears to
have lessened, or disappeared entirely. This suggests that there was an increased
interest in incorporating the Osiris myth into the Pyramid Texts under the reign of Pepi
I. This might have been motivated by an increase in the space made available for
inscription, a move that permitted the enlargement of the corpus of texts overall.
Conversely, it could point to a larger influence of the foundation myth associated with
the Heliopolitan priesthood, which required incorporation into the religious discourse
of the Old Kingdom. Due to the fragmentary nature of our knowledge, we may never
know the specific motivation for the change. The number of texts in the pyramid of
Pepi I appears to have been considered the standard as the numbers are roughly
maintained until the reign of Pepi II.232 The pyramid of Neith has fewer texts than that
of Pepi I, owing to the different architecture of her tomb but in all sets there are more
than in that of Teti, indicating the engagement with the Osiris myth was maintained in
the tomb of at least one queen. The state of preservation of the tombs of the other
queens has precluded a meaningful analysis in this way. If Neith is representative, then
it suggests that the Osiris myth was utilised beyond the realm of the ruling king despite
its importance for issues of kingship. 233 Succession may have emphasised paternity but
it also acknowledged maternal links234 and in later periods the queen was thought of as
the embodiment of Isis.235 The efficacy of the Osiris myth may have been felt in the
tombs of the queens during the Old Kingdom in this way. The Horus – Seth set differs
232 If the full corpus of texts was preserved for Merenre it would approximate the same number as
Pepi I. 233 The limited number of texts in the appendices of this study from the tombs of the queens hints
at this interesting prospect. 234 Lesko, Great Goddesses, 157-158, suggests that the representation of Isis with the throne
determinative on her head reflects an early role of the queen mother as the carrier of legitimate
rulership. While the change to a patrilineal succession line is evident in the Osiris myth, the
interplay between the tombs of the queens and the myth could reveal more about succession at
this time. 235 Lesko, Great Goddesses, 170.
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to the others in displaying a remarkable level of continuity in the number of texts in
each pyramid. The pyramid of Unis has a much greater number in this set compared to
others; although, the number of additions in the pyramid of Pepi I is still quite high.
This is attributable to the importance of these texts to the offering ritual, which appears
to be relatively fixed by this time.236 This could point to a standardised version of the
offering ritual in which the relationship between Horus and Seth took primary place.
The core texts thus reflect a general pattern of expansion over time.
When looking at the variant texts, many of the same patterns can be discerned. In all
the sets of texts there is an increase over time in the number of texts included in the
corpora. The standard is again set down in the pyramid of Pepi I, which is followed
until the pyramid of Pepi II.
THE NUMBER OF VARIANT TEXTS IN EACH SET BY PYRAMID
This correlates well with the rise in the Heliopolitan priesthood during the Old
Kingdom.251 It seems no coincidence that the increase in the significance of the myth of
Osiris occurred at the same time as the cult of Re and the Heliopolitan priesthood were
gaining prominence in Egypt. The myth was clearly more important to the priestly
domain, which could have been a direct consequence of the incorporation of
Heliopolitan ideas into the royal mortuary texts. The increase in that incorporation,
attaining its zenith under Pepi I, might be attributable to a changed religious and
political landscape in Egypt. The peak of the significance of the cult of Re was during
the Fifth Dynasty with the erection of the sun temples at Abu Gurob; however, the
abandonment of this tradition did not result in the renunciation of the solar religion,
which still remained important during the Sixth Dynasty.252 Indeed, the political
statement of the incorporation of the myth of Osiris must have been powerful, given the
purpose of the myth with links to kingship, succession patterns and above all else the
notion of maat. The increased royal engagement with the political ideology of the
Heliopolitan priesthood speaks significantly about their relationship. The use of the
myth of Osiris in the Pyramid Texts, shown by the different distribution patterns, is thus
reflective of a purposeful engagement with the foundation myth of the Heliopolitan
priesthood as they were rising in religious and political importance.
251 Stephen Quirke, The Cult of Ra: Sun-Worship in Ancient Egypt (Thames and Hudson: London,
2001). See also Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, 209; Rosalie David, Religion and Magic in
Ancient Egypt (London: Penguin, 2002), 77-136; Jaromir Malek, “The Old Kingdom,” in The Oxford
History of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Shaw (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 98-99; Jaromir
Malek, In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Egypt During the Old Kingdom (Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press, 1986), 106-105; Rosalie David, Cult of the Sun: Myth and Magic in Ancient Egypt
(London: Dent and Sons, 1980), 36-57. 252 Quirke, Cult of Ra, 84-85. See also Michel Baud, “The Old Kingdom,” in A Companion to Ancient
Egypt, ed. Alan B. Lloyd (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 1:75-77.
200
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
: INTRODUCTION 5.1
This study set out to explore the appearance and use of the myth of Osiris in the ancient
Egyptian Pyramid Texts. This was motivated primarily by the lack of a comprehensive
understanding of the concept of myth in the cultural context of Old Kingdom Egypt.
Egyptological studies on myth have tended to focus on later periods in Egyptian
history, in which narrative myth is clearly evident. Treatment of the early evidence has,
on the whole, resulted in the conclusion that the Old Kingdom lacked myth entirely253 or
that narrative was not of importance to religious discourse.254 On the other hand, more
recent treatments have tended to favour to the opposite end of the spectrum, arguing for
the existence of non-narrative myth. This dichotomy in the scholarship reveals the
complexity of the issue under investigation and that there can be no simple answer. To
understand the intricacies of myth in ancient Egypt this thesis has analysed the content
of the Pyramid Texts through different lenses of enquiry. Its three sections address the
textual content, aspects of variation and the spatial and temporal distribution of the
textual material. These sections define the motivations of this study to move from an
understanding of the core of the myth of Osiris to all of its varying aspects, and the
implications, for myth, of the interplay between text and monument. They indicate the
scope of this project, and its concerns with a deeper comprehension of the ways in
which the divine world was conceived and discussed in Old Kingdom Egypt.
253 Assmann, “Die Verborgenheit.” 254 Baines, “Myth and Literature.”
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201
FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS 5.2
Myth emerges from this study more sharply defined as a complex social, religious and
political phenomenon. As a concept, its borders stretch beyond our definitional
frameworks of narrative, story or network. If we are to understand the complexity of
myth we must situate myth in the cultural and social milieu in which it is found, and
look beyond those definitional frameworks that can be restrictive. The employment of
the latter in Egyptological studies has, contrary to the purpose of a definition in
demarcating the limits of a concept, created a mixed understanding of myth in Egypt as
scholarship divides in two directions, characterised by an understanding of myth as
primarily narrative or non-narrative. Rather than advocating a unifying approach to the
topic, which would stultify our understanding of the concept, this study seeks to
demonstrate the problem of restriction created by definitions. The introduction to this
study highlighted the plurality of characterisations, in general discourse on myth as
well as in Egyptological studies. It was shown that in prioritising a single aspect of
myth, the nuances and complexities of the concept were lost. Moving beyond this, this
study has sought to provide an alternative way of comprehending myth beyond the
narrative versus non-narrative debate. The stripping away of narrative as a primary
mechanism of order motivated this study to utilise a system of classification that was
not confined to those borders of coherence and logical order, but rather the grouping of
similar content together in a system of relationships. Despite this analytical framework,
aimed at an understanding of a primarily non-narrative text, the implications of the
analysis pointed at narrative underpinnings. The fact that a coherent whole could be
constructed from the disjointed parts indicates the existence of that whole. Yet in a
series of non-narrative ritual texts, the imposition of a narrative structure might go too
far, saying more about how the modern world is ordered rather than the ancient.
Nevertheless, our understanding of myth, as a product of human discourse, is
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inescapably tied to narrative. The key concept of narrativity appears to mediate
effectively between the seemingly opposed concepts of narrative and non-narrative.
That a narrative structure could have a low level of narrativity, and still retain its core
essence, describes the situation in the Pyramid Texts remarkably well. The logical
definitional trait of myth as narrative is thus upheld, even in a non-narrative context.
The narrative and the non-narrative can co-exist in the text through the idea of
narrativity. This leads this study to conclude that myth during the Old Kingdom in
Egypt was conceived of in narrative terms, correlating with the concept of a genotext, in
the oral sphere. The narrative conception was not reflected to a great extent on the
textual level, the phenotext, due its own concerns for ritual in which a full narrative
would not have been effective.
This conception is further complicated by the occurrence of variation in the Pyramid
Texts. A logical understanding of narrative includes the idea of coherence, that the
events and actions of the narrative have a fixed order to them. The existence of
apparently competing notions of the events and actions in the myth of Osiris, presented
concurrently in the Pyramid Texts, can lead to a conclusion that a lack of stability in the
form of the myth existed, precluding its actualisation as narrative. But this conclusion
does not necessarily follow. This study has shown variability to be an operative force in
the Pyramid Texts, essential to their success in maintaining the deceased in the afterlife.
The accumulation of multiple texts with the same purpose appears to have been an
overriding characteristic of the Pyramid Texts, which superseded the need for temporal
coherence. Sequential ordering could be imposed by the reader rather than the author,
and strict coherence might have only existed in the mental processes of religious
thought. The genotext, known to those privileged enough, would have provided the
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203
understanding necessary to order the events presented in the Pyramid Texts, if such an
order was desired. A lack of textual coherence does not necessarily imply a lack of
narrative, but speaks to the purpose of the Pyramid Texts as primarily ritual. The most
significant conclusion from the investigation into variability concerns the existence of
more than one narrative in the Pyramid Texts. The dual nature of Horus as the young
child conceived between Osiris and Isis, who must grow up in order to contend with
Seth, and as a god old enough to search for, find and resurrect his father, is suggestive
of two different accounts, each of which can produce a slightly different narrative. The
maintenance of one fixed narrative does not appear to have been a concern for the
editors of the Pyramid Texts. The texts prioritise inclusion over exclusion and reflect a
desire to incorporate all the different traditions about the world of the gods, including
those beyond the purview of the myth of Osiris. In understanding the different uses to
which variability was put in the Pyramid Texts, this study has shown myth during the
Old Kingdom to be an evolving phenomenon, primordial in nature and more complex
than a singular narrative conception was capable of explaining.
While the content analysis of this study pursued an understanding of the concept of
myth itself, the study of the textual distribution of the myth of Osiris sought to
understand its use and has a number of important wider implications. It was found that
the myth of Osiris, like the Pyramid Texts themselves, was subject to a programme of
expansion over time, reaching its peak during the reign of Pepi I. The utilisation of
myth in the Pyramid Texts during the reign of Unis and Teti appears to have been more
reserved, with minimal references to events concerning the death and resurrection of
Osiris. References to such heinous actions as the murder of Osiris would naturally be
restricted by decorum, but this does not adequately explain the lack of the entire myth.
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It was thus the myth in its entirety, explaining the death, search for, finding of and
resurrection of Osiris that was not appropriate for writing down. This does not imply a
lack of existence, as the few references found in the pyramids of Unis, and particularly
Teti, illustrate that the narrative was at least known. It rather points to the purposeful
editing of the Pyramid Texts to not include a full account of the narrative. The
exception to this rule appears to have been the injury of Horus by Seth, as it appears in
the Offering Ritual from the inception of the use of the Pyramid Texts. The differences
in treatment of the Osirian elements from those about Horus and Seth are highly
suggestive of another tradition external to the Osiris myth. Just as the Osiris myth
appears to have had different versions, the contendings of Horus and Seth seems to
have been originally apart from the Osiris myth and was subject to different
programmes of editing.
One of the most fascinating conclusions of this area of enquiry is the changing situation
under Pepi I. The vast expansion in the number of texts about the myth of Osiris, the
spread of their use throughout the tomb complex, and their higher level of detail all
point to the fact that the reign of Pepi I was revolutionary in terms of religious thought.
There was more freedom to utilise the foundation myth of the Heliopolitan theology
and an increased desire to incorporate it into the royal mortuary texts. The fact that the
number and placement of the texts appears to have been maintained in subsequent
pyramids speaks to the importance of the reign of Pepi I, in creating a relative canon for
the Pyramid Texts. This could be reflective of a standardisation of religious practices
during his reign or his importance for later kings to emulate. The question remains open
and further investigations into the motivations behind this move would be enlightening.
The increased use of the myth of Osiris also points to the increase in the influence of the
CHAPTER FIVE
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Heliopolitan priesthood. It was observed that the myth of Osiris in the Pyramid Texts
originated primarily in the priestly domain of mortuary practices, rather than the
personal. The rise of the solar religion centred at Heliopolis is thus reflected in the use
of the Osiris myth in the Pyramid Texts. The statement made by the ruling class
through this increased incorporation of the myth of Osiris reflects the changing religious
and political landscape of Egypt during the Old Kingdom.
This study is now in a position to answer the research questions laid out in the
introduction.
- To what extent do the Pyramid Texts contain the myth of Osiris?
- What form does mythic thought take in non-narrative texts?
- How was the myth of Osiris conceptualised in the Old Kingdom?
Within the corpora of the Pyramid Texts, the entire myth of Osiris is contained. The
death, search for, finding of, resurrection of Osiris and the succession of Horus are all
present in some form. The texts lack extraneous detail in preference for brevity and
sometimes allusion, but this has more to do with the form of ritual texts than the form of
myth. The core of what was important, the essence of the myth, is presented rather than
a full account with every detail explained. On the individual level the Pyramid Text
corpora show different levels of incorporation of the myth. This reflects the changing
dynamics of religious thought in the Old Kingdom and reveals the shifting political
climate caused by the rise in prominence of Heliopolitan theology. Moreover, on closer
examination the Pyramid Texts as a whole not only contain a full account of the Osiris
myth, but a varied account. The myth of Osiris was thus conceptualised as a multivalent
narrative, with a core element and variations. The examination of the variations to
which the myth was subjected has highlighted its primordial nature. In particular, it
CHAPTER FIVE
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has shown that for the theologians of the Old Kingdom, the desire to create a single
narrative of the events was less important than assembling the different strands of
thought into a comprehensive collection. The knowledge required to understand the
competing ideas and variations was undoubtedly known to those who created the texts
and one cannot escape the fact that a language, beyond the confines of linguistic
devices, is being used here that we do not fully understand.
In a corpus of non-narrative, ritual texts, one might expect to find mythic thought
approaching something of a non-narrative form. Like the constellations of Assmann or
the tableau of Bickel, these conceptions provide an attractive lens of analysis for the
scholar. The form of the Pyramid Texts, as ritual, cannot be forgotten and the form of
myth was inserted into this scheme rather than being a founding principle. Ritual texts
are fundamentally incapable of housing the most recognisable form of myth, a full
unbroken narrative. This study has shown the concept of a non-narrative myth to be
insufficient in explaining the situation in the Pyramid Texts. Narrative myth, albeit with
a low level of narrativity, provides the best explanation of the form of myth in the
Pyramid Texts. The lack of coherence, often used as an indictment against narrative,
does not necessarily imply a lack of narrative thought. Instead it shows the
phenomenon to be more complex and multi-faceted than a singular narrative
conception could contain.
From the perspective of methodology this study points to a number of implications for
research into myth in ancient Egypt. The most important of these is the
inappropriateness of strict definitional frameworks. As a concept, myth is multi-
faceted, multi-purpose and can exist in a plurality of forms in different cultures. The
CHAPTER FIVE
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universality to myth in all cultures should not be denied, but this should not be
confused with the universality of the idea itself. Definitions at their core seek to limit a
concept, but if the concept is almost without limit this task serves only to highlight one
aspect, one form, or one purpose of myth. Inspired by the vast body of literature on
myth, this thesis has revealed the danger of treating myth as a static phenomenon, and
what can be achieved when the limiting notion of a definition is disregarded in favour
of a culturally, and temporally specific understanding. The vastness of the scholarship
on myth generally is testament to its nature as a highly important and variable vehicle
for cultural belief. This nature should be reflected in the approach taken in
understanding myth, exploring its complexity rather than creating dividing categories
into which texts can be placed and analysed.
This study has shown that even within a relatively short lapse of time the appearance
and use of myth changed within Egypt. This study challenges the way in which
scholars have understood the temporality of myth. The use of the Pyramid Texts in the
Old Kingdom spanned some 200 years, during which time they changed and evolved.
The appearance of myth also developed as concepts changed, traditions were
amalgamated and the core narrative was formed. Closer attention to the evolution of
myth over time, rather than using an encompassing definition for all time periods, has
repaid this study through deeper understanding of myth in its temporal and cultural
setting. This methodology would repay other studies as well, honing understanding in
incremental steps rather than through broad sweeping generalisations.
: LIMITATIONS AND FURTHER STUDY 5.3
This study is just one piece of the puzzle and while its implications are far reaching for
the study of myth in ancient Egypt and religion in the Old Kingdom, it will no doubt
CHAPTER FIVE
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208
not be the final word on the topic. There are limitations to what could be accomplished
in the confines of a thesis and also in the source material utilised. Much work is still
required both in understanding the development of religious thought during the Old
Kingdom and also the periods that surround it. The primary limit placed upon this
study was borne from the disagreement in the scholarship that was the inspiration for
its undertaking. The discussion of the late development of myth in ancient Egypt has,
more often than not, had the Pyramid Texts as its starting point. In order to address this
issue, the source material chosen for analysis was naturally this body of texts. This
naturally excluded any source material that was not a part of the mortuary texts of the
kings of the 5th and 6th Dynasties.255 The earliest representations of Osiris date back to
the 5th Dynasty showing that his iconography was probably established well before the
Pyramid Texts were inscribed.256 The main reason for the limitation to the Pyramid
Texts in the Old Kingdom concerned the scope and depth of the study being
undertaken. An overarching study of the Osiris myth through Pharaonic history would
not accord enough priority to one body of evidence, and would also lack the detail
required to make a significant contribution to scholarship. This study has argued
against treating myth, and by extension Egyptian thought, as a fixed phenomenon
through history and by limiting this study it is more effective in delineating religious
thought of a specific time period.
255 As a full publication of the pyramid of Merenre becomes available more information could be
added to this study. Likewise, a study of pyramids of the queens could be undertaken as they are
published, which would enlighten scholarship further on the use of the Osiris myth beyond the
kings. 256 Marianne Eaton-Krauss, “The Earliest Representation of Osiris?” VA 3 (1987): 233-236. Eaton-
Krauss argues that a fragmentary block from the funerary temple of Djedkare-Isesi is the earliest
representation of Osiris. David Lorton had questioned the identification in “Considerations on
the Origin and the Name of Osiris,” VA 1 (1985): 122. See also David Cintron, “Theology in the
time of Djoser,” JSSEA 34 (2007): 19-20.
CHAPTER FIVE
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209
In light of this study, further research is still in need regarding myth in ancient Egypt.
As narrative myth was in existence during the Old Kingdom its origins could lie further
back in time. The Early Dynastic257 and Predynastic Periods could be studied with this
in mind. Tomb T100 at Hierakonpolis258 and the rock art at Gebel Tjauti provide some
early examples of possible kingship rituals and mythological associations.259 Study into
this area could provide a deeper understanding of how myth was conceived at the
foundation of the Egyptian state and in the earliest periods of Pharaonic history. The
level of coherence and awareness of the overall sequence of events suggests that there
must have been an earlier formation of the ideas found in the Pyramid Texts. This has
257 For the early dynastic period see Kathryn Bard, “Toward an Interpretation of the Role of
Ideology in the Evolution of Complex Society in Egypt,” JAA 11 (1992): 1-24; Orly Goldwasser,
“The Narmer Palette and the “Triumph of Metaphor”,” LingAeg 2 (1992): 67-85; Stan Hendrickx
and Frank Förster, “Early Dynastic Art and Iconography,” in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, ed.
Alan B. Lloyd (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 1:826-852; Stan Hendrickx et al., “Iconographic
and Paleographic Elements Dating a Late Dynasty 0 Rock Art Site at Nag el-Hamdulab (Aswan,
Egypt),”in The signs of which times? Chronological and Paleoenvironmental Issues in the Rock Art of
Northern Africa, Royal Academy for Overseas Sciences International Colloquium, Brussels, 3-5 June 2010,
ed. D. Huyge et al. (Brussels: Royal Academy for Overseas Sciences, 2012), 295-326; Ellen Morris,
“Propaganda and Performance at the Dawn of the State,” in Experiencing Power, Generating
Authority, Generating Power: Cosmos, Politics and the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia, ed. Jane A. Hill et al. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013), 33-64. 258 On tomb T100 at Hierakonpolis see Humphrey Case and Joan Crowfoot Payne, “Tomb 100:
The Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis,” JEA 48 (Dec., 1962): 5-18; Krzysztof Ciałowicz, “Once
more the Hierakonpolis Wall Painting,” in Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of
Egyptologists, ed. Chris Eyre (Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters, 1998), 273-279. 259 John Darnell, with the assistance of Deborah Darnell and contributions by Deborah Darnell,
Renee Friedmann and Stan Hendrickx, Theban Desert Road Survey in the Egyptian Western Desert
Volume 1, OIP 119 (Chicago: The Oriental Institute of Chicago, 2002), 10-19; Stan Hendrickx and
Renee Friedman, “Gebel Tjauti Rock Inscription 1 and the Relationship between Abydos and
Hierakonpolis during the Early Naqada III Period,” GM 196 (2003): 95-109. See also; Bruce
Williams, Thomas Logan and William Murnane, “The Metropolitan Museum knife handle and
aspects of Pharaonic imagery before Narmer,” JNES 46 no. 4 (1987): 245-285; Stan Hendrickx et
al, “Late Predynastic Falcons on a Boat,” JSAS 24 (2008): 371-384; John Darnell, “Iconographic
Attraction, Iconographic Syntax, and Tableaux of Royal Ritual Power in the Pre- and Proto-
Dynastic Rock Inscriptions of the Theban Western Desert,” Archéo-Nil 19 (2009): 83-107, esp 97-98.
See also Miroslav Bárta, Swimmers in the Sand (Prague: Dryada, 2010) who explores possible
origins of Pharaonic mythology in the Western Desert; Ludwig Morenz, “Texts before Writing:
Reading (Proto-) Egyptian Poetics of Power,” in Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos,
Politics and the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, ed. Jane A. Hill et al.
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013), 121-149.
CHAPTER FIVE
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210
been shown generally by Hays,260 but not specifically for the concept of myth.
The results of this study also point towards a formal analysis of the appearance of Osiris
in the Coffin Texts, the next stage in the evolution of the mortuary literature of Egypt.
No formal analysis of this sort has been undertaken for the Coffin Texts, yet such a
study would allow the beginnings of a chronological development of the myth of Osiris
through Pharaonic history. This does not need to be limited to the Coffin Texts as the
extant corpus of literature dating to the Middle Kingdom is much larger, which could
shed light on the expanding use of the Osiris myth. The Book of the Dead and other
mortuary literature, literary texts, as well as archaeological material from the New
Kingdom could all be avenues of research for a systematic study of the appearance of
the myth of Osiris. These studies, when put together, could form a compendium of
research in to the changing use of the myth of Osiris through the history ancient Egypt.
This study also highlights further questions for the Old Kingdom. The Pyramid Texts
are by no means fully understood and further study into the incorporation of other
divinities outside of the Osiris myth would help ascertain if the appearance of myth
shown in this study, also applied to other deities, or if the Osiris myth was more
singular in its treatment in the Pyramid Texts. Furthermore, this study has indicated the
importance of the reign of Pepi I for the expansion of religious ideas and their
incorporation into the mortuary literature. The motivations behind this are scarcely
understood and the question deserves treatment.
260 Hays, Organization.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION
211
: CONCLUDING REMARKS 5.4
The Pyramid Texts dating to the Old Kingdom in Egypt contain a narrative of the myth
of Osiris. Its appearance in short, segmented texts is in keeping with its incorporation
into a body of textual material not suited to a full narrative. The Pyramid Texts
preserved all the different traditions within the Osiris myth, side by side, without the
need to accord privilege of one account over the other. In this regard, they provide the
scholar with an insight into the development of myth from a plurality of traditions to
the more standardised versions known from later sources. It also speaks to the religious
thought of the Old Kingdom when inclusion of tradition was prioritised over the need
for strict coherence, a notion that appears to originate in western discourse rather than
eastern. If we are to fully understand the concept of myth in ancient Egypt, or indeed
any society, we must strip away the strict definitional frameworks that constrict
understanding and reveal myth for the complex and variable phenomenon that it is.
212
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239
APPENDICES
Listed below are the translations of the Pyramid Texts used in this study. They are
grouped according to the content as it discussed in this study, firstly by set and then
also by the different relationships. Multiple occurrences of the same text have been
duplicated in order to facilitate the use of the appendices when referring to specific sets
of texts. The numbering and location system follows the most recent system of James
Allen in his concordance of the Pyramid Texts cited throughout this study. Each spell is
listed with the Pyramid Text number followed by all of the occurrences the spell has in
the pyramids of Unis (W), Teti (T), Pepi I (P), Ankhesenpepi II (An), Merenre (M), Pepi
II (N), Neith (Nt), Iput (Jp) and Wedjebetni (Wd). Each occurrence is followed by a code
denoting the location of the spell within the pyramid complex by rooms, walls, sections,
registers and column numbers. Further classification is added according to which
group and type the text belongs to following the work of Harold Hays.
APPENDICES
240
OSIRIS – SETH
CORE TEXTS:
SETH – KILLS – OSIRIS
PT 218
W B/S 28–35
T B/S 24–29
P B/Se B 11–14
N B/Se B 15–18
Nt B/Se i 33–41
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
mk irt.n stS hna DHwty sn.wy=k i.xmw rm Tw
It is what Seth and Thoth have done,
your brothers who do not weep for you
PT 280
W A/E 3
T A/E 7–8
P A/E 27
N A/E 48
Nt B/E i 62
Group: K
Personal – Apotropaic
irti irti
You of the (evil) deed, you of the (evil)
deed.
PT 306
W A/N 18–24
M V/N 8–37
N V/E 70–74
Group: L, O
Personal – Transition
in smA. n=f Tw Dd.n ib=f mt=k n=f mk ir=k Tw xpr.ti ir=k ir=f m imnw n smA
Has he killed you, his heart having said
that you would die for him? Behold,
you have become a more permanent
wild bull than he.
PT 357
T B/E ii 38–45
P B/E 4–8
P Cn/E 26–40
M B/Eg 29–36
N B/E 4–8
Nt B/W 51–59
Wd B/W 38–48
Group: C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
in Hrw nD=f irt=n stS ir=k
It is Horus who will redeem what Seth
did against you
PT 380
T A/E 13
Group: K
Personal – Apotropaic
irti irti
You of the (evil) deed, you of the (evil)
deed.
PT 419
T SP/S 12–25
M A/Eg 25–32
N A/S C 1–2
Group: G, J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.xm.n stS irt.n=f ir NN m xmnt=f
Seth has annulled that which he did to
NN on his 8th day.
APPENDICES
241
PT 474
P A/W 22–24
P APn/W 13–22
M A/Wg 30–36
N A/W 8–11
Nt B/Nw 18–23
Group: J, M
Personal – Transition
i.n=f ir=f Dd.n=f smA=f Tw n smA=f Tw in NN pn smA=f xft=f smn=k Tw ir=f m imnw n smA.
He has come against you having said
that he would kill you. He will not kill
you, this NN is the one who will kill his
opponent and he will establish himself
against him as the most established
wild bull.
PT 477
P A/W 27–32
M A/W 29–45
N A/W 15–27
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aD pt nwr tA i Hrw xa DHwti Ts=sn wsir Hr gs=f di=sn aHa=f m xnt psDt sxA stS di ir ib=k mdw pw Dd.n gbb fAw pw ir.n nTrw ir=k m Hwt sr m iwnw Hr ndi=k wsir ir tA m Dd=k stS n ir.n(=i) is nw ir=f sxm=k im nHm.ti sxm=k n Hrw m Dd=k stS i=f wnnt ik.n=f wi xpr rn=f pw n ikw tA m Dd=k stS i=f wnnt sAH.n=f wi xpr rn=f pw n sAH Aw rd pD nmtt xnti tA Smaw Ts Tw wsir Ts.n sw stS sDm.n=f fAw nTrw mdw Hr it nTr a=k n ist wsir Drt=k n nbt-Hwt Sm=k imiwti=sn rdi n=k pt rdi n=k tA sxt iArw iAwt Hrwt iAwt stS rdi n=k niwwt dmD n=k spAwt in tm mdw Hr=s pw gbb
The sky is dishevelled the earth has
trembled, Horus has come, Thoth has
appeared that they might raise Osiris
from his side and cause that he stand
before the Dual Ennead. Remember,
Seth, and place in your heart this speech
which was said by Geb, this curse
which was made by the gods against
you in the official’s enclosure in
Heliopolis, because you threw Osiris to
the earth. When you said, Seth, “It was
not against him that I did this” so that
you might prevail thereby when your
control was taken away by Horus.
When you said, Seth, “indeed he has
been attacking me” and his name of
Earth-Hacker came into being. When
you said “indeed he has been kicking
me” and his name of Orion came into
being, wide of foot, spread of stride,
and foremost of the Nile-Valley. Raise
yourself Osiris for Seth has raised
himself having heard the curse of the
gods who spoke on behalf of the father
of the god. Your arm to Isis, Osiris,
your hand to Nephthys and you will go
between them. You have been given the
sky, you have been given the earth, the
Marsh of Reeds, the Horus mounds, the
Seth mounds, you have been given the
town and the country side has been
joined for you by Atum. Geb is the one
who argued for it.
PT 478
P A/W 33–37
M A/W 48–53
N A/W 33–42
Group: J
Personal – Transition
i.n=T m HH sn=T wsir nii.n sw sn=f stS Hr gs=f m gs pf n ghsti
You have come in search of your
brother Osiris, his brother Seth having
cast him down on his side in Ghesti.
APPENDICES
242
PT 532
P Cn/W 85–93
N Cn/E 1–10
Group: N
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
gm.n=sn wsir ndi.n sw sn=f stS r tA m ndit
They have found Osiris after his brother
Seth threw him down in Nedit.
PT 576
P V/W 59–66
Group: O
Personal – Transition
di wsir Hr gs=f in sn=f stS nmnm imi ndit Ts dp=f in ra bwt=f qdd msD=f bAgi
Osiris was placed on his side by his
brother Seth, but he in Nedit moved for
his head was raised by the sun, his
abomination is sleep, he hates
weariness.
PT 580
P V/W 75–77
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Hw it smA wr ir=f Hw.n=k it(=i) smA.n=k wr ir=k it wsir NN pn hw.n(=i) n=k Hw Tw m iH smA.n(=i) n=k smA Tw m smA ngA.n(=i) n=k ngA Tw m ng
i.rs n Hrw aHa ir stS Ts Tw m wsir Axis A gbb dpi=f
Awaken to Horus, stand up for Seth.
Raise yourself this Osiris NN, the
firstborn son of Geb.
PT 477
P A/W 27–32
M A/W 29–45
N A/W 15–27
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i Hrw xa DHwti Ts=sn wsir Hr gs=f
Horus has come and Thoth has
appeared that they might raise Osiris
from upon his side.
PT 532
P Cn/W 85–93
N Cn/E 1–10
Wd B/W 1–9
Group: N
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
APPENDICES
262
rs n Hrw aHa ir stS Ts Tw ir=k wsir NN pn sA gbb dpi=f
Awaken to Horus! Stand up for Seth.
Raise yourself this Osiris NN, the
firstborn son of Geb.
PT 547
P V/S 37
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Sia.n(=i) kw
Make yourself rise up to me!
PT 593
P B/Se B 39–42
M B/Eg 1–20
N B/E 1–4
Nt B/W 44–51
Nt B/E i 12–19
Group: B, C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa di.n=k a=k n Hrw di=f aHa=k
Stand up and give your arm to Horus
that he may cause that you stand up.
PT 610
M V/S 1–24
N V/E 55–63
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
rs n Hrw aHa n stS
Awaken to Horus, stand up for Seth!
Raise yourself, first born son of Geb.
PT 620
N B/Wg 61–63
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
ink Hrw wsir NN n di(=i) snw=k pr rs ir(=i) i.nD(=i) kw
I am Horus, Osiris NN. I will not let you
suffer. Come forth! Awaken to me that I
might tend you.
PT 636
N B/Ne B iii 75–78
N B/Ne B iv 85–87
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Di n(=i) a=k d(=i) aHa=k
Give to me your arm that I may cause
that you stand up.
PT 662
N B/E 59–62
Group: G
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
it NN aHa
Father NN, stand up!
PT 665A
P B/Se B 52–56
N B/Se B 50–55
Nt B/E i 1–12
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.rs n=i ink Hrw
Awaken to me! I am Horus who
awakens you.
PT 670
P B/Sw A 4–18
N B/Se B 100–106
Group: B, M
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa mA=k irt.n n=k sA=k
Stand up and see what your son has
done for you.
APPENDICES
263
PT 729
P B/Se B 89–92
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.rs n Hrw [aHa n stS]
Awaken to Horus! Stand up for Seth!
PT 735
P P/S 13-20
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.rs n Hrw
Awaken to Horus!
PT 767
P V/E 71–75
N V/S 14–26
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.rs i.rs it wsir m inpw dpi mniw=f
Awaken, awaken O my father Osiris as
Anubis who is atop his tent.
VARIANT TEXTS:
HORUS – REVIVES – OSIRIS
PT 223
W B/E 34–36
T B/N iia 42–77
P B/Ne iii 22–27
N B/Ne B v 29–36
Nt B/Ne C i 1–8
Wd B/Ne B iv 29–36
Wd B/Ne B iv 52–57
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa Ssp n=k t=k pn ma(=i)
Stand up and take to yourself this bread
that is yours in my hand.
PT 246
W P/S 8–19
T B/S 72–75
P B/Se B 35–36
N B/Se B 47–50
Nt B/E ii 2–7
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
mA aHat NN pn m bA abwi dp=f m smAwy
Stand up, this NN as one upon whom
are horns, the double wild bull!
PT 247
W A/Wg 1–11
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
NN pi NN Ts Tw Hr gs=k ir wD msqDD qdd sbAgii aHa imi ndit
It is NN! NN raise yourself from upon
your side! Perform the command you
who hates sleep but was made weary.
Stand up, one who is in Nedit!
PT 260
W A/W 37
Group: J
Personal – Transition
Tsii=f sw n mrt.n=f
Let him raise himself up to that which
he desires.
PT 262
W A/S 10–19
T P/S 1–13
P A/S 23–28
N B/Sw ii 26–37
Group: F, J
Personal – Transition
mdw-nTr sia sw
APPENDICES
264
It is the Hieroglyphs which make him
rise up.
PT 355
T B/E ii 18–32
P B/E 20–21
M B/Eg 44–50
N B/E 41–44
Group: C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa Ts tw mr wsir
Stand up and raise yourself like Osiris!
PT 364
T A/W 28–35
P B/Sw B 1–30
An B/E i 1–11
M A/Eg 40–63
N A/E 9–14
Jp B/E 16–26
Group: D, G, M
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
hA wsir NN pw aHa r=k
Ah this Osiris NN, stand up!
wsir NN rs r=k in.n n=k gbb Hrw ip=f Tw
Osiris NN, awaken! Geb has brought
Horus to you that he may reckon you.
i.sia.ti n=s m rn=s n ia
You being made to rise up to her (Nut)
in her name of Tomb
PT 365
T A/W 35–37
P B/Wg 22–25
M B/Wg 32–36
N B/W 52–55
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Tz Tw NN pw
Raise yourself this NN
aHa Axi NN pn
Stand up this akh NN
PT 366
T A/W 37–41
P B/Wg 25–31
M B/Wg 36–42
N B/Wh i 3–6
Wd B/W 48–57
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
hA wsir NN aHa Tz Tw
Ah this Osiris NN, Stand up and raise
yourself!
PT 372
T A/W 50–51
P B/Wg 37–40
P B/W´ 62–63
M B/Wg 47–51
Nt B/W 64–66
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
hA wsir NN i.rs ir=k
Ah, Osiris NN awaken!
PT 373
T A/W 51–54
M B/Wh i 4–6
N B/W 55–60
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw NN pw
Raise yourself this NN!
APPENDICES
265
PT 412
T SP/N 1–22
P B/Sw A 27–37
N B/Nw ii 35–43 (171–179) – B/W 1 (71)
Nt B/Sw 19–30
Nt B/Se ii 59–71
Group: G, M
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.dr Tw Hr gs=k iAb Hms Hr gs=k imn NN
Raise yourself from upon your left side
and sit upon your right side NN.
PT 413
T SP/N 23–27
Group: G
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.rs NN Ts Tw Ssp n=k tp=k
Awaken NN, raise yourself and receive
your head.
PT 419
T SP/S 12–25
M A/Eg 25–32
N A/S C 1–2
Group: G, J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa i.dr tA=k wxA xmw=k Ts Tw
Stand up! Throw off your earth! Cast off
your dust! Raise yourself!
PT 422
P B/Wg 1–21
M B/Wg 1–23
N B/W 42–52
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa=k NN pn nD.ti Htm.ti m nTr
May you stand up this NN being saved
and provided as a god.
PT 436
P B/W 1–4
M B/E 2–3
N B/Wg 33–36
Group: A, D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 437
P B/W 25–40
P B/W 4–19
M B/W 32–46
N B/Wg 1–28
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.rs n Hrw aHa ir stS Ts Tw m wsir Ahi sA gbb dpi=f aHa=k m sAb Hr minw
Awaken for Horus, stand up for Seth!
Raise yourself as Osiris an akh, the
firstborn son of Geb. Stand up as
Anubis master of the herdsman’s tent.
PT 440
T A/N 66–68
P B/W 28–30
M B/W 48–51
N B/Wg 53–60
Group: D, L
Personal - Transition
Sia=f NN n nTr aA
Let him make NN rise up to the great
god.
PT 451
P B/W 46–49
M B/W 9–12
N B/W 9–12
Nt B/W 11–13
Group: E
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
APPENDICES
266
hA NN pw i.rs Ts Tw aHa wab=k wab kA=k
Awaken and raise yourself, stand up so
that you may purify yourself and your
may be pure.
PT 452
P B/W 49–52
P V/E 50–51
M B/W 27–30
N B/W 31–34
Nt B/W 33–35
Group: E, O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
hA NN pw aHa wab=k wab kA=k
Ah this NN, stand up so that you may
purify yourself and your ka may be
pure.
PT 453
P B/W 52–53
P V/E 51–52
M B/W 30–31
N B/W 34–35
Nt B/W 35–37
Group: E, O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
hA NN pw aHa ir=k wnx n=k irt Hrw
Ah this NN, stand up and clothe
yourself in the Eye of Hours
PT 457
P B/E 12–14
N A/Wh
Group: C, J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts tw NN pn Ssp n=k mw=k sAq n=k qsw=k aHa r=k Hr rdwy=k Axt xnt Axiw
Raise yourself this NN. You have
received your water and your bones
have been collected for you. Stand up
upon your two feet, you have become
an akh at the head of the akhs.
PT 459
P B/E 16–18
M B/Eg 50–59
N B/E 45–48
Group: C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation aHa Ts Tw
Stand up and raise yourself!
PT 460
P B/E 18–20
M B/Eh
N A/Eg 22–25
Group: C, G
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 462
P P/N 1–14
N P/N 1–7
Nt B/Se ii 20–26
Group: C, G, J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 468
P A/W 6–9
M A/W 1–8
N A/Wg 1–26
Nt B/Sw 7–19
Nt B/Se ii 45–59
Nt B/E i 19–34
Wd B/Sw 1–20
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
HA NN pn Ts Tw aHa
Ah this NN raise yourself, stand up!
APPENDICES
267
Ts=sn Tw NN pn
Let them (Dual Ennead) raise you this
NN.
PT 477
P A/W 27–32
M A/W 29–45
N A/W 15–27
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw wsir
Raise yourself, Osiris!
I Hrw xa DHwti Ts=sn wsir Hr gs=f
Horus has come and Thoth has
appeared that they might raise Osiris
from upon his side.
PT 482
P A/W 46–48
M A/W 20–29
N A/Wg 42–52
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
iA it NN Ts Tw Hr gs=k iAbi d Tw Hr gs=k wnmi ir mw ipn rnpw rdiw.n(=i) n=k iA it wsir Nn pn Ts Tw Hr gs=k iAbi d Tw Hr gs=k imn ir t=k pn srf ir.n(=i) n=k
Ah, my father this NN. Raise yourself
from upon your left side and place
yourself upon your right side towards
this fresh water which I have given to
you. Ah my father this Osiris NN.
Raise yourself from upon your left side
and place yourself upon your right side
towards this fresh bread which I have
made for you.
Rs.n=k sDr.n=k mn.ti m anx aHa mA=k nn aHa sDm=k nn
Awaken, having passed the night
enduring in life! Stand up and see this,
stand up and hear this!
PT 483
P A/W 48–50
M A/W 13–20
N A/Wg 27–34
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw wsir
Raise yourself, Osiris!
PT 487
P A/W 60
M A/Wg 55–61
N A/Wg 26–27
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa Hr gs=k iAbi d Tw Hr gs=k imn
Stand up from upon your left side and
place yourself upon your right side.
PT 498
P A/E 20–21
Group: K
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.rs wsir i.rs
Awaken, Osiris! Awaken!
PT 504
P Cm/E 10–22
M Cm/W 22–32
N Cs/W 1–9
Nt C/E 22–30
Group: N
Personal - Transition Ts=f sw ir=f
And thus he raises himself.
APPENDICES
268
PT 512
P Cm/W 55–63
N Cm/W 66–73
Group: N
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 513
P Cm/W 63–72
N Cn/W 31–36
Group: N
Personal – Transition
sia=k i.wAw
For you have been made to rise up to
the ways
PT 515
P Cn/W 1–7
M Cm/E 1–10
N Cm/E 1–10
Group: N
Personal – Transition
sqbHw=s Hat n nTr aA im Hrw=f n rs
That she may libate the heart of the
great god there on his day of
awakening.
PT 523
P Cn/W 58–60
M Cm/W 97–99
N Cm/W 42–45
Group: N
Personal – Transition
aHa.ti xnt Axiw mr aha Hrw xnti anxw
Stand up before the akhs, just as Horus
foremost of the living standards.
PT 532
P Cn/W 85–93
N Cn/E 1–10
Group: N
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Rs n Hrw aHa ir stS Ts Tw ir=k wsir NN pn sA gbb tpi=f
Awaken to Horus! Stand up for Seth.
Raise yourself this Osiris NN, the
firstborn son of Geb.
PT 536
P Cn/E 57–67
Group: C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 537
P B/Se B 80–82
P Cn/E 68–72
N B/Se B 85–87
Group: B, C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa
Stand up!
PT 540
P V/S 23–29
Nt C/E 18–22
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
She who provides has raised you.
PT 546
P V/S 37
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
ink nwt sia n(=i) wsir NN pn
APPENDICES
269
I am Nut. Make this Osiris NN rise up
to me!
PT 545
P V/S 36–37
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa
Stand up!
PT 553
P V/E 1–7
N V/E 1–11
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw gbb
Let Geb raise you
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 556
P V/E 11–15
N V/S 1–14
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw it wsir NN…aHa=k r=k
Raise yourself my father Osiris
NN…May you stand up.
PT 561B
P V/E 22–23
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.rs i.rs wsir NN
Awaken, Awaken Osiris NN!
PT 593
P B/Se B 39–42
M B/Eg 1–20
N B/E 1–4
Nt B/W 44–51
Nt B/E i 12–19
Group: B, C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts=s Tw
That she (Nut) may raise you.
PT 596
P B/E 24
M B/Eg 43–44
N B/E 41
Group: C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.rs Ts Tw
Awaken! Raise yourself!
PT 603
P B/E 30–32
M B/E 57–60
N B/Sw ii 40–43
Group: C, F, H
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 604
P B/E 38
M B/E 60
N B/E 15–16
Group: C, H
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
APPENDICES
270
PT 606
P Cs/W 1–21
M Cm/W 1–22
N Cn/W 14–31
Group: N
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 610
M V/S 1–24
N V/E 55–63
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation i.rs n Hrw aHa n stS Ts Tw Hrw sag bb tpi=f
Awaken for Horus, stand up for Seth!
Raise yourself, the first born son of Geb.
Ts Tw xnt xm
Let the foremost of Letopolis raise you.
PT 612
P V/E 78–81
M V/S 35–40
N V/E 67–70
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa Ts Tw
Stand up and rise yourself!
PT 619
M V/N 37–40
N V/E 52–55
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw Hr iAb=k d Tw Hr imn=k
Raise yourself from upon your left and
place yourself upon your right.
PT 662
N B/E 59–62
Group: G
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw Hr gs=k iAb srw Tw Hr gs=k imnt
Raise yourself from upon your left side
and upraise yourself upon you right
side.
PT 664E
N B/Sw iii 2–3
Group: F
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts n=T sw
That she (Nut) may raise you
PT 665A
P B/Se B 52–56
N B/Se B 50–55
Nt B/E i 1–12
Wd B/Ne C 1–16
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
aHa.ti Hr rd[=k r gs] wAD-wr
Stand up upon your two feet in the
Great Green.
PT 665B
P B/Se B 56–58
M B/Sw i 5
N B/Se B 55–58
Nt B/Sw 30–35
Nt B/E ii 7–12
Wd B/Sw 20–29
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw…aHa.ti m xnt itrti m xnt nTrw sAbw
APPENDICES
271
Raise yourself…Stand up before the two
chapel rows, before the jackal gods!
PT 666
P B/Se B 67–73
N B/Se B 68–76
Nt B/E ii 39–53
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.dr Tw Hr gs=k iAb Hms r=k Hr gs=k imnt
Remove yourself from upon your left
side and sit upon your right side.
PT 667B
P B/Se B 76–80
N B/Se B 80–85
Nt B/E ii 61–65
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise Yourself!
PT 670
P B/Sw A 4–18
N B/Se B 100–106
Group: B, M
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sDr=k i.rs=k
May you pass the night, may you
awaken.
PT 674
P P/N 1–14
N P/N 1–7
Nt B/Se ii 20–26
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa=k xnti snwt mnw is
May you stand up before the chapels as
Min.
PT 675
P P/S 2–13
N P/N 7–12
Nt B/Se ii 26–32
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 676
N P/N 12–21
Nt B/Se ii 32–41
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 677
N P/N 21–27
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw
Raise yourself!
PT 688
T A/N 57–64
P A/N 34–40
P APn/E 65–74
N A/N 25–31
Nt B/Nw 23–31
Group: L, O
Personal – Transition
isa=sn NN n xprr
They making NN rise up to Khperer.
APPENDICES
272
PT 690
P B/Se B 82–89
M A/E 17–29
N A/N 35–51
Nt B/Se ii 1–20
Nt B/Se ii 74–76
Wd B/Ne A 4–7
Group: B, G, L
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
rs NN pn nhs nTw i.bAgi
May NN awaken, the inert god wake
up.
hA NN pn aHa i m Htp
Ah this NN, stand up and go in peace!
Ts Tw Hr nxt=k
Raise yourself up upon your strength!
PT 694A
P V/E 68–71
N A/Eg 25–30
Group: G, O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation Ts Tw Ahi
Raise yourself O akh!
PT 700
N V/E 77–80
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw Hr gs=k imnt srw Tw Hr gs=k iAb
Raise yourself upon your right side,
raise yourself from upon your left side.
PT 701A
P B/Se B 46–48
N V/E 81–84
Group: B, O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts [Tw]
Raise yourself!
PT 711
N A/E 14–17
Group: G
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw r wrw ir=k
Raise yourself to those who are greater
than you.
PT 714
P B/Se B 42–43
M A/E 15–16
N A/E 18–19
Nt B/Se ii 71–74
Group: B, G
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw Hr qsw=k biAw awt=k nbwt
Raise yourself upon your metal bones
and your golden limbs!
PT 729
P B/Se B 89–92
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
a[ha n s]tS [wsir i]s Axi is sA gbb sdAw n[=f psDt]
Stand for Seth as Osiris, as an akh, the
son of Geb, one at whom the Ennead
trembles.
PT 733
P B/Se B 97–98
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
rs rs ws[ir NN Ts Tw Hr] gs=k pw iAb d Tw Hr gs=k [pw wnmi]
Awaken, Awaken Osiris NN. Raise
APPENDICES
273
yourself from upon this your left side
and place yourself upon your right side.
PT 735
P P/S 13–20
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.rs n Hrw aHa [m inpw Hr mniw]
Stand up as Anubis, master of the
herdsman’s tent.
PT 760
P Cs/E 1–10
P V/E 26–29
Group: N, O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aha i.[dr] Tw Hr gs=k pw iAbi
Stand up! Remove yourself from your
left side.
PT 767
P V/E 71–75
N V/S 14–26
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw i[r]=k Hms=k Hr Sw [n] ixt
Raise yourself and sit upon the shade.
PT 793
N A/E 61–64
Group: K
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ts Tw Hr gs=k iAb d Tw Hr gs=k imnt
Raise yourself from upon your left side
and place yourself upon your right side.
PT 794
N Cs/E 16–19
Group: Unidentified
Ts Tw Hr gs=k pw iAb di Tw Hr gs=k pw wnm
Raise yourself from upon your left side
and place yourself upon your right side.
APPENDICES
274
CORE TEXTS:
HORUS – SUCCESSOR OF – OSIRIS
PT 225
P B/Ne iii 56–62
N B/Ne B v 46–53
Nt B/Ne C ii 4–14
Wd B/Ne B iv 45–49
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sA=k Hr nst=k
That your son may be upon your throne
PT 260
W A/W 37 (452) – A/S 1–8
Group: J
Personal – Transition
i gbb kA nwt Hrw pi NN iwa it=f… iw wDa n NN tfn Hna tfnt iw sDm.n mAati iw Sw m mtrw iw wD.n mAati pSr n=f nswt gbb Tsii=f sw n mrt.n=f dmD awt=f imt StAw smA=f imw nw rD=f pHw mdw m iwnw
O Geb, bull of Nut, Horus is NN, heir of
his father…Shu has judged NN with
Tefnut, the Dual Maat heard, Shu
witnessed and the Dual Maat
commanded that the thrones of Geb
serve him and that he raise himself to
what he desired, that his limbs that
were hidden be re-assembled, that he
unite those who are in Nun and that he
put an end to disruption in Heliopolis.
PT 422
P B/Wg 1–2
M B/Wg 1–23
N B/W 42–52
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Sm.n=k Ax=k Szm=k m nTr isti is wsir
You have gone that you may become an
akh and have power as a god, as the
successor of Osiris.
wd=f Tw Hr nst wsir
That he (the Sun) may place you upon
the throne of Osiris.
aHa bA=k Hr nst=k nst=k apr m irw=k
May your son arise upon your throne,
equipped in your form.
PT 436
P B/W 1–4
M B/E 2–3
N B/Wg 33–36
Group: A, D
Sacerdotal Priestly Recitation
Smt=k tn isti wsir is
This going of yours is as the successor
of Osiris
PT 487
P A/W 60
M A/Wg 55–61
N A/Wg 26–27
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
ink sa=k iwa=k
I am you your son, I am your heir.
PT 511
P Cm/W 35–52
M Cs/W 1–16
N Cs/W 10–24
Nt C/W 1–13
Group: N
Personal – Transition
NN pw sA=k NN pw iwaw=k
For NN is your son, NN is your heir.
APPENDICES
275
PT 519
P Cn/W 22–47
M Cm/E 34–68
N Cm/E 32–65
Group: N
Personal - Transition
mr iTt Hrw pr n it=f ma sn it=f stS m bAH gbb
Just as Horus took the house of his
father from the brother of his father
Seth in the presence of Geb.
PT 553
P V/E 1–7
N V/E 1–11
Wd B/Se 29–30
Wd B/Se 30–31
Wd B/Se 41–49
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Smt=k t wist is wsir
This going of yours is as the successor
of Osiris.
PT 557
P V/E 15–16
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
iwaw=k Hr nst=k
Your (Osiris) heir is upon your throne.
PT 662
N B/E 59–62
Group: G
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Ink sA=k ink iwa=k
I am your son, I am your heir
PT 665B
P B/Se B 56–58
M B/Sw i 5
N B/Se B 55–58
Nt B/Sw 30–35
Nt B/E ii 7–12
Wd B/Sw 20–29
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
n twt is wd.n wsir Hr nst=f
Indeed you are the one whom Osiris
put upon his throne.
PT 693
P B/Se B 37–38
M A/E 9–11
N A/Eg 18–22
Group: B, G
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
rpa nTrw iT.n=f iwct nHm
The god’s prince having seized the
inheritance that was taken
VARIANT TEXTS:
HORUS – SUCCESSOR OF – OSIRIS
PT 3
T Bs/iB
Group: Unidentified
NN mrii(=i) wtwti Hr nst gbb Htp.n=f Hr=f di.n=f n=f wat=f m bAH psDt aAt nTrw nbw m Haawt Dd=sn nfrw NN Htp it=f gbb Hr=f
NN is the one whom I (Nut) love,
created on the throne of Geb who was
content with him. He has given to him
his inheritance in the presence of the
Great Ennead. All the gods are
rejoicing saying “How good is NN with
whom his father Geb is content.”
APPENDICES
276
PT 9
P Bs/E 1–2
P B/Nw i 7
P B/Nw iii 7
P B/Sw Ah ii 1
P B/Nw i 7 + Wh 7 (65)
M Bs/W
M Bs/E
M Bs/L
N Bs/W
N Bs/E
N B/Nw v 1 (136)
N B/Wh ii 1 (134)
N B/Sw iv 1 (136+1)
Nt B/Wh
Group: Unidentified
sA ra iwa gbb
Son of Re, Geb’s heir
PT 256
W A/W 24–28
T A/W 15–16
Group: J
Personal – Transition wa.n NN pn gbb wa.n NN pn gbb iw wa.n=f tm i=f Hr nst Hrw smsw
NN has inherited from Geb! NN has
inherited from Geb! NN has inherited
from Atum because he is on the throne
of Horus the Elder.
PT 306
W A/N 18–24
M V/N 8–37
N V/E 70–74
Group: L, O
Personal – Transition
ir.n n=f gbb mr qd irii n=f im
Geb acted for him like he was acted for
in the same event
PT 307
W A/N 25–31
P V/W 51–53
Group: L, O
Personal – Transition
mwt nt NN iwnwt it n NN iwnw NN Ds=f iwnw msii m iwnw Sk ra Hr tp psDwt Hr tp rxwt nfr tm iwt snnw=f iwaw it=f gbb
The mother of NN is a Heliopolitan, the
father of NN is a Heliopolitan, NN
himself is a Heliopolitan, he was born in
Heliopolis when Re was at the head of
the Dual Ennead and at the head of the
subjects, totally perfect, without equal,
the heir of his father Geb.
PT 356
T B/E ii 32–38
P B/W 53–56
P B/E 1–4
M B/Eg 20–28
N B/W 35–42
Nt B/W 37–44
Group: C, E
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
mA.n gbb qdw=k d.n=f kw m ist=k
Geb has seen your form and he has put
you in your place
PT 371
T A/W 48–50
P B/Wg 34–37
M B/Wg 42–46
N B/Wh i 2–3
Nt B/W 62–64
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
mA.n gbb qdw=k d.n=f kw m ist=k
Geb has seen your form and he has put
you in your place
APPENDICES
277
PT 468
P A/W 6–9
M A/W 1–8
N A/Wg 1–26
Nt B/Sw 7–19
Nt B/Se ii 45–59
Nt B/E i 19–34
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
ip.n Tw psDt aAt imt iwnw ir ist=k wrt Hms=k NN pw xnt psDt gbb is rpa nTrw wsir is xnt sxmw Hrw is nb pawt nTrw
The Great Ennead who is in Heliopolis
has assigned you to your great seat.
You shall sit down, NN at the fore of
the Ennead as Geb the god’s prince, as
Osiris at the fore of the controlling
powers, as Horus lord of the god’s
prince.
PT 574
P V/W 53–56
N V/E 16–20
Group: O Personal - Transition
iw.n NN pn xr=k Hrw iwaw gbb Ddw tm n=k tm
This NN has come to you Horus, Geb’s
heir of whom Atum says “All is for
you.”
PT 578
P V/W 70–73
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
aHa=k r=k m xnt nTrw sA smswii iwaw is Hr nst gbb is
May you stand before the gods, eldest
son, as the heir, as the one upon the
throne of Geb.
PT 592
P B/Nw iii 1–6
M B/W 58–61
N B/Se A 1–7
Nt B/Ne C iv 3–11
Group: D, F
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
hA gbb wsir NN pw nn iab n=k sw i.tm irt=f Twt nTr aA wa.ti di.n n=k tm iwat=f
Ah Geb, this is Osiris NN, gather him to
you that what is against him might end.
You alone are the Great God for Atum
has given to you his inheritance.
PT 606
P Cs/W 1–21
M Cm/W 1–22
N Cn/W 14–31
Wd B/W 9–30
Group: N
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
iT n=k iwat it=k gbb m bA Xt psDt m iwnw m twt n=f
Seize your father Geb’s inheritance in
the presence of the Ennead in Heliopolis
like one similar to him.
PT 641
N B/Ne B iv 102–108
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
wsir NN iw.n(=i) m [xsf]=k ink Hrw iw.n(=i) mdw(=i) Hr tp=k ink sa=k wsir NN Twt saw r n gbb w[t]wt=f iwaw=f wsir NN pn Twt xai m xt=f Di n=k wawt in psDt
APPENDICES
278
Osiris NN, I have come to [meet] you, I
am Horus. I have come that I might
speak on your behalf for I am your son.
Osiris NN you are the eldest son of Geb,
his first born, his heir. Osiris NN you
are the one who appears after him, for
the inheritance has been given to you by
the Ennead.
PT 677
N P/N 21–27
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
wn=k Hr nst wsir m sti xnt imnt
That you may be upon the throne of
Osiris as the successor the foremost of
the westerners.
APPENDICES
279
CORE TEXTS:
HORUS – ACTS FOR – OSIRIS
PT 33
P B/Ne i 20–24
P B/Ne i 51–56
N B/Ne B ii 17–20
N B/Ne B iii 39–43
N B/Ne B v 104–108
Jp B/N A i 10–13
Wd B/Ne B ii 41–44
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
ip Tw Hrw rnpt rnpt rnpw m rn=k n mw rnpw
Let Horus take account of you, you
being rejuvenated in your name of
‘fresh water’.
PT 247
W A/Wg 1–11
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Hrw pw wD n=f irt n it=f
It is Horus the one who is commanded
to act for his father.
PT 355
T B/E ii 18–32
P B/E 20–21
M B/Eg 44–50
N B/E 41–44
Group: C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
iw.k xr(=i) iw=k xr(=i) iw=k A xr(=i) Hrw is nD n=f it=f wsir
You should come to me, you should
come to me, you should come to me,
Horus who tends his father Osiris.
PT 356
T B/E ii 32–38
P B/W 53–56
P B/E 1–4
M B/Eg 20–28
N B/W 35–42
Nt B/W 37–44
Group: C, E
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
bA ir=f Hrw ip=f it=f im=k m rn=k n bA-it
Horus has become a ba, taking account
of his father in you, in your name of The
father’s ba.
PT 357
T B/E ii 38–45
P B/E 4–8
P Cn/E 26–40
M B/Eg 29–36
N B/E 4–8
Nt B/W 51–59
Wd B/W 38–48
Group: C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
iw.n Hrw ip=f kw
Horus has come, that he may take
account of you
i Hrw ip=f it=f im=k rnp.ti m rn=k n mw rnpw
Horus has come that he may take
account of his father in you, you being
rejuvenated in your name of ‘fresh
water’.
APPENDICES
280
PT 364
T A/W 28–35
P B/Sw B 1–30
An B/E i 1–11
M A/Eg 40–63
N A/E 9–14
Jp B/E 16–26
Group: D, G, M
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i Hrw ip=f Tw ma nTrw
Horus has come that he may reckon you
among the gods.
PT 419
T SP/S 12–25
M A/Eg 25–32
N A/S C 1–2
Group: G, J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dr.n Hrw Dwt irt NN m ifdt=f i.xm.n stS irt.n=f ir NN m xmnt=f
Horus has repelled the evil that was
done to NN on his 4th day, Seth has
annulled that which he did to NN on
his 8th day.
PT 423
P B/Wg 31–34
P B/W´ 58–59
N B/Wg 37–41
Nt B/W 59–61
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
ip kw Hrw rnpt rnpt rnpwt m rn=k pw m mw rnpw
Let Horus has come that he may take
account of you, you being rejuvenated,
in this your name of ‘fresh water’.
PT 542
P V/S 31–33
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Hrw pw iw.n=f ip=f it=f wsir NN Sw n=f na nswt Hr iswt inpw sDm nb nn n anx=f DHwti m xAtb=k i.msDw nb it DHwti i.si mA=k inw it nA=f sw n=f
It is Horus (who speaks) he has come
that he might take account of his father
Osiris NN.” You are harmful for him
when the King travels to the place of
Anubis” anyone who hears this will not
live. Thoth do not have pity on all who
hate my father. Thoth go and see him
who would get my father when he
journeys, the one who is dangerous for
him.
PT 670
P B/Sw A 4–18
N B/Se B 100–106
Group: B, M
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
mdw wsir n Hrw fd.n=f Dwt [ir] NN pn m fdnw=f hrw xm.n=f irt ir=f m xmnnw=f h[r]w
Osiris shall speak for Horus because he
has forcibly removed the bad that was
against NN on his 4th day and has
annihilated what was done against him
on his 8th day.
PT 690
P B/Se B 82–89
M A/E 17–29
N A/N 35–51
Nt B/Se ii 1–20
Nt B/Se ii 74–76
Wd B/Ne A 4–7
Group: B, G, L
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
APPENDICES
281
i n=k Hrw NN pw ir=f n=k irt.n=f n it=f wsir
That he (Horus) may do for you what
he did for his father Osiris.
PT 701A
P B/Se B 46–48
N V/E 81–84
Group: B, O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i Hrw wab nD=f wsir
Clean Horus has come, that he might
tend his father Osiris.
PT 703
P B/Se B 45–46
N V/N 36–38
Group: B, O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i n=k Hrw wDa=f sArw=k xAa=f mDwt=k dr.n Hrw imi rd=k n nDrw Tw Akrw
Horus has come to you and shall sever
your shackles and throw off your
hobbles. Horus has removed your
impediment and the horizons shall not
seize you.
APPENDICES
282
OSIRIS – ISIS AND
NEPHTHYS
CORE TEXTS:
ISIS AND NEPHTHYS – MOURN
FOR – OSIRIS
PT 259
T A/W 23–27
Group: J
Personal – Transition
in snt NN nbt-p rmt sw qmA.n sw xnmtt qmSAti wsir
It is the sister of NN, the Lady of Pe,
who cries out for him and the two
attendants (Isis and Nephthys) who
mourned for him having mourned
Osiris.
PT 337
T B/Wg 53–58
P A/W 1
N Cn/E 46–48
Group: J, M, N
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
rmii sw ikii sw HAii sw
Cry for him, wail for him, mourn him!
PT 412
T SP/N 1–22
P B/Sw A 27–37
N B/Nw ii 35–43 – B/W 1
Nt B/Sw 19–30
Nt B/Se ii 59–7
Group: G, M
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k smntt
Let the mourning goddess call out to
you.
PT 461
P B/E 22–23
M A/Eg 18–23
N A/W 63–64
Group: C, G, J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sbH n=k ist Dsw n=k nbt-Hwt
Let Isis wail for you and let Nephthys
call out to you.
PT 466
T A/S A 4–6
P A/W 3–4
M A/Eg 36–40
N A/E 8–9
Group: G, J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sbH n=k mint wrt wsir is m ist awi=f
While the Great Mooring Post wails for
you as (for) Osiris in his suffering.
PT 468
P A/W 6–9
M A/W 1–8
N A/Wg 1–26
Nt B/Sw 7–19
Nt B/Se ii 45–59
Nt B/E i 19–34
Wd B/Sw 1–20
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sbḥ n.k ist ḏsw n.k nbt-ḥwt
Let Isis wail for you and let Nephthys
call out to you.
PT 482
P A/W 46–48
M A/W 20–29
N A/Wg 42–52
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation iw=sn n wsir Hr xrw sbH n ist Hna nbt-Hwt
APPENDICES
283
They have come to Osiris on account of
the noise of the crying of Isis and
Nephthys.
PT 535
P B/Nw i 3–6
P B/Sw Ah i 2–6
P Cn/E 40–57
N Cn/E 35–46
Group: C, F, N
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dd-mdw in ist Hna nbt=Hwt i Hat I Drt ist tw Hna nbt-Hwt iw.n=sn m sxnhw sn=sn wsir m sxnw sn=sn NN pn wnt=T wnt=T rm sn=T ist r msn=T nbt-Hwt r msn=T Hms ist Awi=s tpi=s ndt-Hwt i.ndr.n=s n=s tp n mnDwy=sny n sn=sn NN inp Hr Xt=f
Recitation by Isis and Nephthys. The
Wailing Bird has come, the kite has
come; it is Isis and Nephthys. They
have come in search of their brother
Osiris, in search of their brother, this
NN. Haste, Haste! Weep for your
brother Isis, weep for your brother
Nephthys, weep for your brother. Isis
sat down with her two arms on her
head, Nephthys has grasped the tip of
her breasts for their brother NN, baby-
like on his belly.
PT 553
P V/E 1–7
N V/E 1–11
Wd B/Se 29–30
Wd B/Se 30–31
Wd B/Se 41–49
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sbH n=k smntt
Let the Mourning Goddess wail for you.
PT 619
M V/N 37–40
N V/E 52–55
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sbH n=k ist Dswi n=k nbt-Hwt
Let Isis wail for you and let Nephthys
call out to you.
PT 633
N B/Nw iii 12
Group: M
Sacerdotal Priestly Recitation
Tmt Hat Hr=f
You (Nephthys) are the one who
mourns over him.
PT 665A
P B/Se B 52–56
N B/Se B 50–55
Nt B/E i 1–12
Wd B/Ne C 1–16
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k smntt nbt=Hwt is
Let the Mourning Goddess call out to
you as Nephthys.
PT 667A
P B/Se B 73–76
N B/Se B 76–80
Nt B/Sw 35–42
Nt B/E ii 53–60
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
nis n=k smntt is
The Mourning Goddess summoning
you as Isis.
APPENDICES
284
PT 670
P B/Sw A 4–18
N B/Se B 100–106
Group: B, M
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
iw=sn n wsir NN [Hr x]rw rmm ist Hr sbH nbt-Hwt Hr iww Axti iptwt [n wr pn p]r m dAt
They have come to Osiris NN at the
sound of Isis weeping, at Nephthys’
screaming, at the lamentations of those
two Akhs for the Great One who comes
from the duat.
PT 674
P P/N 1–14
N P/N 1–7
Nt B/Se ii 20–26
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k smntt ist
Let the Mourning Goddess call out to
you as Isis.
PT 676
N P/N 12–21
Nt B/Se ii 32–41
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sbH n=k smntt
Let the Mourning Goddess wail for you.
PT 690
P B/Se B 82–89
M A/E 17–29
N A/N 35–51
Nt B/Se ii 1–20
Nt B/Se ii 74–76
Wd B/Ne A 4–7
Group: B, G, L
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
HA.n(=i) Tw Hr HAt
I have mourned you at the tomb.
PT 701A
P B/Se B 46–48
N V/E 81–84
Group: B, O
Sacerdotal Priestly Recitation
ip.n(=i) Tw NN [i]n snty=k i.mrti Tw n ist n nbt-Hwt rm=sn Tw srs=sn Tw
ws[ir] NN TAs [n]=k qsw[=k] dmD n=k awt=k wAH n=k ib=k m ist=f
Osiris NN, your bones have been tied
together for you, your limbs have been
joined together for you, and your heart
has been set in its place for you.
PT 665B
P B/Se B 56–58
M B/Sw i 5
N B/Se B 55–58
Nt B/Sw 30–35
Nt B/E ii 7–12
Wd B/Sw 20–29
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sAq n=k qsw=k wDb n=k awt=k
Collect your bones, take up your limbs.
PT 665D
P B/Nw ii 2–21
P B/Se B 59–67
N B/Se B 59–68
Nt B/E ii 13–39
Wd B/Sw 33–52
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
iab n=k awt=k
APPENDICES
296
Join your limbs to yourself
PT 667B
P B/Se B 76–80
N B/Se B 80–85
Nt B/E ii 61–65
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sAq n=k awt=k
Collect your limbs!
Your bones have been assembled for
you and your limbs collected
PT 676
N P/N 12–21
Nt B/Se ii 32–41
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
sAq n=k qsw=k
Collect your bones
PT 700
N V/E 77–80
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation sAq n=k if=k
Collect your flesh.
APPENDICES
297
CORE TEXTS:
ISIS – CONCEIVES HORUS –
OSIRIS
PT 366
T A/W 37–41
P B/Wg 25–31
M B/Wg 36–42
N B/Wh i 3–6
Wd B/W 48–57
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i n=k snt=k ist Haat n mrwt=k d.n=k s tpi Hms=k pr mtwt=k im=s spdt m spdt Hrw spd p rim=k m Hrw imi spdt
Your sister Isis has come to you aroused
for your love, you have placed her on
your phallus so that your seed might
come into her, sharp as Sothis and
Sharp Horus has come out of you as
Horus in Sothis
PT 518
P Cn/W 16–22
M Cm/E 23–34
N Cm/E 22–32
Group: N
Personal – Transition
aHa ir=k wsir wD=k NN pn n Hrw smx pw wDA ib mHti sxt Htp mr wD=k Hrw n ist hrw swr.n=k s im
Stand up for yourself Osiris and
command this NN to those on the
causeway Sound of Heart north of the
Marshes of Rest, like you commanded
Horus to Isis on the day you
impregnated her.
PT 593
P B/Se B 39–42
M B/Eg 1–20
N B/E 1–4
Nt B/W 44–51
Nt B/E i 12–19
Group: B, C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i n=k ist iHaat n mrwt=k pr mtwt=k im=s spdt m spdt Hrw spd p rim=k m rn=f n Hrw imi spdt
Isis has come to you aroused for your
love, and your seed has come forth into
her sharp as Sothis and Sharp Horus
has come forth in his identity of Horus
who is in Sothis.
APPENDICES
298
CORE TEXTS:
ISIS AND NEPHTHYS – CALL OUT
TO/SUMMON – OSIRIS
PT 412
T SP/N 1–22
P B/Sw A 27–37
N B/Nw ii 35–43 – B/W 1
Nt B/Sw 19–30
Nt B/Se ii 59–71
Group: G, M
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k smntt
Let the Mourning Goddess call out to
you
PT 422
P B/Wg 1–21
M B/Wg 1–23
N B/W 42–52
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
mdw n=k ist Dsw n=k nbt-Hwt
Let Isis speak to you and Nephthys call
to you
PT 437
P B/W 25–40
P B/W 4–19
M B/W 32–46
N B/Wg 1–28
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k mnt wrt
With the Great Mooring Post calling to
you
PT 458
P B/E 14–16
N B/Sw ii 37–40
Group: C, F
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
mdw n=k mint wrt ist is Dsw n=k imntt nbt-Hwt is
With the Great Mooring Post speaking
to you as Isis and the West calling out to
you as Nephthys
PT 461
P B/E 22–23
M A/Eg 18–23
N A/W 63–64
Group: C, G, J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k nbt-Hwt
Let Nephthys call out to you
PT 463
P P/N 14–20
An B/E i 21–23
N P/S 18–21
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dswiw n=k Hnmmt
The Mooring Post will call out to you
PT 468
P A/W 6–9
M A/W 1–8
N A/Wg 1–26
Nt B/Sw 7–19
Nt B/Se ii 45–59
Nt B/E i 19–34
Wd B/Sw 1–20
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k nbt-Hwt Hrw is nD it=f wsir
APPENDICES
299
Let Nephthys call out to you as Horus,
saviour of his father Osiris.
PT 483
P A/W 48–50
M A/W 13–20
N A/Wg 27–34
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k mnt wrt
With the Great Mooring Post calling out
to you.
PT 553
P V/E 1–7
N V/E 1–11
Wd B/Se 29–30
Wd B/Se 30–31
Wd B/Se 41–49
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsiw n=k mint wrt
The Great Mooring Post calling out to
you.
PT 610
M V/S 1–24
N V/E 55–63
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw mint wr[t]
With the Great Mooring Post calling
out.
PT 619
M V/N 37–40
N V/E 52–55
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dswi n=k nbt-Hwt
Let Nephthys call out to you
PT 665A
P B/Se B 52–56
N B/Se B 50–55
Nt B/E i 1–12
Wd B/Ne C 1–16
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k smntt nbt=Hwt is
Let the Mourning Goddess call out to
you as Nephthys.
PT 665D
P B/Se B 67–73
N B/Se B 68–76
Nt B/E ii 39–53
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
nis Tw mnt ist is
The Mooring Post summoning you [a]s
Isis.
PT 667A
P B/Se B 73–76
N B/Se B 76–80
Nt B/Sw 35–42
Nt B/E ii 53–60
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
nis n=k smntt is
The Mourning Goddess summoning
you as Isis.
PT 674
P P/N 1–14
N P/N 1–7
Nt B/Se ii 20–26
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k smntt ist
APPENDICES
300
Let the Mourning Goddess call out to
you as Isis.
PT 676
N P/N 12–21
Nt B/Se ii 32–41
Group: I
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k mnit wrt
Let the Great Mooring Post call out to
you.
PT 711
N A/E 14–17
Group: G
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k mint wrt
While the great mooring post calls out
to you.
PT 728
P B/Se B 48–52
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k smntt ist is
And the Mourning Goddess will call
out to you as Isis.
PT 729
P B/Se B 89–92
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
[Dsw] n=f mnt wrt mr aHa n wrD.n=f Hr ib AbDw
While the Great Mooring Post calls out
to him, as to he who stands tirelessly,
resident of Abydos.
PT 760
P Cs/E 1–10
P V/E 26–29
Group: N, O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Dsw n=k mint wrt
While the Great Mooring Post calls out
to you.
VARIANT TEXTS:
ISIS AND NEPHTHYS – CALL OUT
TO/SUMMON – OSIRIS
PT 265
P A/W 11–13
Group: J
Personal – Transition
nis=sn n NN pn
Let them make summons for this NN
PT 514
P Cm/W 74–75
Group: N
Personal – Transition
nis.n gbb r[=f]
And Geb has summoned him.
PT 517
P Cn/W 11–15
M Cm/E 15–23
N Cm/E 15–22
Group: N
Personal – Transition
hrw pw n nis=k ir sDm wDt mdw
On this day of your being summoned in
order to hear commands.
APPENDICES
301
PT 524
P Cn/W 60–72
Group: N
Personal – Transition
nis tm ir NN pn ir pt n anx
Let Atum summon NN to the sky for
life.
APPENDICES
302
HORUS – SETH
CORE TEXTS:
HORUS – ACTS AGAINST – SETH
PT 61
N B/Ne B ii 68–69
Nt B/Ne B v 15–16
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering
wsir NN m-n=k xpS n stS fd.n Hrw
Osiris, NN, accept the foreleg of Seth,
which Horus has torn off.
PT 100
N B/Ne B iii
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering
H.n=f kt
He has smitten the other.
PT 356
T B/E ii 32–38
P B/W 53–56
P B/E 1–4
M B/Eg 20–28
N B/W 35–42
Nt B/W 37–44
Group: C, E
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
H.n sw sA=k Hrw
Your son Horus having smitten him.
nDr.n Hrw stS d.n=f n=k sw Xr=k wTs=f Tw nwr=f Xr=k m nwr tA
Horus has seized Seth and put him
under you that he might bear you and
tremble under you in the earth’s
trembling.
PT 357
T B/E ii 38–45
P B/E 4–8
P Cn/E 26–40
M B/Eg 29–36
N B/E 4–8
Nt B/W 51–59
Wd B/W 38–48
Group: C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
H.n=f n=k stS qAs Twt kA=f
He has smitten Seth for you, him being
fettered.
PT 372
T A/W 50–51
P B/Wg 37–40
P B/W 62–63
M B/Wg 47–51
Nt B/W 64–66
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
rdi.n Hrw int n=k DHwti xfty=k
Horus has caused that Thoth bring you
your enemy.
stp.n Hrw xpSw xftyw=k in.n n=k Hrw Saw
Horus has butchered the forelegs of
your enemies and Horus has brought
them to you cut up.
PT 385
T A/E 17–20
Group: K
Personal – Apotropaic
gbgb.n Tw Hrw
Horus has felled you.
APPENDICES
303
PT 482
P A/W 46–48
M A/W 20–29
N A/Wg 42–52
Group: J
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
H=f n=k H Tw
He smote for you the one who smote
you.
PT 543
P V/S 33–35
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
in.n(=i) n=k smA kw
To you have I brought the one who slew
you.
PT 545
P V/S 36–37
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
In.n(=i) n=k smA kw Sa
To you have I brought the one who slew
you, he being cut apart.
PT 580
P V/W 75–77
Group: O
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
H.n=k it smA.n=k wr ir=k it wsir NN pn H.n(=i) n=k H Tw m iH smA.n(=i) n=k smA Tw m smA ngA.n(=i) n=k ngA Tw ng
Father-striker, killer of one greater than
you. You have struck my father. You
have smitten one who is greater than
you. Father Osiris Pepi, I have struck
for you as an ox the one who struck
you, I have smitten for you as a wild
bull the one who smote you. I have cut
up for you as a longhorned bull the one
who cut you up.
PT 593
P B/Se B 39–42
M B/Eg 1–20
N B/E 1–4
Nt B/W 44–51
Nt B/E i 12–19
Group: B, C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
in.n n=k Hrw stS rdi.n=f n=k sw
Horus has brought Seth to you; he has
given him to you.
PT 606
P Cs/W 1–21
M Cm/W 1–22
N Cn/W 14–31
Wd B/W 9–30
Group: N
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
H.n=I n=k H Tw
For I (Horus) have smitten for you the
one who smote you.
PT 658A
P B/Ne iii 67–86
N B/Sw i 1–7
Group: A, F
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
[nDr.n Hrw stS d.n=f n=k sw Xr=k wTs=f Tw nwr=f Xr=k] m nwr tA
Horus has seized Seth for you and put
him under you, so that he might bear
you and tremble under you in the
earth’s trembling.
APPENDICES
304
PT 670
P B/Sw A 4–18
N B/Se B 100–106
Group: B, M
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
[smA].n=f n=k smA Tw m smA
He has smitten for you the one who
smote you as [as bull].
PT 723
P B/Ne iv 90–93
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
ink Hrw ws[ir NN in.n=f n]=k xft=k Xr=k
I am Horus Osiris NN, [I have brought
for] you your enemy under you.
VARIANT TEXTS:
HORUS – ACTS AGAINST – SETH
PT 82
W B/N ii 28
T B/N ii 24–25
P B/Ne ii 37–38
N B/Ne B iii 44–45
Nt B/Ne B ii 45–46
Jp B/N A ii 1–2
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering
DHwti in sw Xr=s
It is Thoth who brought him while
carrying it.
PT 372
T A/W 50–51
P B/Wg 37–40
P B/W 62–63
M B/Wg 47–51
Nt B/W 64–66
Group: D
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
rdi.n Hrw int n=k DHwti xfty=k
Horus has caused that Thoth bring you
your enemy.
APPENDICES
305
CORE TEXTS:
SETH – INJURES – HORUS
PT 47
W B/N i 43–44
T B/N i 61–62
P B/Ne i 88–89
N B/Ne B ii 52
Nt B/Ne B i 50–51
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw hpt ma stS iTt=k ir r=k wppt=k r=k im=s
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which escaped from Seth, which you
should take to your mouth, with which
you should open your mouth.
PT 54
W B/N i 52
T B/N i 70
P B/Ne i 97
N B/Ne B ii 60
Nt B/Ne B i 60–61
Wd B/Ne B i 61
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
NN m-n=k irt Hrw hpt m a stS nHmt n=k wp r=k im=s
NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye which
escaped from Seth and which was
rescued for you. Open your mouth
with it.
PT 56
W B/N i 54
T B/N i 72
P B/Ne i 99
N B/Ne B ii 62
Nt B/Ne B i 63
Wd B/Ne B i 63
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
NN m-n=k irt Hrw Htm Tw im=s
NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye which
was rescued for you. It cannot be far
from you.
PT 74
W B/N ii 3
T B/N ii 3
N B/Ne B iii 3
Nt B/Ne B ii 3
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw i.sfkkt.n=f Hr=s
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
upon which he caused devastation
PT 78
W B/N ii 10
T B/N ii 10
N B/Ne B iii 11
Nt B/Ne B ii 14
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN in.n(=i) n=k irt Hrw iTt.n=f
Osiris NN, I have fetched for you
Horus’s Eye to your forehead, which he
took.
PT 88
W B/N ii 34
T B/N ii 31
P B/Ne ii 44
N B/Ne B iii 51
Nt B/Ne B ii 52
Jp B/N A ii 8
Wd B/Ne B ii 52
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw xw n=k ti=f s
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye
and protect it from being trampled.
APPENDICES
306
PT 89
W B/N ii 35
T B/N ii 32
N B/Ne B iii 52
Nt B/Ne B ii 53
Wd B/Ne B ii 53
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw iHt.n=f
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which he pulled out.
PT 90
W B/N ii 36
T B/N ii 33
P B/Ne ii 46
N B/Ne B iii 53
Nt B/Ne B ii 54
Wd B/Ne B ii 54
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw nDs wnmt.n stS im=s
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s
little Eye, which Seth ate.
PT 97
N B/Ne B iii 64–66
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN irt tn tw nt Hrw dbHt.n=f ma stS
Osiris NN, this is Horus’s Eye, which he
asked for from Seth.
PT 111
W B/N ii 50
T B/N ii 46
P B/Ne ii 60
N B/Ne B iv 4
Nt B/Ne B iii 4
Wd B/Ne B iii 4
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw tit stS
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which Seth trampled.
PT 112
W B/N ii 51
T B/N ii 47
P B/Ne ii 61
N B/Ne B iv 5
Nt B/Ne B iii 5
Wd B/Ne B iii 5
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw itHt.n=f
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which he pulled out.
PT 119
W B/N iii 3
T B/N ii 54
P B/Ne ii 68
N B/Ne B iv 12
Nt B/Ne B iii 12
Jp B/N A ii 32
Wd B/Ne B iii 12
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw xnft.n=f
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which he carried off.
APPENDICES
307
PT 121
W B/N iii 5
T B/N ii 56
P B/Ne ii 70
N B/Ne B iv 14
Nt B/Ne B iii 14
Jp B/N A ii 34
Wd B/Ne B iii 14
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw itHt.n=f
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which he pulled out.
PT 124
W B/N iii 8
T B/N ii 59
P B/Ne ii 73
N B/Ne B iv 17
Nt B/Ne B iii 17
Wd B/Ne B iii 17
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw itHt.n=f
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which he pulled out.
PT 126
W B/N iii 10
T B/N ii 61
P B/Ne ii 75
P B/Ne v 25
N B/Ne B iv 19
Nt B/Ne B iii 19
Jp B/N A ii 39
Wd B/Ne B iii 19
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m xpx irt Hrw
Osiris NN, here is the one who stole
Horus’s Eye.
PT 135
W B/N iii 19
T B/N ii 71
P B/Ne ii 84
P B/Ne v 34
N B/Ne B iv 28
Nt B/Ne B iii 28
Wd B/Ne B iii 28
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m irt Hrw imt Hat stS
Osiris NN, here is Horus’s Eye which is
from Seth’s forehead.
PT 141
W B/N iii 25
T B/N ii 77
P B/Ne ii 90
N B/Ne B iv 34
Nt B/Ne B iii 34
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw itHt.n=f
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which he pulled out.
PT 145
W B/N iii 29
T B/E i 4
P B/Ne ii 94
P B/Ne v 44
N B/Ne B iv 38
Nt B/Ne B iii 38
Jp B/N A iii 2
Wd B/Ne B iii 38
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw nDs wnmt.n stS im=s
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s
little Eye, which Seth ate.
APPENDICES
308
PT 154
W B/N iii 38
T B/E i 13
P B/Ne v 53
N B/Ne B iv 47
Nt B/Ne B iii 47
Wd B/Ne B iii 47
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw bSt.n=sn xw am=f s
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which they spit out. Prevent him from
swallowing it.
PT 156
W B/N iii 40
T B/E i 15
P B/Ne iii 6
P B/Ne v 55
N B/Ne B iv 49
Nt B/Ne B iii 49
Wd B/Ne B iii 49
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw Himt.n=f wp r=k im=s
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which he captured. Open your mouth
with it.
PT 159
W B/N iii 43
T B/E i 18
P B/Ne v 58
N B/Ne B iv 52
Nt B/Ne B iii 52
Wd B/Ne B iii 52
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw xnft.n=f
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which he carried off.
PT 160
W B/N iii 44
T B/E i 19
P B/Ne iii 10
P B/Ne v 59
N B/Ne B iv 53
Nt B/Ne B iii 53
Wd B/Ne B iii 53
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw Sdt.n=f ma stS
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
which he took from Seth.
PT 163
W B/N iii 47
T B/E i 22
P B/Ne iii 13
P B/Ne v 62
N B/Ne B iv 56
Nt B/Ne B iii 56
Wd B/Ne B iii 56
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw xw sxs=f s
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
prevent him from tearing it out.
PT 164
W B/N iii 48
T B/E i 23
P B/Ne iii 14
N B/Ne B iv 57
Nt B/Ne B iii 57
Wd B/Ne B iii 57
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw xw sxs=f s
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
prevent him from tearing it out.
APPENDICES
309
PT 168
W B/N iii 52
T B/E i 27
P B/Ne iii 18
N B/Ne B iv 61
Nt B/Ne B iii 61
Jp B/N A iii 25
Wd B/Ne B iii 61
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw xw aH=f s
Osiris NN, take to yourself Horus’s Eye,
prevent him from snaring it.
PT 182
N B/Ne B v 12
Nt B/Ne B iv 10
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
m irt Hrw aHt.n=f di.n n=k Hrw
Here is Horus’s Eye which he
entrapped. Horus has given it to you.
PT 186
P B/Ne v 74b–75b
N B/Ne B v 16
Nt B/Ne B iv 14
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
wsir NN m irt Hrw wADt iTt.n=f di.n n=k Hrw
Osiris, NN, here is Horus’s green Eye
which he seized. Horus has given it to
you.
PT 188
P B/Ne v 78b–79b
N B/Ne B v 18
Nt B/Ne B iv 16
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
m irt Hrw xnft.n=f di.n n=k Hrw
Here is Horus’s eye which he carried
off. Horus has given it to you.
PT 192
P B/Ne v 85b
N B/Ne B v 22
Nt B/Ne B iv 20
Wd B/Ne B iv 22
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering Text
m irt Hrw sxst n=f di.n n=k Hrw
Here is Horus’s Eye which he ran away
with. Horus has given it to you.
PT 255
W A/W 18–24
T A/W 12–14
Group: J
Personal – Transition
i xbD pw xbD qd xbD irw i.dr Tw Hr ist=k wAH=k saH=k r tA n NN ir tm=k dr Tw Hr ist=k wAH=k saH=k r tA n NN iw.kA NN Hr=f m wr pw nb At wsr m nknt im=f rD.kA[=f] nsr n irt=f pSr=s HA=Tn d=s nSn mm irw irwt xfxft=s m pAwtyw ipw
O one who is hateful, hateful of
character and hateful of form. Remove
yourself from your place and lay down
your rank to the land of NN. If you do
not remove yourself from your place
and lay down your rank to the land,
NN will come, his face being of the
APPENDICES
310
Great God who is Lord of Striking
Power. Who became strong through the
injury that was done to him. He will
give the flame of his eye so that it
surrounds you and places a storm in
those who do evil and its flood in those
primeval gods.
PT 271
W A/S 40–42
T A/S 8–10
P V/E 16–18
N A/W 60–61
Group: J, O
Personal – Transition
nDr Hrw stS ma n NN Sd=sn sw r dAt ii-n=f sA Tw wD-n=f wD-n=f sA Tw ii-n=f
Horus and Seth shall take the arms of
NN, and take him to the Duat. He who
has been dealt an eye injury, protect
from the one of the command. You of
the command beware the one who has
been dealt an eye injury.
PT 277
W A/E 1
T A/E 6–7
Nt B/E i 55
Group: K
Personal - Apotropaic
xr Hrw n irt=f sbn kA n Xrwi=f
Horus has fallen because of his eye, the
serpent has slithered off because of his
testicles.
PT 327
T B/Wg 30–32
P B/Sw A 1–3
N B/Nw iii 13–22
Group: M
Personal – Transition
in.n-w Hrw mr=f NN in.n=f irt=f in.n-w stS mr=f NN in.n=f Xrwy=f
Horus’s fetcher desires NN for he has
fetched his eye. Seth’s fetcher desires
NN for he has fetched his testicles.
PT 356
T B/E ii 32–38
P B/W 53–56
P B/E 1–4
M B/Eg 20–28
N B/W 35–42
Nt B/W 37–44
Group: C, E
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
nHm.n=f irt=f ma=f rdi.n=f n=k s
He has taken his eye from him and he
has given it to you.
PT 357
T B/E ii 38–45
P B/E 4–8
P Cn/E 26–40
M B/Eg 29–36
N B/E 4–8
Nt B/W 51–59
Wd B/W 38–48
Group: C
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
nHm.n Hrw irt=f ma stS
Horus has taken his eye from Seth.
PT 359
T P/N 1–16
P V/W 45–50
N Cn/E 21–35
Group: I, N, O
Personal – Transition
ihi.n Hrw n irt=f ihi.n stS n Xrwy=f sTp irt Hrw xr m pf gs n mr-n-xA i.nD=s Dt=s ma stS mA.n=s DHwti m pf gs n mr-n-xA
APPENDICES
311
sTp irt Hrw m pf gs n mr-nxA xr tpi DnH DHwti m pf gs n mr-n-xA nTrw ipw DAAw tpi DnH DHwti ir pf gs n mr-n-xA ir gs iAbti n pt ir mdt xft stS Hr irt tw nt Hrw DA NN Hna=Tn tpi DnH DHwti ir pf gs n mr-n-xA ir gs iAbti n pt iw NN mdw=f xft stS Hr irt tw nt Hrw
Horus has wailed for his eye, Seth has
wailed for his testicles. Horus’s eye
jumped and it made landfall on the
other side of the Winding Canal so that
it might save itself from Seth, having
seen Thoth on the other side of the
Winding Canal. Horus’s eye jumped up
on the other side of the Winding Canal
and it made landfall on Thoth’s wing on
the other side of the Winding Canal to
the eastern side of the sky in order to
contend against Seth over that eye of
Horus. NN will cross with you on
Thoth’s wing to the other side of the
Winding Canal to the eastern side of the
sky for NN will be contending against
Seth over that eye of Horus.
PT 386
T A/E 20
Group: K
Personal – Apotropaic
Xr Hrw Hr irt=f pAs stS Hr Xrwy=f
Horus has fallen on account of his eye,
Seth has felt pain on account of his
testicles.
PT 455
P B/W 58–63
M B/W 24–27
N B/W 29–31
Nt B/W 30–33
Group: E
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
iSS pr m r Hrw isd pr m r stS wab Hrw im=f sfx Dwt irt=f ir t Aim=f ir.n stS ir=f wab stS im=f
sfx Dwt irt=f ir tA it.n Hrw ir=f
The spittle that came forth from Horus’s
mouth, the saliva that came forth from
Seth’s mouth, Horus has become clean
through it, and the evil that was against
him after Seth acted against him was
released to the ground. Seth has
become clean through it and the evil
that was against him after Horus acted
against him was released to the ground.
PT 475
P A/W 24–25
An B/E ii 53–56
M A/Wg 36–41
N A/W 11–12
Group: J
Personal – Transition
in nw n Hrw in irt=f in nw n stS in Xrwy=f
Get that for Horus, get his eye. Get that
for Seth, get his testicles.
PT 501C
P A/E 30–31
Group: K
Personal – Apotropaic
bnbn Hrw Hr irt=fnt Dt=f wnm.n=f s am.n=f s mA.n s psDwt sHsH stS Hr Xrwy=f na.n Hrw mtwt=f m art stS na.n stS mtwt=f m art Hrw
Horus groaned on account of his eye of
his body, when he had eaten it and
swallowed it and the Ennead saw it.
Seth rasped on account of his testicles.
Horus conveyed his semen into the
anus of Seth. Seth conveyed his Semen
into the anus of Horus.
APPENDICES
312
PT 524
P Cn/W 60–72
Group: N
Personal – Transition
wab NN m abw ir.n Hrw n irt=f NN pw DHwti nD Tn n NN is pw stS iT s
NN has become clean in the purification
which Horus made for his eye. NN is
Thoth who protected this, NN is not
Seth who seized it.
PT 562
P V/W 1–2
P APn/E 38–41
N V/N 20–28
Group: O
Personal - Transition
nxx.n irt Hrw xr=Tn n rdi=s n Dnd stS
Horus’s Eye will endure with you and it
will not be given to the wrath of Seth.
PT 570
P V/W 23–34
P APs/W 29–71
M V/E 52–75
N V/W 9–21
Group: O
Personal - Transition
sxt pf TA pn sin sin im=Tni nw Xt w tpt nt idmrwt nt mAa xrw mswt n xprt Dnd mswt n xprt xrw mswt n xprt snTt mswt n xprt Xnnw mswt n qnit irt Hrw n sAdt xrwy stS
You caught one, this male, the one who
runs from you belongs to that first body
of the herd of justification that was born
before wrath had come into being, that
was born before noise had come into
being, that was born before strife had
come into being, that was born before
disturbance had once into being, when
Horus’s Eye had not been ripped out
and Seth’s testicles had not been tied
off.
PT 652
N B/Ne B i 99–100
Nt B/Ne B v 5
Nt B/Ne B v 9
Nt B/Ne B v 12
Group: A
Sacerdotal - Offering
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw nHmt.n(=i) ma stH xnp.n=f s
Osiris NN, accept Horus’s Eye, which I
have rescued from Seth after he
snatched it.
PT 653B
N B/Ne B i 103–104
Nt B/Ne B v 7
Group: A
Sacerdotal - Offering
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw Tpnpnt.n stS Hr=s
Osiris NN, accept Horus’s Eye on which
Seth calculated.
PT 653C
Nt B/Ne B v 8
Group: A
Sacerdotal – Offering
wsir NN m-n=k irt Hrw mAt.n=f gs=s ma stS
Osiris NN, accept Horus’s Eye, half of
which he saw in Seth’s hand.
PT 658A
P B/Se B 52–56
N B/Se B 50–55
Nt B/E i 1–12
Group: A, F
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
nHm.n Hrw irt=f ma stS di.n=f n[=k] s
APPENDICES
313
Horus has rescued his eye from Seth
and given it to you.
PT 667A
P B/Se B 73–76
N B/Se B 76–80
Nt B/Sw 35–42
Nt B/E ii 53–60
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i Axt i.wAg rDw pr m wsir wab Hrw ma irt.n sn=f stS r=f wab stS ma irt.n sn=f Hrw ir=f wab NN pn ma xt nb Dwt irt=f
Supply the outflow that comes from
Osiris, that Horus may be cleaned from
what his brother Seth has done to him,
that Seth may be cleaned from what his
brother Horus has done to him, that this
NN may be cleaned from everything
bad against him.
PT 686
N A/N 22–23
Group: L
Sacerdotal - Offering
iT.n Hrw irt=f nHm.n=f s m xftyw=f
Horus has acquired his eye and taken it
from his opponents, there is no
property right of Seth in it.
PT 696A
P A/N 40–42
N A/Eg 44–55
Group: G, L
Personal – Transition
iw NN Xr ssf pn n itiw skk [irt Hrw im=f] Sx[s ir Dbaw stS]
This NN has fetched the towel of the
sovereign’s linen with which Horus’s
Eye, which was torn out of Seth’s
fingers, was wiped.
PT 708
P A/S 39–43
N A/S A 6–10
Group: J
Type Unknown
hA ws[ir NN wabt m abw ir.n Hrw n irt=f] Twt DHwti nD s n Twt is stS iT s
Ho Osiris, this NN, you have become
clean in the cleaning which Horus made
for his eye, you are Thoth who saved it,
you are not Seth who seized it.
VARIANT TEXTS:
SETH – INJURES – HORUS
PT 215
W B/S 7–15
T B/S 5–13
P B/Se B 3–6
N B/Se B 3–8
Nt B/Se i 7–17
Jp B/S B 5–11
Wd B/Se 15–20
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i.aH=k Xrwy n stS
May you snare the testicles of Seth.
PT 222
W B/E 16–33
T B/S 58–69
P B/Se B 28–33
N B/Se B 39–45
Nt B/Se i 78–89
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
Htm.ti m stS SbSb wADwy Hs.n ist
Being provided as Seth whose raw
testicles were pulled off.
APPENDICES
314
PT 271
W A/S 40–42
T A/S 8–10
P V/E 16–18
N A/W 60–61
Group: J, O
Personal – Transition
nDr Hrw stS ma n NN Sd=sn sw r dAt ii-n=f sA Tw wD-n=f wD-n=f sA Tw ii-n=f
Horus and Seth shall take the arms of
NN, and take him to the Duat. He who
has been dealt an eye injury, protect
from the one of the command. You of
the command beware the one who has
been dealt an eye injury.
PT 277
W A/E 1
T A/E 6–7
Nt B/E i 55
Group: K
Personal – Apotropaic
xr Hrw n irt=f sbn kA n Xrwi=f
Horus has fallen because of his eye, the
serpent has slithered off because of his
testicles.
PT 327
T B/Wg 30–32
P B/Sw A 1–3
N B/Nw iii 13–22
Group: M
Personal – Transition
in.n-w Hrw mr=f NN in.n=f irt=f in.n-w stS mr=f NN in.n=f Xrwy=f
Horus’s fetcher desires NN for he has
fetched his eye. Seth’s fetcher desires
NN for he has fetched his testicles.
PT 359
T P/N 1–16
P V/W 45–50
N Cn/E 21–35
Group: I, N, O
Personal – Transition
ihi.n Hrw n irt=f ihi.n stS n Xrwy=f
Horus has wailed for his eye, Seth has
wailed for his testicles.
PT 386
T A/E 20
Group: K
Personal – Apotropaic
Xr Hrw Hr irt=f pAs stS Hr Xrwy=f
Horus has fallen on account of his eye,
Seth has felt pain on account of his
testicles.
PT 455
P B/W 58–63
M B/W 24–27
N B/W 29–31
Nt B/W 30–33
Group: E
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
iSS pr m r Hrw isd pr m r stS wab Hrw im=f sfx Dwt irt=f ir t Aim=f ir.n stS ir=f wab stS im=f sfx Dwt irt=f ir tA it.n Hrw ir=f
The spittle that came forth from Horus’s
mouth, the saliva that came forth from
Seth’s mouth, Horus has become clean
through it, and the evil that was against
him after Seth acted against him was
released to the ground. Seth has
become clean through it and the evil
that was against him after Horus acted
against him was released to the ground.
APPENDICES
315
PT 475
P A/W 24–25
M A/Wg 36–41
N A/W 11–12
Group: J
Personal – Transition
in nw n Hrw in irt=f in nw n stS in Xrwy=f
Get that for Horus, get his eye. Get that
for Seth, get his testicles.
PT 501C
P A/E 30–31
Group: K
Personal – Apotropaic
bnbn Hrw Hr irt=fnt Dt=f wnm.n=f s am.n=f s mA.n s psDwt sHsH stS Hr Xrwy=f na.n Hrw mtwt=f m art stS na.n stS mtwt=f m art Hrw
Horus groaned on account of his eye of
his body, when he had eaten it and
swallowed it and the Ennead saw it.
Seth rasped on account of his testicles.
Horus conveyed his semen into the
anus of Seth. Seth conveyed his Semen
into the anus of Horus.
PT 570
P V/W 23–34
P APs/W 29–71
M V/E 52–75
N V/W 9–21
Group: O
Personal - Transition
sxt pf TA pn sin sin im=Tni nw Xt w tpt nt idmrwt nt mAa xrw mswt n xprt Dnd mswt n xprt xrw mswt n xprt snTt mswt n xprt Xnnw mswt n qnit irt Hrw n sAdt xrwy stS
You caught one, this male, the one who
runs from you belongs to that first body
of the herd of justification that was born
before wrath had come into being, that
was born before noise had come into
being, that was born before strife had
come into being, that was born before
disturbance had come into being, when
Horus’s eye had not been ripped out
and Seth’s testicles had not been tied
off.
PT 667A
P B/Se B 73–76
N B/Se B 76–80
Nt B/Sw 35–42
Nt B/E ii 53–60
Group: B
Sacerdotal – Priestly Recitation
i Axt i.wAg rDw pr m wsir wab Hrw ma irt.n sn=f stS r=f wab stS ma irt.n sn=f Hrw ir=f wab NN pn ma xt nb Dwt irt=f
Supply the outflow that comes from
Osiris, that Horus may be cleaned from
what his brother Seth has done to him,
that Seth may be cleaned from what his
brother Horus has done to him, that this
NN may be cleaned from everything
bad against him
APPENDICES
316
CORE TEXTS:
HORUS – CONTENDS WITH – SETH
PT 252
W A/Wg 26–32
Group: J
Personal – Transition
Dd NN r idb pw wab ir.n=f Hms=f im Hna wp nTrwy
NN shall speak at the clean shore where
he has made his seat with the one who
parted the two gods.
PT 254
W A/W 1–18
T A/W 1–12
Group: J
Personal – Transition
wDa Nn mdw m mHt-wrt imwt Xnwy sk wrs=f m wsrw irt tbi nxt=f nxtw irt tbi
NN shall judge between the two
contestants in the Great Immersion for
his power is the power of Tebi’s eye and
his strength is the strength of Tebi’s eye.
PT 258
W A/W 32–36
T A/W 20–23
T A/W 23–27
Group: J
Personal – Transition
wrS NN sḏr.f sḥtp.f nwtj m wnw
NN will spend this day and night
pacifying the two adzes in Hermopolis.
PT 259
T A/W 23–27
Group: J
Personal – Transition
wrS NN sḏr.f sḥtp.f nwtj m wnw
This NN will spend the day and night
pacifying the two adzes in Hermopolis.
PT 308
W A/N 31–34
T A/N 32–36
P A/N 48–50
N A/N 15–16
Nt C/W 26–31
Wd B/E A 2–3
Group: L
Personal – Transition
i.nD Hr.Tn tti ib sAti fd nTrw xntiw Hwt aAt
Greetings you two reconciled gods,
twin children of the foremost of the
gods of the Big Enclosure.
PT 359
T P/N 1–16
P V/W 45–50
N Cn/E 21–35
Group: I, N, O
Personal – Transition
ihi.n Hrw n irt=f ihi.n stS n Xrwy=f sTp irt Hrw xr m pf gs n mr-n-xA i.nD=s Dt=s ma stS mA.n=s DHwti m pf gs n mr-n-xA sTp irt Hrw m pf gs n mr-nxA xr tpi DnH DHwti m pf gs n mr-n-xA nTrw ipw DAAw tpi DnH DHwti ir pf gs n mr-n-xA ir gs iAbti n pt ir mdt xft stS Hr irt tw nt Hrw DA NN Hna=Tn tpi DnH DHwti ir pf gs n mr-n-xA ir gs iAbti n pt iw NN mdw=f xft stS Hr irt tw nt Hrw
Horus has wailed for his eye, Seth has
wailed for his testicles. Horus’s eye
jumped and it made landfall on the
other side of the Winding Canal so that
it might save itself from Seth, having
seen Thoth on the other side of the
Winding Canal. Horus’s eye jumped up
on the other side of the Winding Canal
and it made landfall on Thoth’s wing on
the other side of the Winding Canal to
APPENDICES
317
the eastern side of the sky in order to
contend against Seth over that eye of
Horus. NN will cross with you on
Thoth’s wing to the other side of the
Winding Canal to the eastern side of the
sky for NN will be contending against
Seth over that eye of Horus.
PT 407
T A/E 49–51
P B/E 11–12
P A/W 44–45
An B/E i 23–27
M B/Eg 36–40
N B/E 8–10
Group: C, H, J
Personal – Transition
wDa NN mdw wpi=f snw
NN will judge cases and will part the
two.
PT 510
P Cm/W 1–34
M Cm/E 68–94
Group: N
Personal – Transition
fA Hrw NN sTs sw stS ir NN wdHw wdH sbA sHtp=f nTrwy Htp.wii sHtp=f nTrwy Spt.wii
Horus will lift NN, Seth will elevate
him and NN will make an offering and
a star outpouring. He will content the
two gods so that they are content, he
will content the two gods when they are
angry.
PT 524
P Cn/W 60–72
Group: N
Personal – Transition
NN pw xw nnw nTrw m sxnw irt Hrw HH.n=s NN m p gm.n s m iwnw Sd.n=s NN pn m tp stS m bw pw aHA.n=sn im
NN is the one who prevents the gods
from turning away from embracing
Horus’s Eye. This NN sought it in Pe
and found it in Heliopolis and then NN
removed it from the head of Seth in the
place where they fought there.
PT 669
P A/N 20–24
N B/Se B 95–100
Group: B, L
Personal – Transition
n ntt NN is pw ns pr m sbq wp snwy pSn aHAwy pSn tpw=Tn Ntrw