The methods of pharmacognostic observation of raw materials

YYEERREEVVAANN SSTTAATTEE MMEEDDIICCAALL UUNNIIVVEERRSSIITTYY aafftteerr MM.. HHEERRAATTSSII

DDeeppaarrttmmeenntt ooff PPhhaarrmmaaccooggnnoossyy aanndd BBoottaannyy

AMIRYAN L.

PP HH AA RR MM AA CC OO GG NN OO SS YY

Hand-book for foreign students of pharmaceutical faculty

YEREVAN - 2007

YYEERREEVVAANN SSTTAATTEE MMEEDDIICCAALL UUNNIIVVEERRSSIITTYY aafftteerr MM.. HHEERRAATTSSII

DDeeppaarrttmmeenntt ooff PPhhaarrmmaaccooggnnoossyy aanndd BBoottaannyy

Author: Amiryan L.

Consultant: Revazova L.

PP HH AA RR MM AA CC OO GG NN OO SS YY

Hand-book for foreign students of pharmaceutical faculty

YEREVAN - 2007

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This handbook is adopted by the Methodical Council

of Foreign Students of the University

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The methods of pharmacognostic observation of raw materials

The pharmacognostic analysis started to be used in the second half

of the XIX century. In those times many plants from India, America,

Africa and Australia were sold in European market. The necessity to

recognize, analyze, as well as the determination of mixtures and

falsifications appeared.

The use of plants as therapeutic agents brings in additional aspects

such as purity, quality and preservation. The part of pharmacy which

dealed with the determination of them is called pharmacognosy.

The term pharmacognosy comes from two Greek words;

"pharmakon" meaning drug or medicine, and "gnosis" meaning

knowledge. Pharmacognosy, therefore, is the knowledge of drugs or

medicines.

Pharmacognosy is an interdisciplinary science which covers all

aspects of drugs of natural origin. It can be defined as "the study of the

physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug

substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as

well as the search for new drugs from natural sources.

Chemical characterization of plant materials is important as it relates

to the therapeutic effects. It is perhaps obvious that different species of

plants would have different chemical profiles. However, these

differences can extent to different varieties, or even the same variety

grown in a different location or harvested at a different time of the year.

Different plant parts, such as roots, leaves, flowers and seeds can also

have strikingly different profiles. The isolation and identification of

chemical constituents is termed natural products chemistry.

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The renaissance of herbal medicine creates a demand for studies in

the science of pharmacognosy. From a practical perspective this

includes quality control (identity, purity, and consistency), efficacy

(therapeutic indications, clinical studies, pharmacological investigations)

and safety (adverse reactions, drug interactions, contraindications,

precautions).

When many companies started to sell powdered herbal raw

materials there appeared a need to make a microscopic observation of

the materials. First this method was used by the botanist Shleider.

Professor Dragendorf created a periodic process of the quantitive

observation of the raw material.

In the beginning of the XX century the famous pharmacognosist

Chirkh (Switzerland) who was observing the chemistry and anatomy of

the plants created a famous book of pharmacognosy, which doesn’t

loose it’s meaning till now.

As we have mentioned above the problem of practical pharmacognosy

is the determination of the identity, purity, and quality of the raw

material.

1. The identity of the raw material is the belonging of the raw

material to it’s name according to which it was admitted to the analysis

and also the belong ness of the raw material to the producing plant .

2. The purity of the raw material : The raw material is pure if there are no forbidden mixtures.

The mixtures allowed in the raw material are in the norm.

3. Quality of the raw material Depends on a) collecting the raw material in correct time and period

b) Correct drying process

c) Absence of spoiled parts and insects

d) Normal ash and wet quantities

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e) Normal content of active compounds

In the process of the analysis of the raw material we are directed by

State pharmacopeias IX, X, XI, EP, B, BHP, USP, WHO monographs on

selected medicinal plants and normative technical documentations.

The macroscopic analysis of the raw material

The main problem of the observation is the determination of the

identity of the raw material.

It is determined through visual inspection (macromorphology). For

this purpose it is necessary to find the characteristic date for the

observed object on the general sight of morphological data.

The techniques of the macroscopic analysis are very clear:

1. To observe the external sight of the raw material with unarmed eye or

pocket lens, measure separate parts

2. Organoleptic tests (odor and taste)

3. Necessary chemical reactions

4. Finding out the mixture and determination of the quality of the raw

material.

The received data must be compared with the etalon and standards

(pharmacopeias, state standards, pharmacopoeia articles, handbooks).

The external view of the raw material is determined by putting the raw

material on the glass or paper and measuring the moderate sizes of it

by a liner, describing the shape.

The color of the raw material is determined under the day light. It is

mentioned surface characteristics, its color, and texture, fracture and

appearance and the colour of the cut surface.

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The odor of the raw material is determined by crushing of the dry raw

material. The odor of the crude raw material is determined by scrubbing

by a knife or grinding.

The taste of the raw material is determined in the last phase when it is

found out that the raw material is not poisonous. The characteristic

tastes for the raw materials are mentioned if pharmacopeias only for not

poisonous objects. The taste is tested carefully, shooing small pieces,

but not swallowing them.

The quantitive chemical reactions are done in two purposes:

1. To find out the active compounds determining the

pharmacological activities of the raw materials (alkaloids, glycosides,

mucilage, volatile and fixed oils….).

2. To find out the following and ballast compounds which have a

characteristic meaning for the raw material (starch, inulin, pigments …)

The macroscopic observation of the raw material depends from the

morphological group to which it belongs.

Leaves, Folia, Gemmae, and Leaf Gemmas - in pharmacognosy

leaves are called those raw materials which represent themselves as

dried whole leaves or parts of complex leaves.

Big and thin leaves must be softened first by soaking in water for

several hours to plate their surface and then the preparations are made.

Thick leather like leaves does not need any special handling, as they

are not deformed during the drying process.

The shape, sizes, existence of hair and glands, the colour and odor and

the taste are mentioned.

Flowers, Flores, Alabastra, Flower Gemmas are called the raw

materials, which represent themselves as dried whole complex flowers

or simple flowers or their parts. The flowers must be soaked in water

before observation, then the composition, shape and sizes are

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determined. For dried flowers, covering hair, colour, odor and taste are

determined.

Herbs, Herbae, Cormus, Stem Shoots – are called the over - ground

part of the plants usually without the rude stems. In dried herbs the

covering type, colour, odor and taste for all the parts of the herb are

determined. All the organs of the tendered herb are observed.

Barks, Cortex – are the external dried parts of wood, stems, rhizomes

and roots, which are twice separated with the cambium layer. It the

determination of the cortex the appearance of the transverse cutting

surface is important. In the existence of a great amount of loub threads

the cutting surface is not plate, but in the absence or small quantity of

them the cutting surface is plate. The thickness of the bark is important,

because old and thick barks are not reach with active compounds. The

colour of inner and external surface is determined. The odor is

determined by scribing or soaking in the water. The ether oil glandulars

and mechanical elements can be observed by a pocket lens.

Qualitative reactions are done with the 10 % water extract of the crude

drug or simply dropping a reactive on the inner surface of the raw

material.

Fruits, Fructus – are called real or false fruits, complex (collective)

fruits and their parts.

The whole fruits are easily determined by their external characters and

during the determination of their identity there is no need to do

microscopic or chemical observations.

The juicy fruits are observed first dried and then they are soaked into

the water and the characters of the pericarps observed. The seeds are

separated from the fruits to determine their shape and quantity.

Seeds, Semina – Usually are determined by their external characters.

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Roots, Radices, Rhizomes, Rhizomas, Bulbs, Bulbus and Tubers, Tubera – are the underground organs of the plants. They can be whole

or cut, with a bark or without it. The size, odor, taste must be mentioned

for them. The colour of the outer surface and the appearance of the cut

surface and its color must be mentioned, too. It necessary the

transverse cuttings should be made then coloured by fluoroglucide to

find out the transporting elements, which is characteristic to each

morphological group.

The microscopic examination of the crude drug. This observation is based on the fact that characteristic

differentiated elements are found out on the general picture of the

anatomical structure of the raw material, by which the observed object

differs from others.

The microscopic observation of different morphological groups of

the raw material needs a special technique of preparing the microscopic

preparations.

Preparation of the raw material for microscopic observation Before microscopic observation the raw material must be tendered.

There are several methods to tend raw materials.

1. Cold tendering (soaking in a liquid). The crude parts of the

plant (bark, seeds, fruits, underground organs, and leather like leaves)

are soaked in a mixture of glycerin and 96 % alcohol solution (1:1). This

kind of preparation takes a long time, but is very productive. The tissues

become fully free from air and partly simplified. The soft tissues are put

into the glycerin/ water (2:1) mixture; water, glycerin and 96% alcohol

mixture (1:1:1) or into the water 1-5 days, after which they are put into a

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2. Tendering in a wet camera. During this type of tendering the

cells and their contents are kept, but the remaining air must be

removed.

3. Hot tendering. It is mostly applicable. The raw material is

boiled in 3-5% water solution of alkaline for 2-5 minutes (underground

organs for 20 min). Then the solution is removed and the raw material is

washed and left in the water.

4. Maceration. For the microscopic preparation the glass slide

and the cover glass must be clean and dry. The object is put into the

liquid. Water, glycerin and water mixture (2:1), chloral hydrate, water,

glycerin mixture (20:5:5), 3-5% alkaline solution, ammonium, hydrogen

superoxide solutions are used as applicable and clarifying liquids. The

differentiative characters of each group of the raw material must be

analyzed during the observation of according objects, though there are

some differentiative elements for each morphological group.

Leaves – the main differentiative elements are epidermis, different kinds

of hairs (simple, burning, complex, and glandular), glands, volatile oil

and resin secretory structures, different types of crystals. The structure

of glads and containers sometimes are typical for some families.

Herbs – are determined mainly by leaves.

Underground organs – the main attention is paid to the structural types

(I or II), transporting tubes, the shape and character of mechanical

elements, presence or absence of laticifers, secretory structures,

containers...

Barks – It is necessary to pay attention to the thickness of cambium and

its structure, sometimes to the colour, presence of laticifers, secretory

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structures... Various microchemical reactions are used in the

observation of the bark.

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MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING TERPENOIDS (ISOPRENOIDS)

The aim of the course: Identification of the herbs containing

terpenoids, obtaining knowledge to identify and qualify of the raw

material.

Assisting questionary: 1. Which groups of biologically active compounds are called

terpenoids? What lies in the base of their structure? How these

compounds are called because of their structure?

2. How are the terpenoids synthesized?

3. What kinds of terpenoids are specific for the family of

Lamiaceae?

4. What kinds of terpenoids are specific for the family of

Asteraceae?

5. Where are the essential oils synthesized and stored?

6. What kind of structure do the essential oil glands have in the

family of Lamiaceae?

7. What kind of structure do the essential oil glands have in the

family of Asteraceae?

8. What are the physical characteristics of essential oils?

9. What are the chemical characteristics of essential oils?

10. Mention the ways of receiving essential oils.

11. How are the organoleptic analyses of essential oils done?

12. How is the purity of essential oils determined? What kind of

physical-chemical ways are suggested?

13. How are the collection, production and drying of essential oil

containing raw material processed?

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14. For what kind of purposes the essential oil containing raw

materials are used in medicine?

15. Mention the specific characters, chemical compound and uses

of the crude drug of Inula helenium.

16. Mention the macroscopic and microscopic characters of the leaf

of Mentha piperita.

17. What kind of a chemical content does the raw material of

Valeriana officinalis have?

18. Mention the specific characteristics of Thyme, the chemical

compound and pharmacological activity.

19. Mention the specific characteristics of Eucalyptus, the chemical

compound and pharmacological activity.

20. Mention the specific characteristics of Rosmarinus officinalis,

the chemical compound and pharmacological activity.

21. Mention the specific characteristics of Juniperus communis, the

chemical compound and pharmacological activity.

22. Mention the specific characteristics of Chamomilla, the chemical

compound and pharmacological activity.

23. How can we differ the crude drug of Chamomilla from possible

forbidden mixtures?

24. Mention the specific characteristics of Achillea millefolium, the

chemical compound and pharmacological activity it.

25. Mention the general and differentiative characters of the fruits of

the representatives of Apiaceae.

26. Mention the chemical content of Anisum vulgare, Foeniculum

vulgare, Carum carvi, Coriandrum sativum and their uses in

medicine.

27. Mention the specific characteristics of Artemisia absinthium, its

chemical compound and pharmacological activity.

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28. What parts of Artemisia cina are used as a raw material and

what kind of preparations do you know?

29. Mention the specific characteristic of Artemisia cina flowers,

their chemical content and uses in medicine.

30. Mention the specific characteristics of Zingiber, the chemical

compound and pharmacological activity.

31. Which medical plants contain eugenol?

32. Mention the camphor containing plants.

33. Mention the plants containing cineol.

34. Mention the eugenol-containing plants.

35. Mention the external and internal activities of menthol.

1. Producing plant: Mentha Piperita

Peppermint

Family: Lamiaceae

Crude drug: Folia Menthae piperitae

Peppermint leaves

Peppermint Leaf as defined in Pharmacopeias is the dried leaves of

Mentha piperita L. (Labiatae). It is required to contain not less than 1.2%

of volatile oil. The oil is obtained from the same plant by steam distillation

using the flowering tops. The European and American oil appears to be

derived to a large extent from the two varieties M. piperita var. vulgaris Sole

('black mint') and M. piperita var. officinalis Sole ('white mint').

Mentha piperita is, as implied by the written botanical name, a hybrid

species from the two parents, M. spicata and M. aquatica.

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Native to Europe and Asia, it is sterile hybrid, so does not produce viable

seeds. Peppermint is mostly cultivated, but also grows wild in moist, rich

soil environments in temperature parts of Europe and in the eastern USA.

Macroscopical characters: All the mints have square stems and

creeping rhizomes. The flowers are arranged in verticillasters and have

the floral formula K (5), C (5), A4, G (2). The black mint, which is the

one most commonly cultivated in England, has purple stems and dark

green petiolate leaves which are tinged with purple. The leaf blades are

3-9 cm long and have a grooved petiole up to 1 cm long. They have a

pinnate venation with lateral veins leaving the midrib at about a 45°

angle, acuminate apex and sharply dentate margin. Glandular trichomes

can be seen as bright yellowish points when the lower surface is

examined with a hand lens. The leaves are broader than those of M.

spicata (spearmint), but narrower than those of M. aquatica (water

mint). The small, purple flowers appear in late summer.

Microscopical characters: The microscopy of peppermint leaves is

typical of the family, showing numerous diacytic stomata on the lower

surface, three- to eight-celled clothing trichomes with a striated cuticle

and two types of glandular trichome, one with a unicellular base and

small single-celled head and the other with a multicellular head

characteristic of the family. Calcium oxalate is absent.

Oil of Peppermint: The oil is required to contain 4.5-10% of esters calculated

as menthyl acetate, not less than 44% of free alcohols calculated as

menthol and 15-32% of ketones calculated as menthone. However, these

chemical evaluations are now replaced by a capillary GC profile; limits for

individual compounds are limonene 1.0-5.0%, cineole 3.5-14.0%,

menthone 14—32%, menthofuran 1.0-9.0%, isomenthone 1.5-10.0%,

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menthylacetate 2.8-10.0%, menthol 30.0-55.0%, pulegone - 4.0%,

carvone 1.0%. The ratio of the cineole to limonene contents exceeds 2.

Small quantities of the sesquiterpene viridoflorol form a useful iden-

tification characteristic of the oil. A basic fraction of the oil contains a

number of pyridine derivatives such as 2-acetyl-4-isopropenyl pyridine

which has a powerful grass-like minthy odour. High-resolution GC has

been used to identify over 85 components of the oil.

Japanese peppermint oil is derived from Mentha arvensis: it contains 70-

90% menthol, for the extraction of which it is largely used. The commercial

dementholized Japanese oil contains approximately the same amount of

menthol and its esters as the American oil.

Action and uses: The menthol in Peppermint’s Essential oil in primary

responsible for its beneficial effects. Menthol has an external cooling

and internal warming effect. Menthol is an antispasmodic that inhibits

smooth muscle contractions, especially in the digestive tract. It also

dilates coronary arteries, improving the blood flow to the heart muscle.

This action calms stomach muscles and improve digestion. However

peppermint can worsen the symptoms of heartburn and indigestion in

people with the gastro esophageal reflux disease.

In modern medicine peppermint is suggested for relieving indigestion

and bloating due to excess gas, fro spastic complaints of the

gastrointestinal tract, gall bladder and bile ducts, and for irritable bowel

syndrome. It is also prescribed to relieve congestion, to ease tension

headaches, to reduce muscle spasms in the colon and to alleviate nerve

and muscle pain.

Menthol stimulates cold receptors in the nostrils and is an effective

decongestant and expectorant. Many cardiomedicines contain menthol

in their constituents.

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2. Producing plant: Salvia officinalis

Sage officinal

Family: Lamiaceae

Crude drug: Folia Salviae

Sage leaf The official drug consists of whole or cut leaves of Salvia officinalis

(Labiatae) containing not less than 1.5% (whole leaf) or 1.0% (cut leaf) of

essential oil which is determined by steam distillation. The plant is

indigenous to Mediterranean areas but is now cultivated world-wide,

principally for its use as a culinary herb.

Macroscopical characters: The petiolate oblong-lanceolate leaves are

up to 10 cm length and 2 cm in breadth, greenish-grey on the upper

surface and tomentose on the lower with a markedly reticulate venation.

The leaf apex is rounded, the base rounded or cordate and the margin

crenulate. The odour and taste are characteristically pungent.

Microscopical characters: The upper epidermal cells have beaded

anticlinal walls, the lower ones are thin-walled and sinuous; both epidermi

possess diacytic stomata. Glandular trichomes of the typical labiate type

occur on both surfaces with rarer uniseriate glandular trichomes having a

double- or single-celled head. Clothing trichomes are numerous,

particularly on the lower surface, composed of a short thickened basal

cell with articulated and bent terminal cells. A few single-celled warty-

walled trichomes are present. The long protective trichomes serve to

distinguish S. officinalis from S. sclarea and S. pratensis.

Constituents: The volatile oil of sage contains about 50% of a- and B-thujone

together with cineole, borneol and other constituents. Varieties and other species of

sage contain differing amounts of thujone.

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Non-volatile components of the leaf include diterpenes, phenolic glycosides

based on caffeic and />-hydroxybenzoic acids, and tannins.

Action and uses: Sage possesses antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and

astringent properties. Sage as an infusion is used as a mouthwash and

gargle for its antiseptic and astringent action. Recent attention has focused

on the cholinergic activity of the drug and its possible role in the treatment

of Alzheimer's disease and memory loss. It is interesting to note that long

before recent advances in the understanding of the neurobiology of

Alzheimer's disease, plant materials including sage and balm (Melissa

officinalis) were recommended in old reference books as possessing

memory-improving properties. The phenolic glycosides of sage together

with those of Melissa officinalis and Lavandula angustifolia possess

antioxidant properties. In Asia it is wildly used to treat hemorrhoids, blood or

phlegm in urine, excessive breast milk or fluid in the abdomen, insomnia,

hepatitis and more. In Germany, sage is administered in pills or drunk tea

or juice for colds, congestion and fevers.

3. Producing plant: Thymus vulgaris

Thymus serpyllum

Thyme Common

Thyme crawling

Family: Lamiacae

Crude drug: Herba Thymi

Herba Serpylli

Flowered plant

Thymus vulgaris and T. serpyllum are official in the Pharmacopeias.

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Thymus vulgaris is native to the Mediterranean region and T. serpyllum

to Armenia, European part of Russia.

The harvesting time is just when the plant starts to flower. The drug

consists of whole leaves and flowers with stems exceeding a specified

size limited to 10%. The minimum requirement for volatile oil content is

1.2% v/w with a phenol value of not less than 0.5% expressed as thymol

and calculated with reference to the anhydrous drug.

Thyme common is a low growing perennial herb with thin, branching

stems and small grayish green leaves, Tiny white or purlish flowers are

arranged in dense whorls on terminal spikes. Serpyllum is detected by

characteristic long trichomes at the base of leaves which are weakly-

pubescent in other parts. The volatile oil of T. serpyllium contains more

linalool and p-cymol than do the official species.

Constituents: It contains essential oil. Thyme oil is obtained by steam

distillation from the fresh aerial parts and contains thymol 36-55%,

carvacrol 1-4%, p-cymene 15-28%, y-terpinene 5-10% together with

linalol, /3-myrcene and terpinen-4-ol as determined by gas

chromatography. Spain accounts for some 90% of the world production

of thyme oil.

Action and use: Thyme is recognized as a powerful antiseptic that also

exhibits antifungal, antibacterial, antispasmodic, anthelmetic properties.

The herb is taken for spasmodic coughs, throat and chest infections,

digestive upset. Thyme oil is used externally to relieve pain. Thymol is a

powerful and proven antiseptic, a strong antibiotic, effective antifungal

agent. In pure form it is also toxic in large quantities. Thymol is used in

herbal preparations and commercial products, such as cough drops,

gargles, and antiseptic ointments. Thymol is the primary chemical

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components of thyme responsible for its antiseptic, antispasmodic, anti-

inflammatory, and antitussive effects.

Caution! Because thyme oil is a uterine stimulant, medical doses of

thyme and its oil should be avoided during pregnancy. It also depresses

the function thyroid glands

Producing plant: Rosmarinus officinalis

Rosemary officinal

Family: Lamiacae

Crude drug: Folia Rosmarini

Rosemary leaves

The plant is native to southern Europe and the oil is produced

principally in Spain and North Africa. The plant is commonly found in

American, British, European, Indian and Chinese gardens.

Rosemary is an evergreen shrub with rigid, opposite leaves from

about 3.5 cm long and 2-4 mm broad. It grows about 3 to 5 feet high,

with thin, dark green leaves. It is perennial, woody bush with fresh piney

scent. Numerous branched trichomes make the lower leaf surface grey

and woolly; typical labiate glandular hairs contain the volatile oil. The

mauve flowers are much larger than those of either lavender or the

mints.

Constituents: It contains about 1-2% of volatile oil containing 0.8-6%

of esters, and 8-20% of alcohols. The principal constituents are 1, 8-

cineole, borneol, camphor, bornyl acetate, and monoterpene hydro-

carbons; at least 20 compounds have been identified. Rosemary leaves

also contain the triterpene alcohols, rosmarinic acid.

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Action and use: The oil finds its main use in the perfumery industry. It is

a component of soap Liniment and is frequently used in aromatherapy,

baths....

Rosemary tea is prescribed for digestive problems. It is also applied

externally, in oils and ointments for rheumatism and to increase

circulation. Rosemary tea is used to treat cold and flues, rheumatic

pain, arthritis, aching muscles, muscle spasms, indigestion, headache,

fatigue, and depression. It is also used in mouthwash, dye,

preservative, and in shampoos to combat dandruff and thinning hair and

balding.

Caution! Should be avoided during pregnancy as it has an abortive

effect.

5. Producing plant: Eucalyptus viminalis E. cinerea E. globulus

Family: Myrtaceae Crude drug: Folia Eucalypti Eucalyptus leaf Eucalyptus leaf consists of whole or cut dried leaves of the older branches

of Eucalyptus globules, E. viminalis, E. cinerea . Eucalyptus trees possess

two kinds of leaves, those on young plants being cordate and sessile

whereas those on mature trees which constitute the official drug are

petiolate and scimitar-shaped. The dried leaves are greyish-brown in

colour, curvaceous in texture and have lateral veins which anastomose

near the margin. Secretory oil glands are visible in leaves held to the

light. Microscopy shows epidermal cells with thick cuticle, anisocytic

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stomata, together with mesophyll having schizogenous oil glands and

prisms and cluster crystals of calcium oxalate.

Constituents: The leaves are required to contain not less than 2.0% v/w of

essential oil and have limits of 3% for dark and brown leaves, 5% for

stems and 2 % for other foreign matter. Other significant components of the

leaves are phloroglucinol-sesquiterpene coupled compounds named macro-

carpals which show antibacterial activity against oral pathogenic

microorganisms and inhibition of glycosyltransferase activity. Such sub-

stances could have potential in the maintenance of oral hygiene.

Oil of eucalytus is distilled from the fresh leaves of various species of

Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) and rectified. Eucalyptus oils are produced in

Portugal, South Africa, Spain, China, Brazil, Australia, India and

Paraguay.

The chief requirements are high cineole content and the absence of

appreciable quantities of phellandrene and aldehydes.

Characters. Oil of eucalyptus is a colourless or pale yellow liquid. It has

an aromatic and camphoraceous odour; a pungent, camphoraceous taste,

which is followed by a sensation of cold. It is required to contain not less than

70.0% of cineole. 1, 8-Cineole and o-cresol form a solid complex and the

crystallizing temperature of this forms the basis for the official assay of the

oil. Pharmacopeias also includes a TLC identification test, and tests which

limit the content of aldehydes and phellandrene; these eliminate oils

containing citronellal and the so-called industrial eucalyptus oils.

Action and use: Eucalyptus oil’s primary ingredient, cineole has antiseptic

properties and is much used for alleviating the symptoms of nasopharyngeal

infections, for treating coughs and as a decongestant. It is taken internally in the

form of mixtures, inhalations, lozenges and pastilles and applied externally as

ointments and liniments for rheumatisms, neuralgias, bruises, sprains, and sore

muscles.

26

6. Producing plant: Tilia cordata Tilia platyphyllos Lime

Family: Tiliaceae Crude drug: Flores Tiliae

Lime flowers Lime Flower consists of the dried inflorescences of Tilia cordata (small-

leaved lime), Tilia platyphyllos (broad-leaved lime). They are ornamental

trees, native to Europe. Commercial supplies of the flowers come from

China, the Balkans, Turkey and Hungary, the latter exporting (1997) over

100 tonnes.

The inflorescences consist of pendulous long-peduncled cymes con-

sisting of yellowish-green flowers, the peduncles being adnated to

almost glabrous, strap-shaped bracts for about half their lengths. Each

flower has five petals, five sepals, numerous stamens forming five

groups, and a five-lobed stigma. The odour is faintly aromatic and the

taste sweet and mucilaginous.

Constituents: The drug contains volatile oil containing farnesol,

farnesyl acetate, linalool, geraniol and eugenol gives the drug its

characteristic faint odour, more pronounced with the fresh flowers. The

flavonoid constituents comprise quercetin glycosides (rutin, hyperoside,

quercitrin, etc.) and kaempferol glycosides (tiliroside, astragalin).

Mucilage, present chiefly in the bracts consists largely of

galactomannans. Phenolic acids and proanthocyanidins are also

present.

Action and uses: As with most herbal remedies lime flowers have were

multiple of applications. In action they are diaphoretic, antispasmodic and

expectorant and as such are used, often in conjunction with other herbs,

27

as a nerve tonic, for the treatment of catarrh and indigestion, and for the

alleviation of headaches. Lime flowers are used for feverish colds,

catarrh, cough and influenza. The polisachharides are soothing and

adhere to epithelial tissue, producing a demulcent effect. The use in

nervous disorders is thought to be due to the fact that the extract acts as

an antagonist for the peripherial benzodiazepine receptor. There is

evidence that components of the aqueous extract of the flowers bind

GABA receptors in rat brain and mild sedative effects were confirmed

using the elevated maze anxiety test in mice.

7. Producing plant: Matricaria Chamomilla

Chamomile (Roman)

Matricaria matricarioides

German or Hungarian chamomile

Family: Asteraceae

Crude drug: Flores chamomillae

Chamomile Flowers

Roman Chamomile Flowers are the expanded flower-heads of

Anthemis nobilis (Chamaemelum nobile) (Compositae), collected from

cultivated plants and dried. Chamomiles are cultivated in the south of

England and in Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, former

Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Egypt and Argentina. As a result of long cultivation

most of the tubular florets present in the wild plant have become ligulate,

and it is these 'double' or 'semi-double' flower-heads which form the

commercial drug. Matricaria flowers (German or Hungarian chamomile

28

flowers) are the dried flower-heads of Matricaria recutita L. {Chamomilla

recutita (L.)

The plant is a native to and is cultivated in southern and Eastern Europe.

Unlike chamomile flowers, matricaria possesses a hollow receptacle which

is devoid of paleae. Broken flowers are limited to 25%. The drug has a

pleasant aromatic odour. Both are official drugs in the pharmacopeias, or

drug references of 26 countries, also included in the RP, BP and EP.

Collection. The flowers are collected in dry weather and carefully dried.

The crop is often damaged by wet weather and the discoloured flowers

then obtained fetch a much lower price than those having a good colour.

Characters. Each dried flower-head (Fig. 1) is hemispherical and about

12-20 mm in diameter. The florets are of a white to pale buff colour, the

outer ones hiding the involucres of bracts. A few hermaphrodite, tubular

florets are usually found near the apex of the solid receptacle (see Fig. 1).

A transition between the typical tubular florets and typical ligulate ones is

often seen. The ligulate florets show three teeth (or occasionally two), the

centre one being most developed. There are four principal veins.

Chamomiles have a strong, aromatic odour and a bitter taste. The BP

includes a TLC test for identity and requires the drug to contain not less

than 0.7% of volatile oil and not more than 10.0% water.

Constituents: Chamomiles contain 0.4-1.0% of volatile oil which is blue

when freshly distilled owing to the presence of azulene. The herb contains

also flavanoids, mucilage, karotinoids. The main components of the oil are

chamazulen, alpha-bisabololon, apigenin flavanoid. Matricaria flowers are

required to contain not less than 0.4% of a blue volatile oil; this consists

mainly of the sesquiterpenes bisabolol, chamazulene and farnesene.

Chamazulene itself does not occur in the plant but is formed from a

sesquiterpene lactone (matricin) during steam distillation. Flavones and

coumarins (e.g. herniarin) are present and the dried ligulate florets

contain 7-9% of apigenin glucosides.

Fig. 1 A, Cultivated Roman chamomile; B, the same cut longitudinally; C, German chamomile; D, a ligulate floret of same; E, German chamomile cut longitudinally. 1, Tubular floret; 2, ligulate floret; 3, palea; 4, receptacle; 5. bract of involucres. (B after Greenish, remainder after Gilg.)

Action and uses. Considerable quantities of chamomiles are used in

domestic medicine in the form of an infusion (for dyspepsia, etc.) or

poultice or in shampoo powders. For the production of volatile oil, the

entire aerial parts are usually used. Chamomile is used for colic,

bloating, flatulence, ingestion, irritable bowel syndrome, gastrointestinal

spasm, and heartburn, as a soothing remedy to calm nervous tension

and dispel restlessness or sleeplessness (especially in infants and

young children), to ease tense and menstrual cramps, and to heal

irritation of the mouth and gums as well as skin inflammation, including

eczema. Matricaria flowers are mainly used on the Continent of Europe

and in the USA for their anti-inflammatory and spasmolytic properties. The

ulcer-protective properties of German chamomile have been ascribed to

bisabolol-type constituents, on which considerable pharmacological work

29

30

has been reported. Four optically active isomers of bisabolol are possible;

extracts for pharmaceutical use should be prepared only from clearly

defined types containing the active constituents.

8. Producing plant: Artemisia absinthium

Wormwood

Family: Asteraceae

Crude drug: Herba et folia Absinthii

Wormwood herb and leaves

Wormwood is essentially the dried leaves and flowering tops of

Artemisia absinthium, widely distributed in Europe and the New World

and recorded as a household remedy from biblical times. It is now

included in the EP, BP, and a number of European pharmacopoeias.

There are official requirements for its volatile oil content and bitterness.

The principal producers are the former USSR, Bulgaria, former

Yugoslavia, Hungary and Poland; it is also cultivated in the USA and

elsewhere. The plant is a subshrub with deeply dissected leaves. The

insignificant globose flowers form loose panicles and consist mainly of

tubular florets and a few yellow ray florets. The leaves and grooved

stems are covered with silky hairs. The drag has an aromatic odour and

is intensely bitter.

Microscopical character: Characteristic features of the microscopy are

the T-shaped trichomes on both leaf epidermi; these have uniseriate stalks

of up to three cells and long tapering unicellular heads. There are

numerous unicellular long, twisted trichomes and secretory trichomes with

biseriate two-celled stalks and heads of two to four cells.

Constituents: The active constituents are the bitter substances and

essential oil. Bitter substances (0.15-0.4%) consist of sesquiterpene

lactones, principally the dimeric guaianolide absinthin (0.20-0.28%),

artabsin, artabsinolides A, B, and C and others. They are evaluated in the

BP by the organoleptic test for 'bitterness value' using a quinine

hydrochloride solution for comparison. The essential oil is variable in

composition according to geographical source and chemotype with any

one of p-thujone, trans-sabinyl acetate, epoxyocimene and chrysanthenyl

acetate forming over 40% of the mixture; also present are other

sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes.

Action and uses: Over the years many medicinal properties have been

ascribed to wormwood. It is considered of value for promoting the

appetite, as it stimulates the production of both stomach acid and bile,

which helps improve digestion and the absorbtion of nutrients; for its

31

Absinthin Artabsinolide C

Artabsinolide A = 2-ketone Artabsinolide B = 4-epimer; 2-ketone

strengthening effect in the treatment of colds and influenza, for gall

bladder and menstrual problems and for the expulsion of round worms.

Wormwood is used as an ingredient of poultices applied to bruises, insect

bites, and sprains to reduce swelling and inflammation. The herb is

occasionally given as a mild antidepressant and because it’s appetite-

stimulating properties has been employed with some success in the

treatment of anorexia nervosa. Thujone is toxic, making the cultivation of

low-thujune chemotypes desirable. The herb is also used in the making

of liqueurs.

32

9. Producing plant: Artemisia cina

Wormwood cina

Family: Asteraceae

Cruge drug: Flores cinae

Cina flowers A. cina is a small plant abundant in Turkestan, where a factory for the

extraction of santonin exists at Chimkent. Santonin is now being pre-

pared from Artemisia species found wild in the Kurran valley in

Pakistan, and cultivation in this area has been successfully commenced.

Constituents: The chief anthelminthic constituent of the drug is the

sesquiterpene lactone santonin. It has the structure given below. Wormseed

also contains a little volatile oil and a second, crystalline lactone, artemisin,

closely related to santonin. The amount of santonin present varies

considerably not only in the different species and hybrids, but also at

different seasons of the year; Russian workers have reported diurnal

variations. It also contains chamazulen, the bicyclical sesquiterpene.

a- Santonin b. lrone

Action and uses: wormseed has been replaced by santonin, which is

very efficient in its action on roundworms. It has less effect on thread

worms and none whatever on Taenia. The preparation “Darminol” is

also received from the crude drug of Artemisia cina and is used in

rheumatoid arthritis and neuralgias. The chamazulen received from it is

used as a remedy to regenerate the tissues especially after rentgenic

burns.

10. Producing plant: Achillea millefolium

Yarrow Family: Asteraceae Crude drug: Flores millefolii

Yarrow flowers Herba millefolii Yarrow herb

Yarrow (millefolium, milfoil) is described in the BP, EP, RP and a number

of continental pharmacopoeias. It is also the subject of German

33

34

Commission E monographs. The drug consists of the dried flowering tops

of Achillea millefolium L. (Compositae), an extremely diverse aggregate

species with varying chromosome numbers and differences in oil

composition.

Yarrow is native to Europe and Western Asia but is now widespread in

most temperate regions including N. America; commercial supplies come

largely from south-eastern Europe, although it is also collected in other

European countries.

Characters: The flowers occur in characteristically dense terminal

corymbs about 3-5 cm in diameter and composed of capitula 3-5 cm in

diameter. Each capitulum possesses an involucre of bracts, usually with

five white to reddish ligulate ray florets, and 3-20 tubular disk florets.

The fruits are achenes. The powdered material contains numerous

elements, not only from the flower but also from stems and leaves. These

include the typical Compositae pollen grains, leaf epidermis with

anomocytic stomata and glandular and clothing trichomes again typical

of the Compositae. The taste is bitter and spicy, odor is aromatic.

Constituents: The pharmacopoeia requires an essential oil content of

not less than 2.0% and not less than 0.02%c of proazulenes calculated as

chamazulene (see formula). Other isolates from yarrow include

sesquiterpene lactones (achillin, achillicin, etc.), flavonoids (apigenin,

luteolin, quercetin), alkaloids (betonicine, stachydrine, achilleine),

vitamine K and Calcium salts.

Action and uses: Yarrow is used, as is chamomile and matricaria, to

treat various skin conditions and digestive disorders. Its

pharmacological actions can arise from various groups of compounds—

anti-inflammatory (chamazulene and prochamazulenes, apigenin,

salicyclic acid), haemostatic (betonicine), spasmolytic (flavonoids). It

35

has anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, antiallergenic, diureticdiaphoretic

and astringent properties. Achilleine helps stop bleeding.

11. Producing plant: Zingiber officinale Ginger Family: Zingiberaceae Crude drug: Rhizomata Zingiberis Ginger rhizome

Ginger (Zingiber) is the scraped or unscraped rhizome of Zingiber

officinale (Zingiberaceae). Z officinale, a reed-like plant, is grown in

many parts of the world, including Jamaica, China, India and Africa.

Jamaica ginger, once the traditional pharmaceutical ginger, has been

largely replaced by other sources. History: Ginger has been cultivated in India from the earliest times; the plant is unknown

in the wild state. The spice was used by the Greeks and Romans, and was a common

article of European commerce in the middle Ages. It was well known in England in the

eleventh century. Ginger was introduced into Jamaica and other West Indian islands by the

Spaniards, and a considerable quantity of the drug was sent from the West Indies to Spain

as early as 1547.

Cultivation and preparation: Ginger grows well at subtropical

temperatures where the rainfall is at least 1.98 m per annum. As the

plant is sterile, it is grown by vegetative means.

Macroscopical characters: The dried scraped drug (Fig.2) shows little

resemblance to the fresh rhizome, owing to loss in weight and

shrinkage. It occurs in sympodially branched pieces known as 'hands'

or 'races'. These are 7-15 cm long, 1-1.5 cm broad and laterally

compressed. The branches arise obliquely from the rhizome, are about

1-3 cm long and terminate in depressed scars or in undeveloped buds.

The outer surface is buff-coloured and longitudinally striated or fibrous; it

shows no sign of cork. The drug breaks with a short fracture, the fibres of

the fibrovascular bundles often projecting from the broken surface. It has

an agreeable aromatic odour and a pungent taste.

The unscraped rhizome resembles the above in structure but is more or

less covered by brownish layers of cork with conspicuous ridges; the cork

readily exfoliates from the lateral surfaces but persists between the

branches.

Microscopical characters: The unpeeled rhizome, in transverse sec-

tion (Fig. 2) shows a zone of cork tissue, differentiated into an outer

zone of irregularly arranged cells produced by suberization of the

cortical cells without division and an inner zone of cells arranged in radial

rows and produced by tangential division of the cortical cells. No cork

cambium is differentiated.

36

Fig 2

Ginger. A, Peeled Jamaican rhizome; B, partially peeled African root (both x0.75); C, diagrammatic transverse section of unpeeled rhizome (xl 5); D, oleoresin cell with adjacent parenchyma; E, portions of septate fibres; F, G, portions of septate fibres with attached vessels; H, starch; I, cork cells in surface view from unpeeled drug (all x200). a, Starch granule, side-and end-aspects; ck, cork; ck], irregularly arranged cells of outer cork; ck2, radially arranged cork cells; d, depressed scar; end, endodermis; f, projecting fibres; i.c, inner cortex; ol, oleoresin cells; o.c, flattened cells of outer cortex; p.c, pigment cell; r, ridges produced by vascular bundles; s, septum; s.s, scraped surface; v.b, vascular bundle; v.f.b, vascular bundle with fibrous sheath; v.b.s, ring of small vascular bundles.

37

Constituents: Ginger contains about 1-2% of volatile oil and 5-8% of

resinous matter, starch and mucilage. Oil of ginger, to which the drug

mainly owes its aroma, contains a mixture of over 50 constituents,

consisting of monoterpenes (phellandrene, (+)-camphene, cineole, citral

and borneol), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (zingiberene, (3-bis-abolene,

farnesene, (3-sesquiphellandrene and ar-curcumene) and the

sesquiterpene alcohol zingiberol.

The pungency of ginger is due to gingerol, an oily liquid consisting of

homologous phenols.

The pungency of gingerol is destroyed by boiling with 2% potassium

hydroxide. Boiling with baryta water decomposes it with formation of a

phenolic ketone called zingerone and aliphatic aldehydes (mainly normal

heptaldehyde). Zingerone also occurs in the rhizome and, like gingerol is

pungent but possesses in addition a sweet odour. Its pungency is

destroyed by prolonged contact with 5% sodium hydroxide.

Action and uses: Ginger is used as a carminative and stimulant. A US

studyies indicated that powdered ginger may be a more effective

antiemetic than dimenhydrinate (Dramamine). The authors suggested

that it may ameliorate the effects of motion sickness in the

gastrointestinal tract itself, in contrast to antihistamines, which act

centrally. Other reports claim that ginger is effective in the control of

excessive and uncontrolled vomiting occurring in the first trimester of

pregnancy and that it might provide a cheap antiemetic adjunct to cancer

therapy.

A considerable number of pharmacological studies involving the digestive,

central nervous and cardiovascular systems have been reported for the

isolated constituents of ginger. These activities include the potent inhibitory

actions of the gingerols against prostaglandin synthetase which

38

correspond with the anti-inflammatory and antiplatelet aggregation

properties of the drug. These compounds, together with [6]-shogaol, also

produce enhanced gastrointestinal activity with effects on bile secretion.

The C2Q-dial mentioned previously has a cholesterol-biosynthesis

inhibitor,' activity in animal preparations. The sesquiterpene hydrocarbons

have also been associated with the antiulcer activity of the drug. A strong

antibacterial and antifungal action has been demonstrated for a number of

the rhizome constituents.

12. Producing plant: Inula helenium

Elecampane

Family: Asteraceae

Crude drug: Rhizoma et radices Inulae

Elecampane rhizomes and roots It is native to southeastern Europe, Inula has been naturalized

throughout Europe, in North America and in eastern Asia. It is up to 1-1,

2 meter tall, robust perennial. It has thick rhizomes, erect, softly hairy

stems, and large, pointed, irregularly toothed leaves with wooly

undersides. Yellow flowers are 7 - 12 sm in diameter and shaped like

shaggy daises, bloom in summer. Roots are harvested from 2 year old

plants in autumn.

Macroscopical characteristics: Thick and often several headed roots

and rhizomes are supplied in autumn. Rhizomes are thick and short,

roots are long and 2-3 cm in diameter. Rhizomes and roots are grey from

outside, very firm, irregular in the fracture, yellowish, lustrous with brown

points (essential oil containers). The odor of the crude rug is specific,

strong aromatic. The taste is spicy, bitter at first, sweet later.

39

Constituents: The roots of Elecampane contain up to 44 % of inulin,

which has been shown to have expectorant properties. It also contains

essential oil that contains alantolactone. The oil is cinnamon colour and

is heavier than water.

Action and uses: Essential oil exhibit anti – inflammatory and antiseptic

properties and have been shown to stimulate immune system together

with inulin. Alantolactone has also proved useful in treating roundworm,

hookworm, whipworm, and threadworm infections in children and adults.

Elecampane has an expectorant activity and in used for bronchitis, hay

fever, coughs, asthma, tuberculosis, tonsillitis, Pleurisy, and weak

digestion.

13. Producing plant: Tanacetum vulgare Tansy Family: Asteraceae Crude drug: Flores Tanaceti Tansy flowers

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare (L.); Chrysanthemum vulgare (L.) Leaves are

pinnate, the lobes sharply serrate, in wrinkled, broken pieces mixed with

the reddish stems; midrib heavy and prominent on under side; odor

strong, fragrant, diminished by drying; taste bitter.

Macroscopical characteristics: The crude drug is flowers (peltates

and/or anthodiums) collected at the beginning of flowering. The

anthodiums are 6-8 mm in diameter, pressed in the middle. The tube like

yellow flowers are on bare flower-bearing stems (the external flowers are

female and the internal bisexual). The odor is strong aromatic, the taste

is spicy bitter.

40

Constituents: The herb contains about 0.2-0.6% volatile oil containing

around 70% of thujone. Many sesquiterpene lactones have been

isolated from the flowers and herb together with flavones. Numerous

chemical races, originating from different geographical areas, are known

and involve both the oil constituents and the sesquiterpenes.

Action and uses: It is used as an anthelminthic in herbal medicine but its

poisonous properties due to thujone contents are well appreciated.

The flavonoid fraction provides antispasmodic activity, increases the

secretion and elimination of bile and the herb preparations are also used

during chronical cholecystites, cholangites, and dyskinesias of biliary

tracts.

14. Producing plant: Tanacetum parthenium

Feverfew

Family: Asteraceae

Crude drug: Flores and leaves Tanaceti

Feverfew leaves and flowering tops Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) or feverfew flowers may be single or

double. The receptacle is flatter than that of the Roman chamomile and

may or may not bear paleae. If the latter are present, they are acute and

less membranous than those of the chamomile. The whole flowering

tops are usually sold. Feverfew herb yields 0.07-0.4% of volatile oil. It is

used in herbal medicine.

Constituents: contains a volatile oil that includes camphor and many

chemical compounds, including parthenolide, thought to be key in terms

of the herb’s ability to relieve migraines.

41

Action and uses: It is helpful in treating migraine headaches, as well as

nausea and vomiting that often accompanies them. Feverfew is also

taken for rheumatism and for menstrual problems.

15. Producing plant: Valeriana officinalis Valerian

Family: Valerianaceae Crude drug: Rhizoma cum radicibus Valerianae

Valerian root Valerian consists of the rhizome, stolons and roots of Valeriana officinalis

L.S.I. (Valerianaceae), collected in the autumn and dried at a temperature

below 40°C; it contains not less than 15% of extractable (about 60%

alcohol) matter. The plant is a perennial about 1-2 m high. It is obtained

from wild and cultivated plants in Britain, The Netherlands, Belgium,

France, Germany, Eastern Europe and Japan. It is also cultivated in the

USA. Polyploidy occurs in V. officinalis and there are diploid, tetraploid

and octoploid types. It is a clumb forming herb with yellow brown rhizome,

hollow stems, and deeply divided leaves, small white or pinkish flowers

that form flat-topped cluster.

Macroscopical characteristics: The roots, which are up to 10 cm long

and 2 mm diameter, are more or less matted and broken. In some samples

of the drug they almost completely envelop the rhizome, while in others they

are mainly separated from it. The drug breaks with a short and horny

fracture and is whitish or yellowish internally. The development of the

characteristic odour during drying and storage results from a breakdown

of the unstable valepotriates and the hydrolysis of esters of the oil to give

isovaleric acid as a product. The taste is camphoraceous and slightly

bitter.

Microscopical characters: A transverse section of the rhizome [shows

a thin periderm, a large parenchymatous cortex which is rich in starch and

an endodermis containing globules of volatile oil. Within a ring of collateral

vascular bundles lies a large pith containing scattered groups of sclerenchymatous cells.

Fig 3. Some constituents of valerian.

42

43

A transverse section of a root shows an epidermis bearing papillae and

root hairs, and an exodermis containing globules of oil. The cortex and pith,

the latter well-developed in old roots, contain starch. Constituents: The drug yields about 0.5-1.0% of volatile oil. This

contains esters (bornyl isovalerate, bornyl acetate (c. 13.0%), bornyl

formate, eugenyl isovalerate, isoeugenyl isovalerate), alcohols,

eugenol, terpenes and sesquiterpenes (e.g. valerenal, c. 12%). The lat-

ter comprise various acids, esters, alcohols and a ketone (faurinone)

some of which are illustrated in the formulae shown (Fig 3). Also present

in the drug are epoxy-iridoid esters called valepotriates. Valerian also

contains alkaloids (0.05-0.1% in the dried root); no structures have been

assigned to those (e.g. chatinine and valerine). Seasonal variations in

the constituents of valerian raised in the Netherlands have been

reported. Thus the accumulation of valerenic acid and its derivatives

together with valepotriates reached a maximum in February to March

whereas the volatile oil remained essentially constant during the period of

study.

Allied drugs. Indian valerian, which is official in the Indian

Pharmacopoeia, consists of the dried rhizome and roots of Valeriana

wallichii. It is collected in the Himalayas. The drug consists of yellowish-

brown rhizomes. 4-8 cm long and up to 1 cm thick and a very variable

amount of roots up to 7 cm long and 1-2 mm thick.

Japanese valerian or kesso is obtained from Valeriana angustifolia. It

yields as much as 8% of volatile oil, which is, however, not identical with

the oil in the European drug.

Action and uses: Valerian is used as a carminative, and as an anti-

spasmodic in hysteria and other nervous disorders. It is often prescribed

with bromides or other sedatives. Considerable quantities of valerian are

used by the perfumery industry. Valerian root, prepared in teas and

44

tinctures and taken as capsules, continues to be used in modern

medicine to treat insomnia and other sleep disorders, stress and

nervous anxiety, hyperactivity, muscle spasm, depression, fatigue.

Valerian preparations are also sad to slightly lower blood pressure.

Previously, one problem with valerian preparations was their unre-

liability of action and this undoubtedly arose from both the unstable

nature of the active constituents and the genetic variability of the plant

material.

16. Producing plant : Juniperus communis Juniper

Family: Cupressaceae Crude drug: Fructus Juniperi.

Juniper cones (“berries”)

Is a hardy, shrubby, evergreen conifer, usually growing up to 3m. with

reddish-brown bark, flexible reddish-brown twigs that are covered with

dense whorls of gray-green, needle like leaves. Male and female

flowers form on separate plants. Female cones consist of scales

arranged in whorls of three. The berry-like fruit takes 2 years to ripen,

eventually becoming a deep purple colour and having a bluish-grey

bloom. On drying, the berries become somewhat darker and shrivel

slightly. They are about 3-10 mm in diameter. The apex shows a triradiate

mark and depression indicating the sutures of the three fleshy scales. At

the base there are usually six, small, pointed bracts arranged in two

whorls, but occasionally three or four such whorls are found. A

transverse section of the fruit shows a thin outer skin or epicarp, a

yellowish-brown, pulpy mesocarp and three seeds. The seeds lie close

45

together in the centre of the fruit and are hard and woody. Partly

embedded in the hard testa of each seed are large oleoresin glands.

These usually number from four to eight on the outer side of the seed,

and one or two on the inner. The drug has a pleasant, somewhat tere-

binthinate odour, and a sweetish taste. It is native to northern temperate

regions of Europe, Asia and northern America. When crushed, the

berries give off a pungent, cedar like aroma. Only dark bluish-black

berries are harvested.

Constituents: The main constituents are volatile oil (about 0.5-1.5%),

invert sugar (about 33%) and resin. Oil of juniper contains over 60

compounds, (over 100 constituents have recently been detected in oil

obtained from wild berries collected in Greece), of which the terpenes a-

pinene and camphene, the sesquiterpene cadinene, alcohols and esters

are the most prominent. Juniper berries contain flavonoids, tannins, a

bitter compound known as juniperin. The oil from the leaves appears to

contain a similar spectrum of compounds.

Action and uses: Juniper berries are used for the preparation of oil of

juniper and in making certain varieties of gin. The oil has diuretic and

antiseptic properties.

Constituents of essential oil irritate the kidneys, increasing urine

production and ultimately, fluid loss. Because of the irritant action can

potentially damage the kidneys, use of juniper is not recommended for

people with acute or chronic kidney disease or pregnant women. The

side-effects are correlated with a high terpene hydrocarbon content and

a low proportion of terpinen-4-ol. Juniper exhibits some anti-

inflammatory and antispasmodic activity, making it helpful in treating

urinary tract infections. Preparations of herb are used for cystitis, edema

(except in cases of kidney diseases), for stomach upsets, arthritis, gout

and rheumatic conditions.

46

17. Producing plant: Anisum vulgare

Aniseed

Family: Apiaceae

Crude drug: Fructus Anisi

Aniseed fruits

Aniseed (Anise Fruit) of the RP, BP and EP consists of the dried, ripe fruits

of Pimpinella anisum (Umbelliferae), an annual plant indigenous to the

Levant but widely cultivated both in Europe (Spain, Germany, Italy,

Russia, Bulgaria), Egypt and America (Chile, Mexico). Anise is mentioned

in the writings of Theophrastus, Dioskarides and Pliny. It was cultivated in

Germany in the ninth century. Spain and Egypt are the principal

producers of the oil. Macroscopical characters. Stem about 1 foot high. Umbels on long

stalks without involucres; flowers small, white; calyx obsolete; carpets 5,

with filiform ridges. The drug consists of grayish-brown, pear-shaped,

somewhat compressed cremocarps, which are usually attached to

pedicels 2-12 mm in length (Fig 4). The cremocarps are 3-6 mm long

and 2-3 mm broad. The Spanish (Alicante) and Italian are distinguished

by their large size and light colour, while the German and 'Russian' are

smaller, more ovoid and darker. Each mericarp has five somewhat wavy

ridges and is slightly pubescent on the dorsal surface. They have an

aromatic odour and a sweet, aromatic taste.

Fig 4 Aniseed. A, Side view of cremocarp showing line of attachment to the two mericarps (x8); B, transverse section of mericarp (x25); C, covering trichomes of epicarp (x200); D, branched and unbranched vittae isolated by alkali maceration (x25). a, Line of attachment of mericarps; c, carpophore; c.s, commissural surfaces; c.v, commissural vitta; en, endosperm; e.t, epicarp bearing trichomes; m, meristele; mc, mesocarp; r, three of five primary ridges of one mericarp; ra, raphe; s, stylopod; v, vittae.

Microscopical characters. Microscopical examination shows that the

epidermis bears numerous papillae and unicellular hairs. On the dorsal

surface of each mericarp are from 15 to 45 branched vittae. A small

amount of vascular tissue and reticulated parenchyma is present. The

endosperm is slightly concave on the commissural surface and fixed oil.

The taste is sweet, spicy; odor is specific, strong aromatic.

Constituents. Anise fruits yield 2-3% of volatile oil which is practically

identical with that obtained from the star-anise, Illicium verum. Anetol and

a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon are characteristic compounds of the

Pimpinella oil which are stated to be absent from the star-anise oil. The

Pimpinella oil is said to have a slightly superior flavour, but most of the anise

oil used is that obtained from the star-anise.

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48

Action and uses: Oil of anise is used as a flavouring agent also as

expectorant and carminative. Anethole may be prepared from the oil or

made synthetically.

18. Producing plant: Foeniculum vulgare

Sweet fennel

Family: Apiaceae

Crude drug: Fructus feoniculi

Sweet fennel fruits Stem somewhat furrowed, 3 feet high. Leaves much compounded, cut

into fringe-like segments. Umbels with 6 to 8 rays, without involucre or

involucel. Sweet Fennel consists of the dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum

vulgare. It is cultivated in many parts of Europe and much is imported

from India, China and Egypt. The commercial drug consists partly of

whole cremocarps and partly of isolated mericarps.

Constituents: The fruits contain 1—4% of volatile oil with higher yields

recorded. The principal constituents are the phenolic ether trans-anethole

(about 60%) and the ketone fenchone (10-30%). Minor constituents

include monoterpene hydrocarbons such as limonene; also anisaldehyde

and estragole (methyl chavicol).

Action and uses: Fennel and its volatile oil are used as an aromatic and

carminative. It has antispasmodic and antiinflammatory properties,

increases motility in the digestive tract. Both anethole and fenchone are

proven stimulants that promote secretions in the respiratory tract and

have an expectorant activity.

19. Producing plant:Carum carvi

Caraway

Family: Apiaceae

Crude drug: Fructus carvi

Caraway fruit

Caraway {Caraway Fruit) consists of the dried, ripe fruits of Carum carvi),

a biennial herb about 1 m high. It occurs both wild and cultivated in

central and northern Europe (The Netherlands, Denmark, Germany,

Russia, Finland, Poland, Hungary and Britain) and in Egypt, Morocco,

Australia and China.

History: Caraway fruits were known to the Arabian physicians and probably

came into use in Europe in the thirteenth century.

Macroscopical characters: The commercial drug (Fig. 5) usually consists of mericarps separated from the pedicels. The fruits are slightly curved, brown and glabrous, about 4—7 mm long, 1-2.3 mm wide and tapered at

49

both ends; they are crowned with a stylopod often with style and stigma attached. Each mericarp shows five almost equal sides, five narrow primary ridges, and, when cut transversely, four dorsal and two commissural vittae. They have a characteristic aromatic odour and taste. Microscopical characters. A transverse section of a caraway mericarp shows five primary ridges, in each of which is a vascular strand with associated pitted sclerenchyma and having a single secretory canal at the outer margin of each. Constituents: Caraway contains 3-7% of volatile oils, 8-20% of fixed oil, proteins, calcium oxalate, colouring matter and resin. The volatile oil (Caraway oil) consists of the ketone carvone and the terpene limonene with small quantities of dihydrocarvone, carveol and dihydrocarveol; it is assayed for ketones. Action and uses: Large quantities of caraway fruits are used for culinary purposes. The fruits and oil are used in medicine for flavouring and as carminatives. The carminative and antispasmodic properties have been experimentally verified.

Fig 5 Caraway. A, mericarps showing attachments to carpophore; A], mericarp sectioned longitudinally to show position of embryo; A2, mericarp side view (x8). B, transverse section of mericarp (x50); C, portion of vitta isolated by alkali maceration (x25); D, sclereids of mesocarp; E, endosperm cells with micro-rosette crystals of calcium oxalate; F, endocarp layer in surface view (all x200). cm, commissural meristeles; em, embryo; en, endosperm; end, endocarp; mc, mesocarp; r, three of five primary ridges; ra, position of raphe; s, stylopod; s.c, secretory canal; t, testa; v, vitta; v.b, vascular bundle with associated finely pitted sclerenchyma.

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20. Producing plant: Coriandrum sativum

Coriander

Family: Apiaceae

Crude drug: Fructus Coriandri

Coriander Fruits Coriander (Coriander Fruit) is the dried, nearly ripe fruit of Coriandrum

sativum (Umbelliferae), an annual about 0.7 m high with white or pinkish

flowers. It is indigenous to Italy, but is widely cultivated in The

Netherlands, Central and Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean (Morocco.

Malta, Egypt), China, India and Bangladesh. Coriander is mentioned in

the papyrus of Ebers (c. 1550 BC), and in the writings of Cato and Pliny. It

was well known in England before the Norman Conquest. Ukraine is the

major producer of oil and controls the world price on a supply and demand

basis; in one large factory continuous distillation has replaced the batch

process.

Macroscopical characters. The drug usually consists of the whole

cremocarps, which, when ripe, are about 2.3-4.3 mm diameter and straw-

yellow. Each consists of two hemispherical mericarps united by their

margins (Fig 6). Considerable variation exists in coriander. The Indian

variety is oval, but the more widely distributed spherical varieties vary in

size from the Ukrainian 2.3-3.7 mm to the Moroccan 4.0-4.3 mm. The

apex bears two divergent styles. The 10 primary ridges are wavy and

inconspicuous; alternating with these are eight more prominent, straight,

secondary ridges. The fruits have an aromatic odour and a spicy taste.

They are somewhat liable to insect attacks.

Microscopical characters. A transverse section of a fully ripe fruit

shows only two mature vittae in each mericarp, both on the commissural.

The numerous vittae present in the immature fruit on the dorsal surface of

each mericarp gradually join and are eventually compressed into slits. The

outer part of the pericarp, which possesses stomata and prisms of calcium

oxalate, is more or less completely thrown off.

Constituents. Coriander fruits contain up to 1.8% of volatile oil I

according to origin. The distilled oil contains 65-70% of (-)-linalool

(coriandrol), depending on the source, and smaller amounts of a-pinene,

y-terpinene, limonene and p-cymene together with various nonlinalool

alcohols and esters. Some 40 constituents have been identified. Other

constituents isolated from the fruits include flavonoids, coumarins,

isocoumarins and phenolic acids. The high content of fats (16-28%) and

protein (11-17%) in the fruits make distillation residues suitable for animal

feed.

The unripe plant has an unpleasant, mousy odour, which is also present

in oil distilled from unripe fruits (mainly -aldehydes such as n-decanal

contained in peripheral vittae). Marked changes occur in volatile oil

composition during ontogenesis; the peripheral vittae flatten and lose their

oil, all of which is then produced by the commissural vittae. During ordinary

storage of the fruits, the oil composition undergoes considerable

alteration. Fig 6. Coriander. A, Whole fruit (x8); B, transverse section of fruit (xl 6); C, fragment of epicarp in surface view with stoma and small prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; D, endosperm cells with microrosette crystals of calcium oxalate; E, layers of sclerenchyma from

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53

the mesocarp; F, lignified parenchyma of the mesocarp and underlying endodermis showing 'parquetry' arrangement (all x200). a, Line of attachment of mericarps; b, sepal; c, carpophore, c.s, commissural surfaces; c.v, commissural vitta; en, endosperm; end, endodermis; par, lignified parenchyma of mesocarp; p.r, primary ridge; ra, raphe; r.v, remains of dorsal vittae; s, stylopod; scl, sclerenchyma; s.r, secondary ridge; t, testa. Action and uses: Very large quantities of the spice are produced in many

countries for domestic purposes, such as for use in curries. In the former

USSR linalool is isolated from the oil as starting material for other

derivatives. Pharmaceutically coriander and its oils are used as a

flavouring agent and carminative.

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MEDICAL PLANTS AND

RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING IRIDOIDS

The iridoids are cyclopentan-[c]-pyran monoteipenoids and constitute a

group of which the number of known members is constantly increasing.

The name derives from Iridomyrmex, a genus of ants which produces

these compounds as a defensive secretion. Most occur as glycosides;

some occur free and as bis compounds. They divide on Amara pura

(pure iridoids), Amara aromatica (with essential oils) and Amara

mucilaginosa (with mucilages).

1. Characterize iridoids (bitter compounds) as biologically active

substances.

2. Mention the uses of medical plants containing iridoids.

3. Mention the specific characteristics of Gentian, the chemical

compound and pharmacological activity.

4. Mention the macroscopic characters of Gentian.

5. Mention the specific characteristics of Taraxacum officinale, the

chemical compound and pharmacological activity.

6. Mention the specific characteristics of Centaurium minor, the

chemical compound and pharmacological activity.

7. Mention the specific characteristics of Acorus calamus, the

chemical compound and pharmacological activity.

8. Mention the areal of distribution of Acorus calamus .

9. Mention the specific characteristics of Humulus lupulus, the

chemical compound and pharmacological activity.

10. What kind of plants belongs to the group of Amara aromatica?

11. How the Taraxacum root is used in medicine?

12. What kind of a pharmacological activity do iridoids have?

13. Mention the medical uses of iridoid containing plants.

14. How are the iridoid containing plants classified?

1. Producind plant : Gentiana lutea Gentian

Family: Menyanthaceae Crude drug: Radix Gentianae

Gentian roots Gentian (Gentian Root) consists of the dried fermented rhizomes and

roots of the yellow gentian, Gentiana lutea (Gentianaceae), a perennial

herb about 1 m high found in the mountainous districts of central and

southern Europe and Turkey. Important districts for its collection are the

Pyrenees, the Jura and Vosges Mountains, the Black Forest, former

Yugoslavia and the Carpathians.

As it is now a protected plant in some areas, attempts are being made to

cultivate it in some EU countries (France, Italy, Germany); for this, the

initial selection of plant material is of vital importance.

Collection and preparation. When the plants are 2-5 years old, the turf

is carefully stripped around each and the rhizomes and roots are dug up.

This usually takes place from May to October, collection in the autumn

being more difficult on account of the hardness of the soil, although

possibly preferable from the medicinal point of view. The method of

preparing this varies somewhat in different districts. Usually, the drug is

made into heaps, which are allowed to lie on the hillside for some time and

may even be covered with earth. After it is washed and cut into suitable

lengths the drug is dried, first in the open air and then in sheds. Prepared in

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this way the drug becomes much darker in colour, loses some of its

bitterness and acquires a very distinctive odour.

Fig 1. Examples of iridoids. Macroscopical characters. The plant has a cylindrical rhizome which

may attain a diameter of 4 cm and give off roots more than 1 m in length.

The crown bears 1-4 aerial stems. The fresh root is whitish and fleshy

internally and practically odourless.

The commercial drug consists of simple or branched, cylindrical pieces up

to 20 cm long and 1-3 cm diameter. The outer surface is covered with a

yellowish-brown cork. The rhizomes are usually of larger diameter than the

roots and frequently bear one or more apical buds and encircling leaf scars.

On drying, the rhizomes wrinkle transversely, whereas the roots wrinkle

longitudinally. The drug is brittle when perfectly dry, but readily absorbs

moisture from the air and becomes very tough. It has a characteristic odour

and a sweet taste, which later becomes bitter.

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Allied drugs. The roots of other species of Gentiana (e.g. G. purpurea,

G pannonica and G. punctata) have been imported. They appeal' to

have similar medicinal properties to the official drug but are usually of

smaller size.

Adulterants. Adulteration, probably due to careless collection,

sometimes occurs. The rhizomes of Rumex alpinus, which give the test for

anthraquinone derivatives, have been reported; also a dangerous but

easily detected admixture with the rhizomes of Veratrum album.

Constituents: Gentian contains bitter glycosides, alkaloids, yellow

colouring matters, sugars, pectin and fixed oil.

The seco-iridoid gentiopicroside (also known as gentiopicrin and gen-

tiamarin; formula see Fig. 1) is the principal constituent and was isolated

from fresh gentian root in 1862. It occurs to the extent of about 2% and on

hydrolysis yields a lactone (gentiogenin) and glucose. A biphenolic acid

ester of gentiopicroside, amarogentin, which occurs in small amount (0.025

to 0.05%) has a bitterness value some 5000 times greater than that of

gentiopicroside and is therefore an important constituent of the root; other

bitters isolated are sweroside and swertiamarin.

The yellow colour of fermented gentian root is due to xanthones and

includes gentisin, isogentisin and gentioside (a 3p-

primeverosidoisogentisin). Gentian also contains gentisic acid (2,5-

dihydroxybenzoic acid) and about 0.03% of the alkaloids gentianine and

gentialutine, which may be artefacts of the preparation process.

Gentian is rich in sugars, which include the trisaccharide gentianose, the

disaccharides gentiobiose and sucrose. During the fermentation process

these are partially hydrolysed into glucose and fructose.

Action and uses: It is used in medicine to stimulate appetite, relieve

stomach and intestinal upset, and for liver complaints. It is sometimes

recommended to reduce fever and treat anemia. The substances of

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gentian stimulate the taste buds and promote, as a nerve directed reflex

response, the flow of saliva, gastric juices, and bile from the liver and

from the gallbladder. This activity is what stimulates both appetite and

encourages normal functioning of the digestive tract.

2. Producing plant: Taraxacum officinale Dandelion Family: Asteraceae Crude drug: Radix Taraxaci Dandelion roots

A small perennial with a stout taproot, dafelion has long, toothed leaves

that from a basal rosette. Yellow, solitary flowers are followed by

spherical, fluffy seed heads. All parts of the plant exude somewhat bitter

milky latex. Native to Europe and Asia, dandelion grow almost

everywhere throughout the world’s temperate regions. Leaves are

harvested any time for fresh use and roots are lifted in autumn, as the

plant is dying back. Roots are pressed for juice and also dried for use in

various preparations.

Constituents: Dandelion roots contain iridoids (taraxacin and

taraxacerin); sesquiterpene lactones (taraxacoside); triterpenes

(taraxerol, taraxol and β - amyrin); resins; inulin and other

polysaccharides; verity of acids, and other nutrients (iron, zinc, boron,

calcium, silicon and especially potassium) and also carotenes and vit. B

complex, C and D. The inulin content in the roots varies depending from

the season (4% during flowering and up to 90% in autumn).

Action and uses: In Western medicine the herb is considered a remedy

for a wide range of conditions that can benefit from the mild diuretic

action, including poor digestion, liver disorders (provides an

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antihepatotoxic action), urinary tract infections and high blood pressure.

Dandelion roots are used as appetite stimulants; they improve digestion

and as well treat gallstones, jaundice and other liver problems.

3. Producing plant: Centaurium minor

Centaury small

Family: Gentianaceae

Crude drug: Herba Centauri

Centaury herb It is a biannual (or 1-3 annual) herbal plant, without haring, with weak

developed roots. The stems are square; give branches on the top only

and rich 40cm high. The leaves in the rosette, oval, stem leaves are log,

lancet like. The flowers are dark pink, nail-like 5 sizes, gathered in

umbrellas. The drug is collected during flowering. The smell is weak and

the taste is bitter.

Constituents: The drug contains iridoid gentiopicrin, erhythrocentaurin,

1% alkaloids, flavanoids, ascorbinic acid, xantons. Action and uses: The drug stimulates appetite, relieves digestion.

4. Producing plant: Acorus calamaus Calamus

Family: Araceae Crude drug: Rhizomata Calami

Calamus rhizome Calamus or sweet flag consists of the rhizome of Acorus calamus

Araceae), which occurs in commerce both peeled and unpeeled. The

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perennial plant is common on the banks of streams. Originating in '

Asia, it is now widely distributed in Asia, Europe and North America. The

subcyilindrical rhizome is up to 20 cm long and 2 cm diameter;

longitudinally furrowed on the upper surface and with conspicuous root

scars on the lower surface.

Constituents: Calamus contains 2-4% of volatile oil containing a number

of sesquiterpenes and asarone, a compound related to myristicin (Fig 2).

Calamus has been official in many pharmacopoeias, and although still

used in some regions, is now mainly used as a source of calamus oil,

which is employed in perfumery. The composition of the oil from varieties

differs and the β-asarone content increases with ploidy. As the

phenylpropane derivatives have been shown to be carcinogenic in animal

tests recommend the selection of races for pharmaceutical use. The oil

from the rhizome of the American 2n race contains no β -asarone but

consists of shyobunones and acorones, which are also components of the

pharmaceutically used oil.

Action and uses: Among modern western herbalists, Calamus has

been used for treating a wide range of digestive complaints: it stimulates

appetite, relieves bloating and flatulence, regulates stomach acid

production, calming indigestion, and dispels intestinal worms. The North

American variety, Acorus calamus var, americanus, has antispasmodic

effects and relieves intestinal cramps.

Fig 2. Chemotypes of A. calamus having differences in essential oil com-position have been DNA profiled

5. Producing plant: Humulus lupulus

Hops

Family: Cannabaceae

Crude drug: Strobili Lupuli

Hops Female flowers (strobiles)

Hop plants are perennial, twining vines with clinging, hairy stems and

deeply lobed leaves resembling those of grapes. Male and female

flowers are borne on different plants. Hops are the pale green, cone like,

female flower clusters. The hop strobile consists of external and internal

sessile bracts which overlap one another and enclose the ovary. Together

they form a petiolate greenish-yellow inflorescence 2-5 cm in length. The

odour is characteristically aromatic. They are found in Europe, western

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Asia, and North America, are widely distributed in northern temperate

zones.

They flower from July to August. The drug is picked in early autumn and

used fresh or carefully dried for use in making infusions, liquid extracts,

tablets, tinctures, and oils.

Constituents: The bracts and stipules of the hop contain tannin but the

odour and taste of the drug are mainly due to the very complex

secretion contained in the lupulin glands. On distillation the fruits yield

0.30-1.0% of oil composed of well over 100 components and containing

terpenes, sesquiterpenes including humulene (Fig 3). Lupulin contains

the active chemical compounds that give hops its medical properties.

The 2 important compounds are lupulone and humulone, which are

largely responsible for hops’ bitter taste as well as its antibacterial action:

they are also what acts as preservative in beer. The volatile oil is present

in fresh hops in fairly small quantities, but its concentration is significantly

increased when hops are dried. They also contain resins, organic acids,

flavonoids and phytosteroids. The valerian-like odour results from

decom-

position of

the oil and

one of the

resins. Fig3 Constituents of hops. Humulene

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Action and uses: In ancient times, when hops were harvested by hand,

people observed that hops pinchers were often drowsy. So hops gained

a reputation of a sleep inducing drug. A sachet of dried hops placed

under a pillow at night is said to be very effective in combating insomnia

and promoting a good night’s sleep. Blended with other herbs, hops

have a reputation for effectively relieving stress, irritability, tension, and

headaches. They also act as an antispasmodic to relieve certain types of

asthma and menstrual cramps. Hops are also known to be good for

digestion by increasing stomach secretion and stimulating appetite. They

ease muscle spasms in the digestive tract and may be helpful in treating

irritable bowel syndrome.

64

MEDICAL PLANTS AND

RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING VITAMINES

Vitamins are a group of substances essential for normal metabolism,

growth and development, and regulation of cell function Vitamins work

together with enzymes, co-factors (substances that assist enzymes),

and other substances necessary for healthy life. Vitamins are divided in

2 large groups: water soluble vitamins and fat soluble vitamins.

1. Which group of natural compounds is called vitamins?

2. How are the vitamins classified?

3. Which medical plants are used in medicine as vitamin C

containing plants?

4. Mention the structure of vitamin C containing fruit of Rosa

species.

5. What species of Rosa are used to receive the preparation of

“Cholsasum”?

6. Mention the vitamin K containing plants; write the Latin names

of them.

7. Mention the specific characteristics of Lagochilus, the chemical

compound and pharmacological activity it.

8. Mention the specific characteristics of Urtica dioica, the

chemical compound and pharmacological activity it.

9. What is the raw material of Hippophae to receive the Hippophae

oil?

10. Mention the specific characteristics of Hippophae, the chemical

compound and pharmacological activity it.

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11. Mention the specific characteristics of Ribes nigrum, the

chemical compound and pharmacological activity it.

12. Mention the specific characteristics of Juglans regia, the

chemical compound and pharmacological activity it.

13. Mention the specific characteristics of Primula, the chemical

compound and pharmacological activity it.

14. Mention the crude drug of Zea mays, the chemical content and medical

uses of it.

15. Mention the specific characteristics of Calendula, the chemical

compound and pharmacological activity it.

16. Mention the specific characteristics of Bidens tripartita, the

chemical compound and pharmacological activity it.

17. Mention the specific characteristics of Gnaphalium, the chemical

compound and pharmacological activity it.

18. Mention the specific characteristics of Capsella bursa-pastoris,

the chemical compound and pharmacological activity it.

19. Mention the plants containing carotene and give the Latin

names of them.

20. Mention the ways of preparation of the crude drugs containing

vitamin C.

1. Producing plant: Rosa species Rosa species

Family: Rosaceae Crude drug: Fructus Rosae Rosa fruits

They are divided in to two large sections: Rosa canina and Rosa

cinnamomea, and the ascorbinic acid content in these two section

representatives are different. Rosa species with high vit. C content

belongs to the section of R. cinnamomea and with the low content of vit

C belongs to R canina. It is necessary to mention that in some countries

the R canina species which grow high on the mountains contain vit C

which satisfies the demands of pharmacopoeia concerning the vit C

content.

All the species are shrubs with arched, downward curving branches;

Rosa has thorny stems, smooth green leaves, and clusters of 5 –

petaled flowers that are white or tinged with pink, or reddish. The

flowers are followed by large, oval, scarlet hips in R. canina species and

round or oval, red or orange hips in R. cinnamomea species (Fig 1). The

hips (false fruits) contain numerous irritant hairy seeds (real fruits).

Native to Europe and Asia naturalized also in North America. Rose hips

are gathered when ripe.

Fig 1. Fruits of Rosa Cinnamomea Fruits of Rosa canina

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Constituents: Rose hips contain a significant amount of vitamin C, as

well as vitamins P, E, K and carotenes. They also contain flavonoids,

sugars, organic acids, tannins and pectin. The acids and pectin are

responsible for rose’s mild laxative and diuretic properties. Rose oil

received from the seeds contains citronellol, vitamins A, E.

Action and uses: Both its vitamin C rich hips and oil-laden petals have

been used for centuries to treat colds and stomach upsets, minor

infections, scurvy and stress.

In modern medicine rose hips and petals are used in various

preparations to treat cold, bronchial infections, gastrointestinal

complaints. The hips are mildly diuretic and have a slight laxative effect.

They are also a source of vitamin C (richer than oranges) and an

ingredient in rose hip tea and many natural vitamin preparations, syrups.

Rose oil is particularly effective when applied to the skin to heal burns,

eczema and radiation injury, and is taken internally in the treatment of

stomach and intestinal diseases. “Cholosasum” preparation from R.

canina is used as a bile remover in the diseases of gall bladder.

2. Producing plant Ribes nigrum Blackcurrant

Family: Saxifragaceae (Grossulariaceae) Crude drug: Fructus Ribes nigri

Blackcurrant fruits

A deciduous shrub that grows to 2.0 meters high by 0.5 meters wide

and prefers. This plant withstands frost and is self fertile and has

hermaphrodite flowers. Blackcurrants are widely cultivated in temperate

areas for their edible fruit, there are many named varieties. Most fruit is

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produced on one year old wood. The fruit is about 10mm in diameter,

though selected cultivars have larger fruits, black or dark violet.

Constituents: Blackcurrant fruits are a good source of minerals and

vitamins, especially vitamin C, P, B1, B2, B6, and carotene. They also

contain sugars, pectin, organic acids, volatile oil, flavanoids, antocyan,

tannins. The leaves contain a significant amount of vitamin C.

Action and uses: They have diuretic and diaphoretic actions, help to

increase bodily resistance to infections and are a valuable remedy for

treating colds and flu. The juice, especially when fresh helps to stem

diarrhea and calms indigestion. The leaves are cleansing, diaphoretic

and diuretic. By encouraging the elimination of fluids they help to reduce

blood volume and thereby lower blood pressure. An infusion of the

leaves is used in the treatment of dropsy, and rheumatic pain. The dried

leaves are a tea substitute.

3. Producing plant: Primula veris Primula Family: Primulaceae Crude drug: Folia Primulae Radices Primulae Primula leaves Primula roots These plants occur wild throughout Europe with Bulgaria and Turkey the

principal commercial sources. British herbal medicine has however

traditionally used the leaves, flowers and roots of P. vulgaris (the common

primrose). Perennial plant, reaches 30cm high, with short rhizome and

thin roots. The leaves are in rosettes, oval, 8cm long, wrinkled. Flowers

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are bright yellow, in hung umbrellas. The crude drug is the leaf gathered

during flowering and after it and also roots. High greyish-brown roots may

be whole or cut with pieces of rhizome up to 5 cm in length and bearing the

remains of stems and leaves together with numerous roots. Microscopical

features include parenchymatous cells, reticulately thickened vessels and

simple and compound starch granules.

Cinstituents: Leaves contain 8% vitamin C, carotene, flavonoids. Roots

include a mixture of triterpenoid saponins of the oleane type (5-10%) and

phenolic glycosides such as primulaverin (primulaveroside). The latter,

by enzyme hydrolysis during the drying process, forms the disaccharide

primeverose and methyl 5-methoxysal-icylate, the latter being responsible

for the odour of the drug.

Action and uses: The infuse of leaves is used as an increaser of body

resistance and vitamin source during hypovitaminoses. The decoction of

rhizome with roots is used as an expectorant during pneumonia,

bronchitis, and other respirator diseases.

4. Producing plant: Juglans regia Walnut

Family: Juglandaceae Crude drug: Fructus Juglandis regia immaturi

Unripe fruits of Walnut

A deciduous tree that grows to 20.0 meters high by 20.0 meters wide.

Habitat: E. Europe to N. Asia. Requires a deep well-drained loan and a

sunny position sheltered from strong winds. The dormant plant is very

cold tolerant, tolerating temperatures down to about -27°C without

serious damage, but the young spring growth is rather tender and can

70

be damaged by late frosts. The walnut tree is frequently cultivated for its

edible seed in temperate zones of the world, there are many named

varieties. Plants produce chemicals which can inhibit the growth of other

plants. These chemicals are dissolved out of the leaves when it rains

and are washed down to the ground below, reducing the growth of

plants under the tree. The roots also produce substances that are toxic

to many plant species, especially apples.. The leaves are 45cm long,

feathered cut, long elliptic, whole edged, dark green.

Constituents: The unripe fruit and fruit rind contain ascorbinic acid,

juglon, hydrojuglons, tannins, organic acids. The leaves contain juglone,

ά–juglone, flavanoids, vitamin C, essential oil, alkaloid-juglandin, vitamin

PP, β–carotene, organic acids.

Action and uses: The preparation of the walnut have a bactericidal

activity, the flavonoids, tannins and vitamins have wound recovering,

anthelmintic and ant bleeding action. The infusions are used to increase

bodily resistance during avitaminoses and worms. The leaves are

alterative, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, astringent and depurative.

They are used internally the treatment of constipation, chronic coughs,

asthma, diarrhoea, dyspepsia etc. The leaves are also used to treat skin

ailments and purify the blood. They are considered to be specific in the

treatment of strumous sores. Externally they are used in skin diseases

of different types. Externally mature fruit and leave preparations are

used on the areas of dermatitis and eczema.

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5. Producing plant: Calendula officinalis Calendula Family: Asteraceae Crude drug: Flores Calendulae Calendula flowers A low growing, branching annual, typically 30-50cm tall, with lance-

shaped, slightly pale green leaves. The stem and leaves are covered

with fine hair and are rough and slightly sticky to touch. Large, orange-

yellow or yellow flowers are produced from early summer to late

autumn, they resemble daisies, with petals radiating from a pronounce

center.

Calendula in native to countries bordering the Mediterranean, both north

and south. It is cultivated in most temperate parts of the world as both

an herb and long-blooming cottage garden flower. Calendula flourishes

in full sun in almost any type of soil. Flowers are harvested in summer.

Constituents: Flowers contain carotene, triterpenoid saponins,

essential oil, organic acids (salicylic and apple acids), mucilage,

flavanoids, tannins, resins, bitter sesquiterpene lacton calendin.

Action and uses: The anti-inflammatory and antiseptic properties of the

herb have made it a time honored ingredient in a variety of ointments

and lotions for soothing irritated chapped or cracked skin, healing

eczema, and cooling sunburn. The plant’s essential oil is said to be an

effective antifungal agent in treating vaginal yeast infections. Calendula

preparations appear to foster tissue regeneration. It is helpful in the

early treatment of stomach ulcer. It exhibits antiviral action. Its

preparations are often used to heal stubborn wounds such as bed sores

and to treat varicose veins, gum inflammations and bruises. It is

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common additive to complexion creams and lotions, to soothe, soften,

and clean the skin.

6. Producing plant: Bidens tripartite Burr marigold

Family: Asteraceae Crude drug: Herba Bidentis

Burr marigold herb An annual that grows to 1.0 meters high by 0.5 meters wide. The stems

are opposite branched. Leaves are opposite, dark green, divided on 3-5

rhombic parts. This plant has scented flowers and has hermaphrodite

flowers. Grows in ditches, pond and lake margins, and sides of streams.

The seed coats have reflexed prickles which allow them to adhere to

clothing, animal fur. When growing on the edge a pond, these seeds

have been known to kill goldfish by adhering to their gills. The plant is

harvested as it comes into flower and is dried for later use

Constituents: It contains a significant amount of carotene, flavonoids,

cumarines, tannins, mucilage (polysaccharides), amines, polyenic

alcohols.

Action and uses: The whole plant is antiseptic, aperient, astringent,

diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, sedative, styptic and sudorific. It is an

excellent remedy for ruptured blood vessels and bleeding of any kind,

and is of benefit to people with consumption. It is used internally to treat

bladder and kidney problems, blood in the urine, uterine bleeding,

ulcerative colitis and peptic ulcers. Externally, it is used in the treatment

of alopecia. It is usually combined with a carminative herb such as

ginger when used to treat digestive tract ailments. It is especially useful

for children in external use (bath) for skin rushes and other skin

diseases.

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7. Producing plant: Gnaphalium uliginosum Marsh cudweed

Family: Asteraceae Crude drug; Herba Gnaphalii uliginosi

Marsh cudweed herb An annual that grows to 1.0 meters high by 0.5 meters wide and prefers

sandy loam soil. This plant has hermaphrodite flowers and is pollinated

by insects. It grows in damp places in sandy fields, heaths, waysides.

This plant might do well located in cultivated beds. Prefers a position in

full sun or partial shade in a moist to wet light acid soil. The leaves are

whole edged, lined, covered with hair: flowers are yellow, in baskets,

developing groups on the tops of the plant. The plant is harvested when

it is in flower and is dried for later use Constituents: The plant contains flavonoids, carotene, tannins,

essential oil, phytosterins, traces of vitamin C and alkaloids.

Action and uses: It is occasionally taken for its astringent, antiseptic

and anticatarrhal properties. The whole plant is anti-inflammatory,

astringent, diaphoretic and diuretic. It may also have aphrodisiac and

anti-depressant effects. It is used both internally and externally in the

treatment of laryngitis, upper respiratory catarrh and tonsillitis, whilst in

Russia it is used in the treatment of high blood pressure.

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8. Producing plant: Hippophae rhamnoides Sea buckthorn

Family: Elaeagnaceae Crude drug: Fructus Hippophae recens

Fresh fruits of buckthorn

A deciduous shrub that grows to 6.0 meters high by 2.0 meters wide

and prefers many types of soil with a pH ranging from acid to alkaline

and full sun with varying levels of moisture. This plant withstands frost

and withstands drought and tolerates poor soil. It is in flower in April,

and the seeds ripen from September to October. The flowers are

dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but only one sex

is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants must be

grown if seed is required) and are pollinated by Wind. Although usually

found near the coast in the wild, they thrive when grown inland and are

hardy to about -25°c. A very ornamental plant, it is occasionally

cultivated, especially in N. Europe. The fruit is very freely borne along

the stems and is about 6 - 8mm in diameter. The fruit becomes less acid

after a frost or if cooked. The fruit is ripe from late September and

usually hangs on the plants all winter if not eaten by the birds.

Constituents: The fruit is a very rich source of vitamins and minerals,

especially in carotene, vitamins C and E, flavonoids and other bio-active

compounds. It is also a fairly good source of essential fatty acids, which

is fairly unusual for a fruit. The fruits of some species and cultivars (not

specified) contain up to 9.2% oil.

Action and uses: High-quality medicinal oil is made from the fruit and

used in the treatment of cardiac disorders, it is also said to be

particularly effective when applied to the skin to heal burns, eczema and

75

radiation injury, and is taken internally in the treatment of stomach and

intestinal diseases.

The fruit is astringent and used as a tonic. The freshly-pressed juice is

used in the treatment of colds, febrile conditions, and exhaustion. It is

being investigated as a food that is capable of reducing the incidence of

cancer and also as a means of halting or reversing the growth of

cancers. The juice is also a component of many vitamin-rich

medicaments and cosmetic preparations such as face-creams and

toothpastes. A decoction of the fruit has been used as a wash to treat

skin irritation and eruptions. Oleum Hippophaes (buckthorn oil) is used

during radiolesion and burns of skin and mucous membranes, cervical

erosion, ulcer diseases.

9. Producing plant: Urtica dioica Stinging nettle

Family: Urticaceae Crude drug: Herba Urtici

Nettle herb

Nettle is tall (100-125cm) erect perennial herb with creeping roots,

square stems, lance shaped leaves with serrated edges, and clusters of

small green flowers. All parts of the plant bristle with stinging hairs.

Native to Eurasia, nettle is a common invasive weed that inhibits the

edges of woodlands, ditches, fields, waste places, and neglected

gardens. It grows in temperate regions worldwide. “Urtica” come from

the Latin urere, meaning “to burn”. Its leave and stems are covered with

tiny sharp hairs that break at the slightest touch to release irritating

substances that cause burning, itching, and even blistering of the skin.

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Strangely enough, when nettles come into a contact with a part of the

body that is already in pain, the chemicals the plant injects into the skin

ease the original pain, partly by encouraging blood flow to the skin.

Constituents: The stinging hairs of nettle act like miniature syringes

that inject a mixture of histamine, formic acid and acetylcholine into the

skin; these chemical cause extreme irritation. The plant itself contains

vitamin K, B1, B2, C, E, carotene, organic acids, polysaccharides and a

large protein-sugar molecules known as lectins, these substances have

been shown to stimulate the immune system. Nettle also contains

flavonoids, chlorophyll. Action and uses: Drug and preparations are used to enhance the level

of hemoglobin and erythrocytes’ amount. Vitamin K and Siliceous salts

are against hemorrhages, chlorophyll stimulates regeneration of

tissues, enhances the tonus of intestines and uterus, exhibits anti-

inflammatory action. The infuse of the plant is used during kidney, lung,

uterus, intestine bleedings. Nettle preparations are employed in treating

rheumatism, preventing and treating kidney and bladder stones, and

easing inflammation of the urinary tract. Nettle is also prescribed for

anemia, for hay fever, asthma, and other allergic conditions, to rid the

body of uric acid in treating gout, to stimulate circulations.

10. Producing plant: Zea mays

Sweet corn Crude drug: Styli cum stigmatis Zeae maydis

Sweet corn silks A fast growing annual that grows to 2.0 meters high by 0.5 meters wide.

This plant has monoecious flowers. Original habitat is obscure,

probably S. America or Mexico. Not known in the wild. This plant might

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do well located in cultivated beds. Corn is widely cultivated for its edible

seed, especially in tropical and warm temperate zones of the world. The

stem is well developed, with knots; male flowers are on the top, female

flowers are on the sides and covered with covering leaves. The silks

are harvested before pollination occurs and are best used when fresh

because they tend to lose their diuretic effect when stored and also

become purgative.

Constituents: The silks contain vitamin K1, K3, B1, B6, C, PP,

saponins, resins, β- cytosterines, flavonoids.

The refined light golden yellow oil consists largely of triglycerides of the

unsaturated oleic and linoleic acids with smaller proportions of palmitic

and stearic acids!

Action and uses: The corn silks are cholagogue, demulcent, diuretic,

lithontriptic, mildly stimulant and vasodilator. They also act to reduce

blood sugar levels and so are used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus

as well as cystitis, gonorrhoea, gout etc. Decoction of the cob is used in

the treatment of nose bleeds and menorrhagia. Edible oil is obtained

from the seed; it is all-purpose culinary oil that is frequently used as a

food in salads and for cooking purposes.

Corn oil is obtained by expression of the fixed oil from the embryos of

Zea mays and refined. Because of the high instauration (iodine value

110-128), it is regarded as of value in diets designed to limit blood

cholesterol levels.

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11. Producing plant: Capsella bursa-pastoris Shepherd's purse

Family: Brassicaceae Crude drug: Herba Bursae pastoris.

Shepherd's purse herb An annual herb that grows to 40cm high. This plant withstands frost and

tolerates saline soil and is self fertile and has hermaphrodite flowers

and is pollinated by itself. Shepherd's purse is a very common garden

weed that can spread freely in cultivated ground. It is usually in flower

and producing seed in all months of the year. The leaves grow rather

larger under cultivation, they can be harvested about a month after

sowing and can be treated as a cut and come again crop. They do run

to seed fairly rapidly, however, especially in hot dry weather or when in

poor soils.

The stem in alone, the leaves are in a rosette, long lancet-like, with

deeply cut edges. The stem leaves are small, whole edged or dentate.

The flowers are white on the top of the stem, developing nutlets. The

plant for drying is harvested in summer.

Constituents: It contains vitamin K, organic acids, saponins, biogenic

amines.

Action and uses: Shepherd's purse is a commonly used domestic

remedy, being especially efficacious in the treatment of both internal

and external bleeding, diarrhoea etc. A tea made from the whole plant

is antiscorbutic, astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue, haemostatic,

hypotensive, oxytocic, stimulant, vasoconstrictor, vasodilator and

vulnerary. A tea made from the dried herb is considered to be a

sovereign remedy against haemorrhages of all kinds - the stomach, the

lungs, the uterus and more especially the kidneys.

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12. Producing plant: Lagochilus inebrians Intoxicating mint

Family: Lamiaceae Crude drug: Flores Lagochili

Intoxicating mint flowers

A deciduous shrub that grows to 1.0 meters high by 0.5 meters wide

and prefers sandy loam soil. This plant withstands drought and has

hermaphrodite flowers. It is native to Europe to C. Asia. The crude drug

is Lagochillus flower, the calyx is 5 metric, hairy, with 5 sharp, dents.

The corolla is white or pink, 1-1.5 times bigger from the calyx; in dry

crude drug it is wrinkled. Leaves are cut to 3-5 parts, grey green

because of covering from both sides.

Constituents: The drug contains vitamin K, carotene, ascorbinic acid,

bitter compounds (lagochillin), essential oil, and resin.

Action and uses: The drug is, haemostatic, antispasmodic

hallucinogenic, hypotensive and sedative. An infusion is also used

internally in the treatment of allergies and the shrub has also been used

to treat skin disorders. The drug is harvested during flowering and is

dried for later use. They become more fragrant and medicinally active

once they have been dried. It is especially efficacious in the treatment of

both internal and external bleeding. It is used against all kinds of

haemorrhages.

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MEDICAL PLANTS AND

RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS Alkaloid-containing plants constitute an extremely varied group both

taxonomically and chemically, a basic nitrogen being the only unifying

factor for the various classes. Typical alkaloids are derived from plant

sources, they are basic, they contain one or more nitrogen atoms

(usually in a heterocyclic ring) and they usually have a marked

physiological action on man or other animals.

1. Which group of pharmacologically active compounds are called

“alkaloids”?

2. How are alkaloids classified?

3. What is the role of alkaloids in the life of plants?

4. How the external factors Influence on the accumulation of alkaloids

in the plants?

5. What are the specific characteristics of Ephedra and how it is used

in medicine?

6. Mention the specific characteristics of Atropa, chemical content and

pharmacological action of it.

7. What kinds of preparations are made from Atropa belladonna and

how are they used in medicine?

8. What is the microscopic characteristic of Datura stramonium, what

kind of hairs and crystals you can notice in the microscopic

preparation of Datura?

9. Mention the specific characteristics of Hyoscyamus, chemical

content and pharmacological action of it.

10. How can we differ the microscopical preparations of Atropa

belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger and Datura stramonium?

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11. Mention the specific characteristics of Colchicum speciousum,

chemical content and pharmacological action of it.

12. What are the preparations of Colchicum speciousum and how are

they used?

13. Mention the areal distribution of Eryrthroxylon coca, the chemical

content and pharmacological action of it.

14. Mention the specific characteristics of Thermopsis, chemical content

and pharmacological action of it.

15. Mention the specific characteristics of Cinchona species, chemical

content and pharmacological action of them.

16. What kinds of preparations are made from Cinchona crude drug?

17. Mention the specific characteristics of Echinops, chemical content

and pharmacological action of it.

18. What is the crude drug of Papaver somniferum and what are its

characteristics?

19. Describe the chemical content of Papaver somniferum fruit and the

pharmacological action of opium.

20. What kinds of preparations are made from the crude drug of

Papaver somniferum?

21. Mention the specific characteristics of Cephaelis ipecacuanha,

chemical content and pharmacological action of it.

22. Describe the crude drug of claviceps purpurea, its specific

characteristics.

23. What kinds of preparations are made from the crude drug of

claviceps purpurea and how are they used in medicine?

24. Mention the specific characteristics of Rauwolfia serpentina,

chemical content and pharmacological action of it.

25. Describe the crude drug of Cacao, its chemical content and

pharmacological action.

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26. What parts of Aconitum are used in medicine and what is their

action?

27. What is the chemical content of the crude drug of Aconitum and

how it is used in medicine?

28. Mention the specific characteristics of Veratrum album, chemical

content and pharmacological action of it.

29. How can alkaloids be found out in herbal crude drugs?

30. How can alkaloids be extracted from the herbal crude drug?

PROTOALKALOIDS

Those alkaloid-like amines which do not have the nitrogen as part of a

heterocyclic ring system are often termed protoalkaloids. They are not

restricted to any particular class of alkaloids.

1. Producing plant: Ephedra equisetina E. intermedia E. major Ephedra

Family: Ephedraceae Crude drug: Herba Ephedrae

Ephedra herb Ephedra is a wiry, grayish-green, perennial shrub growing to 100 cm

high, with thin stems and much-reduced, almost scale-like leaves.

Minute male flowers are borne in small clusters; female flowers from

small, fleshy, bright-red cones. The drug is collected in the autumn, this

being important, as the amount of alkaloid present shows considerable

variation at different seasons. It consists of slender, more or less broken

aerial stems which are woody and usually branch only at the base.

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The stems of the ephedras bear numerous, fine, longitudinal ridges. The

leaves are small, connate at the base, and usually in whorls of two (less

commonly, whorls of three or four) and decussate. The stems are very

woody and much branched, 25-200 cm in length and ashy yellow-green

in colour. The internodes are about 1-2.5 cm long. The leaves are of a

brownish-purple colour, the lower ones tending to go black.

Constituents: The ephedras contain about 0.5-2.0% of alkaloids. Of

the total, ephedrine (and its isomers) forms from 30 to 90%, according to

the species. Pseudoephedrine is also present. The roots also contain a

number of macrocyclic alkaloids (ephedradines) and feruloylhistamine

which have hypotensive properties. Other plant constituents in Ephedra

are calcium, phosphorus, protein, flavone, saponin, tannins, and

volatile oil.

Action and uses: Various species of Ephedra are used as a source of

the alkaloids ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, which may also be

prepared by synthesis. Ephedrine is used for the relief of asthma and

hay fever. Its action is more prolonged than that of adrenaline, and it has

the further advantage that it need not be given by injection but may be

administered by mouth. In oriental medicine the ephedras are also used

as antiinflammatory drugs and this action is ascribed to an oxazolidone

related to ephedrine. In contrast to the herb, which has a sudorific action,

the root has been used clinically in China for its antisudorific effect. Unlike

using the isolated or synthesized ephedrine, using the whole plant in

alternative medicine is much more effective and rarely gives rise to

serious side-effects. This is true with most herbs, but especially with

Ephedra, since other plant constituents can help buffer or improve the

actions of the main constituents. Ephedrine acts quickly to reduce

swellings of the mucous membranes, dilates the bronchial vessels and

has antispasmodic properties.

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Caution! It is advised as an overdose can be fatal, causing high blood

pressure, racing of the heart, confusion, nervous stupor, twitching,

convolutions and death. Ephedrine is seen as a performance-boosting

herb and is a forbidden substance in many sporting.

Phenethylisoguinoline alkoloids

2. Producing plant: Colchicim speciosum Colchicum (meadow saffron)

Family: Liliaceae Crude drug: Bulbotubera Colchici recens

Colchicum corms The drug was recommended in Arabian writings for use in gout, but it

was little employed in either classical or mediaeval times, owing to the

wholesome fear inspired by its poisonous properties. Native to North

Africa and Europe, but is widely cultivated as an ornamental in England,

USA and Canada. The corm consists of an enlarged underground stem

bearing foliage leaves, sheathing leaves and fibrous roots. If the plants are

examined in the latter part of the summer, it will be found that a new corm

is developing in the axil of a scale leaf near the base of the old corm, the new

plant occupying an infolding in the side of the parent corm. In September

the parent corm bears the remains of recently withered leaves and is very

much larger than the daughter corm. For medicinal purposes the corm

would have been collected shortly after the withering of the leaves ('early

summer') and before the enlargement of its axial bud. The corms are sur-

rounded by a dark, membranous coat. The young corm develops fibrous

roots at its base, and in August or September two to six flowers emerge

from it, but its foliage leaves do not appear above ground until the following

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spring. The flowers are 10-12 cm long. Each has six stamens and a

perianth consisting of six lilac or pale-purple segments which fuse into an

exceptionally long perianth tube, at the base of which lies the superior

ovary. More than half the length of the flower is below ground, and the fruit

lies protected throughout the winter by the surrounding corm and earth.

The fruit is a three-lobed, three-celled, septicidal capsule, which is carried

above ground in the spring by the expanding leaves. The fully grown

leaves are radical, linear-lanceolate and about 12 cm long. During these

changes the daughter corm grows at the expense of the parent, which

now gradually perishes. Before doing so, however, it may produce in its

second spring one or more small corms by means of which the number of

plants may be increased. The corms are collected about July, cut into

transverse slices and dried at a temperature not exceeding 65°C. The

outer membranes are rejected. The whole corms are 2-3 cm diameter, but

the dried drug consists of somewhat reniform, transverse slices and

occasional more ovate longitudinal slices, about 2-5 mm thick. The

epidermal surface is cinnamon-brown and slightly wrinkled. The interior is

white and starchy and, if carefully smoothed, shows scattered

fibrovascular bundles. The drug breaks with a short mealy fracture. The

odour is much less marked than in the fresh drug. Taste, bitter.

Constituents: On treating the drug with 60-70% sulphuric acid or with

concentrated hydrochloric acid, a yellow colour, due to colchicine, is

produced. The corms contain up to about 0.6% colchicine, colchamine,

other related alkaloids and starch.

Action and uses: Colchicum preparations are used to relieve gout, but must

be employed with caution. Colchicine is a very effective pain-killer with anti-

inflammatory properties that especially prevents certain types of white blood

cells from migrating into the inflamed joints typically associated with acute gout

attacks. Colchicine also interferes with the development of spindle fibers as cell

86

nuclei are dividing. It is considered as a potential anticancer drug. It is used in

the treatment of leukemia. The ointment preparations of colchicine are used to

treat skin cancer, too. It is frequently prescribed in tablet form and transdermal

preparations containing colchicine are the subject of a Japanese patent. The

alkaloid is also used in biological experiments to produce polyploidy or

multiplication of the chromosomes in a cell nucleus. The 0,5% ointment of

colchamin - “Omainum” is used in the treatment of skin cancer. Colchamin

preparations are also used (per os and IV) for the treatment of chronic leucosis.

Caution! The plant is very poisonous. No part of the plant should ever be

collected or used for self-medication.

Tropane alkoloids

3 Producing plant: Atropa belladonna Belladonna

Family: Solanaceae Crude drug: Folia, herba and radices Belladonnae

Belladonna leaf, herb and roots Belladonna Herb consists of the dried leaves and flowering tops of Atropa

belladonna. The deadly nightshade, A. belladonna, is a perennial herb

which attains a height of about 1.5 m. Owing to adnation; the leaves on the

upper branches are in pairs, a large leaf and a smaller one. The flowers

appear about the beginning of June. They are solitary, shortly stalked,

drooping and about 2.5 cm long. The corolla is campanulate, five-lobed and

of a dull purplish colour. The five-lobed calyx is persistent, remaining

attached to the purplish-black berry. The latter is bilocular, contains

numerous seeds and is about the size of a cherry. Belladonna is grown

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from seed. The leaves are said to be richest in alkaloid at the end of

June or in July, and a sunny position is said to give more active leaves

than a shady one. Plants about 3 years old are sufficiently large to give a

good yield of leaves and, if the roots are being collected, it would seem to

be best to replant about every third year. Two or more crops of leaves

may be collected annually. Leaves left in an imperfectly dry state

deteriorate and give off ammonia. They should therefore be dried

immediately after collection and be carefully stored. Leaves of a good

colour may be obtained by drying in thin layers starting with a moderate

heat which is gradually increased to about 60DC and then gradually

decreased. The drug consists of leaves and the smaller stems, the latter

seldom exceeding 5 mm diameter, together with flowers and fruits as

described above. If the drug is little broken, the arrangement of the leaves

in unequal pairs may be seen. The leaves are dull green or yellow'ish-

green in colour, the upper side being somewhat darker than the lower.

Each has a petiole about 0.5-4- cm long and a broadly ovate, slightly

decurrent lamina about 5-25 cm long and 2.5-12 cm wide. The margin is

entire and the apex acuminate. The most useful diagnostic characters

are the venation and roughness of the surface. The latter is due to the

presence of calcium oxalate in certain of the mesophyll cells which

causes minute points on the surface of the leaf as the other cells

contract more on drying.

Microscopical characters. Transverse section of the leaf of A. bel-

ladonna is shown in the figure. It has a bifacial structure. The epidermal

cells have wavy walls and a striated cuticle. Stomata of the characteristic

anisocytic type and also some of the anomocytic type are present on

both surfaces but are most common on the lower.

Hairs are most numerous on young leaves. Some of the hairs are

uniseriate, two-to four-celled clothing hairs; others resemble these but

88

have a unicellular glandular head; while a third kind has a short pedicel

and a multicellular glandular head. Certain of the cells of the spongy

mesophyll are filled with microsphenoidal ('sandy') crystals of calcium

oxalate (Fig 1).

Constituents: The drug from A. belladonna contains 0.3-0.60% of

alkaloids, the chief of which is hyoscyamine. Small quantities of volatile

bases, such as pyridine and methylpyrroline, are present, and if not

removed during the assay of the drug by heating, increase the titration and

appear in the result as hyoscyamine. The leaves also contain a

fluorescent substance, p-methylaesculetin (scopoletin) and calcium

oxalate.

Atropa belladonna root contains about 0.4—0.8% of alkaloids calculated

as hyoscyamine. Samples of belladonna root contain 0.3-1.0% of

alkaloids, of which 82.8-97.3% hyoscyamine, 2.7-15.2% atropine, and

0.0-2.6% scopolamine.

Action and uses: Belladonna leaves are mainly used for internal

preparations which are used as sedatives and to check secretion. The

alkaloid atropine is a valuable remedy for treating asthma, bradycardia,

whooping cough, hay fever and most importantly, to alleviate the

symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (especially the root decoct in wine). It

can noticeably reduce tremors and paralysis as well as improve mobility

and speech in patients with this debilitating disease. Preparations of the

root are mainly used externally. Atropine drops are used to dilate pupils

for eye exams.

Fig 1. Atropa belladonna leaf. A, Transverse section of midrib (x40); B, transverse section of portion of lamina (x200); C, distribution of idioblasts, surface view of leaf cleared in chloral (x50); D, upper epidermis; E, lower epidermis; F, trichomes (all x200); G and H, Scanning electron micrographs (G) of glandular trichome and epidermal cells with striated cuticle and (H) stoma and striated cuticle, a, Striations of cuticle; c, collenchyma; e, endodermis; ep, epidermis; id, idioblast containing crystals of calcium oxalate; i.ph, intraxylary phloem; m, mesophyll; ox, calcium oxalate crystals; p, palisade layer; ph, phloem; st, stoma; vt, veinlet; xy, xylem.

4. Producing plant: Hyoscyamus niger Henbane

Family: Solanaceae Crude drug: Folia Hyoscyami

Henbane leaf

Hyoscyamus leaf consists of the dried leaves or the dried leaves and

flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger. It is required to contain not less than

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0.05% of total alkaloids calculated as hyoscyamine. Description refers to

petiolate as well as sessile leaves, the first-year biennial leaves being thus

admitted. Henbane is a biennial or annual plant. It is found wild, chiefly

near old buildings, and is widely cultivated. Before examining commercial

henbane leaves it is advisable to study growing plants or herbarium

specimens.

Henbane flowers have the formula K (5), C (5), A5, G (2). The hairy, five-

lobed calyx is persistent. The fruit is a small, two-celled pyxis, which

contains numerous seeds. Henbane seeds are dark grey in colour,

somewhat reniform in shape and about 1.5 mm long. They have a

minutely reticulated testa and an internal structure closely resembling

that of stramonium seeds. Henbane seeds contain about 0.06-0.10% of

alkaloids (hyoscyamine with a little hyoscine and atropine). Henbane

seeds are dark grey in colour, somewhat reniform in shape and about 1.5

mm long. They have a minutely reticulated testa and an internal structure

closely resembling that of stramonium seeds. Henbane seeds contain

about 0.06-0.10% of alkaloids (hyoscyamine with a little hyoscine and

atropine).

Commercial henbane consists of the leaves and flowering tops

described above. The leaves are more or less broken but are

characterized by their greyish-green colour, very broad midrib and great

hairiness. If not perfectly dry, they are clammy to the touch, owing to the

secretion produced by the glandular hairs. The stems are mostly less

than 5 mm diameter and are also very hairy. The flowers are

compressed or broken but their yellowish corollas with purple veins are

often seen in the drug. Henbane has a characteristic, heavy odour and a

bitter, slightly acrid taste.

Microscopical characters. A transverse section of a henbane leaf

shows a bifacial structure. Both surfaces have a smooth cuticle,

epidermal cells with wavy walls, and a large number of hairs, which are

particularly abundant on the midrib and veins; some are uniseriate and

two to six cells long, while others have a uniseriate stalk and a large,

ovoid, glandular head, the cuticle of which is often raised by the secretion.

Similar hairs are found on the stems. The spongy mesophyll contains

calcium oxalate, mainly in the form of single and twin prisms, but clusters

and microspheroidal crystals are also present (Fig 2).

Constituents: Henbane leaves contain about 0.045-0.14% of alkaloids.

Hyoscyamine and hyoscine are the principal alkaloids. The petiole

appears to contain more alkaloid than the lamina or stem.

Prepared Hyoscyamus is the drug in fine powder adjusted to contain

0.05-0.07% of total alkaloids. It has a 'loss on drying' requirement of not

more than 5.0%.

Fig 2. Hyoscyamus niger. A, Transverse section of midrib of leaf (x40); B, transverse section of portion of leaf lamina; C, portion of leaf upper epidermis, surface view; D, calcium oxalate crystals; E, trichomes; F, pollen grains; G, portion of epidermis of corolla with attached glandular trichome (all x200). b, Base of trichome; c, collenchyma; cic, cicatrix; c.l, crystal layer; e, endodermis; g.t, glandular

trichome or portion of; id, idioblast; i.ph, intraxylary phloem; l.ep, lower epidermis; m, mesophyll; p, palisade layer; ph, phloem; st, stoma; tr], h"2, whole and broken clothing trichomes, respectively; u.ep, upper epidermis; vt, veinlet; xy, xylem.

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Allied drugs. Hyoscyamus albus is grown on the Continent, particularly

in France, and in the Indian subcontinent. It has petiolate stem-leaves

and the flowers have pale yellow, nonveined corollas. Quantitatively and

qualitatively its alkaloids appear similar to those of H. niger.

Action and uses: Henbane resembles belladonna and stramonium in

action but is somewhat weaker. The higher relative proportion of hyoscine

in the alkaloid mixture makes it less likely to give rise to cerebral

excitement than does belladonna. It is often used to relieve spasm of the

urinary tract and with strong purgatives to prevent griping.

5. Producing plant: Datura stramonium Thornapple

Family: Solanaceae Crude drug: Folia Stramonii

Thornapple Leaves Stramonium Leaf consists of the dried leaves or dried leaves and

flowering tops of Datura stramonium and its varieties. The drug is required

to contain not less than 0.25% of alkaloids calculated as hyoscyamine.

The plant is widespread in both the Old and New Worlds Plant. D.

Stramonium is a bushy annual attaining a height of about 1.5 m and

having a whitish root and numerous rootlets. The erect aerial stem shows

dichasial branching with leaf adnation. The stem and branches are round,

smooth and green. The flowers are solitary, axillary and short-stalked.

They have a sweet scent. Each has a tubular, five-toothed calyx about

4.5 cm long, a white, funnel-shaped corolla about 8 cm long, five

stamens and a bicarpellary ovary. The plant flowers in the summer and

early autumn. The fruit is originally bilocular but as it matures a false

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septum arises, except near the apex, so that the mature fruit is almost

completely four-celled. The ripe fruit is a thorny capsule about 3-4 cm

long (Fig 3). Stramonium seeds are dark brown or blackish in colour,

reniform in outline and about 3 mm long. The testa is reticulated and

finely pitted. A coiled embryo is embedded in an oily endosperm.

Fresh stramonium leaves or herbarium specimens should first be

examined, since the commercial leaves are much shrunken and twisted,

and their shape can only be ascertained by careful manipulation after

soaking them in water.

The dried leaves are greyish-green in colour, thin, brittle, twisted and

often broken. Whole leaves are 8-25 cm long and 7-15 cm wide; they are

shortly petiolate, ovate or triangular-ovate in shape, are acuminate at the

apex and have a sinuate-dentate margin. They are distinguished from the

leaves of the Indian species. D. innoxia, D. metel and D. fastuosa, by

the margin, which possesses teeth dividing the sinuses, and by the

lateral veins which run into the marginal teeth.

The commercial drug contains occasional flowers and young capsules,

which have been described above. The stems are often flat tended,

longitudinally wrinkled, somewhat hairy and vary in colour from light

olive brown (D. stramonium) to purplish-brown (var. tatula). Stramonium

has a slight but unpleasant odour, and a bitter taste.

Microscopical characters. A transverse section of a leaf (Fig 4) shows

that it has a bifacial structure. Both surfaces are covered with a smooth

cuticle and possess both stomata and hairs. Cluster crystals of calcium

oxalate are abundant in the mesophyll (Fig. 4 F, G), and microspheroidal

and prismatic crystals are also found. The uniseriate clothing hairs are

three- to five-celled, slightly curved, and have thin, warty walls (Fig. 4

E).

are usually somewhat browner in colour, with entire margins and with

differences in venation and trichomes. The leaves contain about 0.5% of

alkaloids. Variations in hyoscine and atropine contents are different. The

fruits of Datura innoxia and Datura metel fruits are the source to receive

scopolamine.

Adulteration: Adulterants cited are the leaves of species of Xanthium

(Compositae), Carthamus (Compositae) and Chenopodium

(Chenopodiaceae), which are, however, easily distinguished from the

genuine drug

Action and uses: Atropine has a stimulant action on the central

nervous system and depresses the nerve endings to the secretory

glands and plain muscle. Hyoscine lacks the central stimulant action of

atropine; its sedative properties enable it to be used in the control of

motion sickness. Hyoscine hydrobromide is employed in preoperative

medication, usually with papaveretum, some 30-60 min before the

induction of anaesthesia. Atropine and hyoscine are used to a large

extent in ophthalmic practice to dilate the pupil of the eye.

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Fig 4. Datura stramonium leaf. A, Transverse sections of midrib (xl 5); B, transverse section portion of lamina; C, lower epidermis with stomata and glandular trichome; D, glandular trichome over vein; E, clothing trichomes (all x200); F, arrangement of calcium oxalate crystals in crystal layer, surface view (x50); G, calcium oxalate crystals in cells; H, upper epidermis showing cicatrix and stomata (G and H, x200). I, J, Scanning electron micrographs of (I) clothing trichome and (J) glandular trichome. c, Collenchyma; cic, cicatrix; c.l, crystal layer; e, endodermis; id, idioblast containing micro-crystals; i.ph, intraxylary phloem; l.ep, lower epidermis with stoma; m, mesophyll; ox, calcium oxalate crystal; p, palisade layer; ph, phloem; u.ep, upper epidermis with stoma; vt, veinlet; xy, xylem. (Photographs: L. Seed and R. Worsley.)

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7. Producing plant: Erythroxylon coca Erythroxylon coca

Family: Erythroxylaceae Crude drug: Folia Coca

Coca leaves Coca leaves are derived from shrubs of the Erythroxylaceae, namely

Erythroxylum coca (Bolivian or Huanuco) and E. truxillense (Peruvian or

Truxillo), cultivated in Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Indonesia.

Coca leaves have been used in South America as a masticatory from very

early times. They were formerly reserved for the sole use of the native chiefs

and Incas. Coca was introduced into Europe about 1688 and cocaine was

isolated in 1860. By employing the alkaloid in ophthalmic surgery in 1884

Carl Koller was the first to introduce it into clinical practice so heralding the

era of modern anaesthetics. In Bolivia and Peru coca is cultivated at an

altitude of 500-2000 m. The cultivated plants are usually pruned so as

not to exceed 2 m in height. Three harvests are collected annually, the

first from the pruned twigs, the second in June and the third in

November. The leaves are artificially or sun-dried and packed in bags.

The leaves are shortly petiolate, oval, 2.5-7.5 cm long and 1.5-4 cm wide.

The lamina is greenish brown to brown and glabrous; margin entire. The

midrib is prominent on the lower surface, bears a ridge on its upper

surface, and projects slightly beyond the lamina as an apiculus. The latter

is often broken in the commercial drug but the leaves are otherwise fairly

entire. The lower surface shows two, very characteristic, curved lines, one

on either side of the midrib. Odour, characteristic; taste, at first bitter and

slightly aromatic, the alkaloids afterwards causing numbness of the tongue

and lips.

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Constituents: Coca leaves contain about 0.7-1.5% of total alkaloids, of

which cocaine, cinnamylcocaine and a-truxilline are the most important.

They occur in different proportions in different commercial varieties.

Javanese leaves are usually richest in total alkaloids, of which the chief

is cinnamylcocaine, while the Bolivian and Peruvian leaves contain less

total alkaloid but a higher proportion of cocaine.

Action and uses: Cocaine and its salts were the earliest of the modern

local anaesthetics but, because of their toxic and addictive properties,

their use is now almost entirely confined to ophthalmic, ear, nose and throat

surgery

Quinoline alkoloids

7. Producing plant: Cinchona succirubra

C. Ledgeriana

C. officinalis

Family: Rubiaceae

Crude drug: Cortex Chinae

Cinchona bark consists of various species, races and hybrids of

Cinchona (Rubiaceae), large trees indigenous to Colombia, Ecuador,

Peru and Bolivia. The BP and EP recognize C. succirubra Pavon. (C.

pubescens Vahl) and its varieties and hybrids containing not less than

6.5% of total alkaloids, 30-60% of which consists of quinine-type

alkaloids. The former importance of cinchona bark and its alkaloids in the

treatment of malaria has been lessened by the introduction of synthetic

drugs, but it remains of great economic importance, and salts of quinine

and quinidine are included in most pharmacopoeias.

Fig. 3. Datura stramonium. A, End of flowering shoot; B, corolla cut open C, pistil (the rest of the flower has been cut away); D, floral diagram (the arrow indicates the plane of symmetry); E, capsule opening; F, capsule in transverse section; G, seed in transverse section, showing curved embryo. All slightly reduced except G, which is enlarged. (From Rendle's Classification of Flowering Plants.)

Constituents: Stramonium usually contains 0.2-0.45% of alkaloids, the

chief of which are hyoscyamine and hyoscine, but a little atropine may be

formed from the hyoscyamine by racemization. At the time of collection

these alkaloids are usually present in the proportion of about two parts of

hyoscyamine to one part of hyoscine, but in young plants hyoscine is the

predominant alkaloid. The larger stems contain little alkaloid and the

official drug should contain not more than 3% stem with a diameter

exceeding 5 mm.

Stramonium seeds contain about 0.2% of mydriatic alkaloids and about 15-

30% of fixed oil.

Commercial 'datura leaf consists of the dried leaves and flowering tops of

D. innoxia and D. metel; it is obtained principally from South America.

Like those of stramonium, the dried leaves are curled and twisted, but

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Collection from wild trees was soon replaced by cultivation, and most

research was undertaken by the Dutch in Java and the British in India to

obtain hybrids which are rich in alkaloids. While Indonesia and India

remain important producers of cinchona, a high percentage of the total

crop is now grown on plantations in Tanzania, Kenya Guatemala and

Bolivia.

Fig 5. Cinchona bark. A, specimen of Cinchona succirubra (x 0.5); B, transverse section of bark (x25); C, isolated phloem fibres (x50); D, portion of phloem fibre with surrounding parenchyma; E, cork cells in surface view; F, idioblast with calcium oxalate; G, starch (all x 200). ck, Cork; ct, cortex; f, fibres protruding from fracture; id, idioblast; I, lichen patches; l.f, longitudinal fissure; m.r, medullary ray; pd, phelloderm; pg, phellogen; p.f, phloem fibres; s.c, secretory cell; t.f, transverse fissure.

History. The natives of South America do not appear to have been acquainted

with the medicinal properties of cinchona bark, the bitter taste of which inspired

them with fear. The name 'Cinchona' is said to be derived from a Countess of

Chinchon, wife of a viceroy of Peru who it was long believed was cured in 1638

from a fever by the use of the bark. According to recent study of the Count's diary,

it appears that the Countess never suffered from malaria or other fever during her

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stay in Peru, and although the Count himself did so, there is no record of his

having been treated with cinchona bark. The remedy, which became known as

'Pulvo de la Condesa', acquired a considerable reputation and was known in Spain

in 1639. The further distribution of the bark was largely due to the Jesuit priests,

and the drug became known as Jesuit's Powder or Peruvian Powder. The

production of cinchona bark is a highly specialized section of tropical

agriculture. An acid soil, rainfall and altitude are all important factors in cinchona

production. Selection of high-yielding strains is of paramount importance, and

grafting techniques with C. succirubra as stock may be employed. Seedlings

need careful treatment and propagation to avoid disease attack, etc. Since the

mid-1970s a disease of the cinchona tree, known as stripe canker, has posed a

threat to the plantations of Central Africa.

Stem-bark. The commercial 'druggist's' quills are up to 30 cm long and

usually 2-6 mm thick (Fig 5). Bark for manufacturing purposes is fre-

quently in small curved pieces. The outer surface frequently bears moss

or lichen. The cork may or may not be longitudinally wrinkled, and usually

bears longitudinal and transverse cracks, which vary in frequency and

distinctness in the different varieties. The inner surface is striated and

varies in colour from yellowish-brown to deep reddish-brown. The

fracture is short in the outer part but somewhat fibrous in the inner part.

Odour, slight; taste, bitter and astringent.

Root-bark. Root-bark occurs in channelled, often twisted pieces about

2-7 cm long. Both surfaces are of similar colour, the outer, however,

being somewhat scaly, while the inner surface is striated.

Constituents: Cinchona bark contains quinoline alkaloids The principal

alkaloids are the stereoisomers quinine and quinidine.

The alkaloids appear to be present in the parenchymatous tissues of the

bark in combination with quinic acid and cinchotannic acid. Quinic acid is

present to the extent of 5-8%. Cinchotannic acid is a phlobatannin and a

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considerable amount of its decomposition product, 'cinchona red', is also

found in the bark.

Action and uses: Galenicals of cinchona have long been used as bitter

tonics and stomachics. On account of the astringent action, a decoction

and acid infusion are sometimes used as gargles. Before World War II,

quinine was the drug of choice for the treatment of malaria but became

largely superseded by the advent of synthetic antimalarials developed

during that period. It has, however, remained of importance in Third

World countries and has re-emerged as suitable for the treatment of

Plasmodium falciparum infections (falciparum malaria) in the many areas

where the organism is now resistant to chloroquine and other

antimalarials. Quinidine is employed for the prophylaxis of cardiac

arrhythmias and for the treatment of atrial fibrillation; it also has

antimalarial properties and like quinine is effective against chloroquine-

resistant organisms.

8. Producing plant: Echinops ritro Globe thistle

Family: Asteraceae Crude drug: Fructus Echinopsis

Globe thistle fruits A deciduous perennial that grows to 1.0 meters high. It has

hermaphrodite flowers in the spherical heads. The leaves are alternate,

long featherlike cut. The stem can give braches at the top of the plant

and is covered with white, fine hair. Corolla is usually blue (it is white at

E. Spaerocephalus). Fruits are seeds, that are spatulate, 7-9cm long,

have no odour, taste is bitter. The harvest is done when the fruits are

ripe.

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Constituents: The seeds contain 0,5-2% alkaloids of ehcinopsin and

echonorin, fixed oil.

Action and uses: The activity of the seeds is due to echinopsine, which

is a tonic remedy. It has strychnine like activity, enhancing the reflux

irritability of spine cord and the tone of skeletal muscles.

Echonopsin in a form of nitrate salt is used during peripheral paralysis,

muscular atrophies, hypotony, atrophy of visual nerve.

Quinolizidine alkoloides

9. Producing plant: Thermopsis lanceolata Thermopsis

Family: Fabaceae Crude drug: Herba Thermopsidis

Semina Thermopsidis Thermopsis herb and seeds

A deciduous perennial that grows to 40cm long. Stems are common,

straight, are branched from the lower side, hairy. Leaves are alternate, 3

segmented, with 2 leaflets. The leaf segments are long, spatulate, with

entire margin, covered with hair especially by the edges. Flowers are

yellow, have a characteristic butterfly like shape. The fruits are pods,

containing beans with two sutures, which open during the dying of the

fruit. Habitat: E. Asia - Siberia to Japan. The crud drug is the herb

collected in the beginning of flowering and the seeds collected when the

fruits are ripe.

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Constituents: The herb contains 2, 5% alkaloids: thermopsin,

homothermopsin, methylcitizin, pachikarpin, anagirin, saponins, tannins,

resins, mucilage. Seeds contain 2-3% alkaloids: citizine, flavonoids,

fixed oil, proteins.

Action and uses: Citizine exhibits ganglionar activity, stimulating the

breathing center, and belongs to respirator analgesics. Preparations of

the herb exhibit expectorant activity, and in high doses they cause

vomiting. Thermopsin stimulates the secretion of mucilage in bronchus,

enhances the contraction of smooth muscles of bronchus, and exhibits

expectorant activity. In high doses it stimulates the vomiting centre

causing vomiting.

The preparation of the herb is used in chronic bronchitis and

pneumonia. “Cititon” and “Tabex” preparations are received from the

seeds. “Cititon” is used for breath’s reflector stop, hard breathing, ect.

“Tabex” is used for the withdrawal syndrome of smoking.

Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids

10. Producing plant: Papaver somniferum Opium poppy

Family: Papaveraceae Crude drug: Fructus Papaveris

Capita Papaveris

50-150 cm in height. The stem and leaves are glaucous. The latter are

about 10 cm in length, entire, sessile and amplexicaul. The margin is

dentate but varies somewhat in the different varieties. The flowers,

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which are borne on a slightly hairy peduncle, are solitary, nodding in the

bud, and have caducous sepals. They have the floral formula K2, C2 +

2, Aoo. G(oo). The unilocular ovary contains numerous ovules attached to

parietal placentas. It bears at its apex a flat disc formed by the union of

the radiating stigmas. The capsule opens by means of small valves,

which are equal in number to the carpels and situated immediately

below the stellate stigma. In addition to numerous garden hybrids, the

following varieties are recognized:

P. somniferum var. glabrum Boiss., cultivated in Turkey; flowers

purplish but sometimes white; capsule subglobular; stigmata, 10-12;

seeds, white to dark violet.

P. somniferum var. album D.C., cultivated in India; flowers and seeds

white; capsules more or less egg-shaped, 4-8 cm diameter, no pores

under the stigma.

P. somniferum var. nigrum D.C., cultivated in Europe for the seeds,

which are slate-coloured and are known as 'maw seeds' (probably a

corruption of Mohnsamen). The leaves and calyx are glabrous, the

flowers violet and the capsules somewhat smaller and more globular

than those of the var. album. Papaver breeding has received some

attention; a morphine-rich strain suitable for mechanical harvesting and a

low-morphine variety for seed production have been described. Other

strains with little alkaloid, and ones with a higher proportion of codeine,

have also been produced. The red or corn poppy, Papaver rhoeas, was

formerly used in pharmacy. The fresh scarlet petals were particularly

used as a colouring matter in the form of syrup. They contain the

anthocyanidin glucoside mecocyanin, an isomer of the cyanin found in

red rose petals. A number of alkaloids are produced (e.g. rhoeadine of

the benzyltetrahydroisoquinoline type); they have no morphine-like

activity.

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OPIUM Opium (Raw Opium) is the latex obtained by incision from the unripe

capsules of Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae) and dried partly by

spontaneous evaporation and partly by artificial heat. It is worked into

irregularly-shaped masses and is known in commerce as Indian opium.

Indian opium is specifically stated because this is now the only legally

available source of the drug. However, a number of countries e.g.

Turkey, former USSR and Yugoslavia and Australia (Tasmania) grow

considerable quantities of the opium poppy for alkaloid extraction and

seed production. Much illegal opium is produced in S.E. Asia. Opium is

intended only as a starting material for the manufacture of galenical

preparations and is not dispensed as such. As a consequence Powdered

Opium, which was formerly official, is no longer described. Opium is

required to contain not less than 10% of morphine and not less than 2.0%

of codeine. The thebaine content is limited to 3%. The plant cultivated in

India under licence is P. somniferum var. album. Sowing takes place in

November and collection from April to June. The incisions are made in

the afternoon with an instrument known as a 'nushtur'. This bears

narrow iron spikes which are drawn down the capsule to produce

several longitudinal cuts. The incision must not penetrate into the interior

of the capsule or latex will be lost. The latex, which is at first white,

rapidly coagulates and turns brown. Early in the morning of the day

following the making of the incisions the partly dried latex is scraped off

with a trowel-like seetooar. Each capsule is cut several times at intervals

of 2 or 3 days.

History. Opium was well known to the ancients. Dioskurides, about AD 77,

distinguishes between the latex of the capsules, opos, and an extract of the

whole plant, mekonion. The use of opium spread from Asia Minor to Persia,

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where opium eating became popular, and from there to India and China.

However, it was not until the second half of the eighteenth century that opium

smoking began to be extensively practised in China and the Far East. Asia Minor has from very early times been an important source of opium

production. In Macedonia cultivation was started as recently as 1865. Persian opium

was imported into England from about 1870 to 1955. Opium was cultivated in India

during the Middle Ages, and the monopoly of the Mogul Government was taken over

first by the East India Company and then by the British Government. Formerly, Indian

opiums, being prepared mainly for smoking, were little esteemed for pharmaceutical

purposes.

Microscopy. Opium examined under the microscope shows

agglomerated latex granules in irregular masses. Other smaller amounts

of characteristic material which arise as a result of the preparation

process are best seen by examining the residue left after water-

extraction of the opium.

Constituents: Opium contains some 30 alkaloids, which are largely

combined with the organic acid meconic acid; the drug also contains

sugars, salts (e.g. sulphates), albuminous substances, colouring matters

and water. Six principal alkaloids are listed in Table. phenanthrene

nucleus whereas those of the papaverine group have a

benzylisoquinoline structure. Some of the less important opium alkaloids

(e.g. protopine and hydrocotarnine) are of different structural types. The

morphine molecule has both a phenolic and an alcoholic hydroxyl group,

and when acetylated forms diacetyl morphine or heroin. Codeine is an

ether of morphine (methylmorphine), and other morphine ethers which

are used medicinally are ethylmorphine and pholcodine.

New alkaloids continue to be isolated from P. somniferum—a number

were recognized during investigations on the biogenesis of morphine

Meconic acid, a dibasic acid, is easily detected either in the free state or

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as a meconate by the formation of a deep red colour on the addition of a

solution of ferric chloride.

Papaveretum BP is a mixture of the hydrochlorides of opium alkaloids

containing 80.0-88.4% anhydrous morphine HC1, 8.3-9.2% papaverine

HC1 and 6.6-7.4% codeine HC1. Well-known preparations of papaveretum

are the trade products Omnopon and Nepenthe which are used mainly for

premedication and as analgesics during and after operations

Action and uses: The alkaloids present in opium in greatest proportion

decrease in narcotic properties in the order morphine, codeine,

noscopine. Opium and morphine are widely used to relieve pain and are

particularly valuable as hypnotics, as, unlike many other hypnotics, they

act mainly on the sensory nerve cells of the cerebrum. Codeine is a

milder sedative than morphine and is useful for allaying coughing. Both

morphine and codeine decrease metabolism, and the latter, particularly

before the introduction of insulin, was used for the treatment of dia-

betes. Opium, while closely resembling morphine, exerts its action more

slowly and is therefore preferable in many cases (e.g. in the treatment

of diarrhoea). Opium is also used as a diaphoretic. The habitual use of

codeine may, in some individuals, produce constipation Use of morphine-free species of Papaver. The increasing abuse of

opiates has stimulated the search for raw materials other than Papaver

somniferum which would meet the requirements of the pharmaceutical

industry. Thus, plants containing nonaddictive thebaine as principal

alkaloid could be used for the manufacture of codeine, naloxone (a nar-

cotic antagonist prescribed for babies of heroin addicts) and etorphine (a

'Bentley' compound used for sedating large wild animals).

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TETRAHYDROISOQUINOLINE MONOTERPENOID ALKALOIDS

11. Producing plant: Cephaelis Ipecacuanha

Ipecacuanha

Family: Rubiaceae

Crude drug: Radix et rhizoma Ipecacuanhae

Ipecacuanha Root

Ipecacuanha (Ipecacuanha Root) is the dried root or rhizome and root of

Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Rubiaceae). It should contain a minimum of 2%

of ether-soluble alkaloids.

C. ipecacuanha is a shrub 20-40 cm high found over a large area in

Brazil, particularly in the moist and shady forests of Matto Grosso and

Minas Geraes; plantations have been established in the Matto Grosso

area. It is cultivated to some extent in Malaya, Burma and the Darjeeling

Hills of West Bengal. C. acuminata is exported from Colombia,

Nicaragua and Costa Rica; Costa Rica is at present the principal source

of the drug. However India is now in full production of Costa Rican type root

which is of high quality (in excess of 3.5% total alkaloid) and extremely

competitive in price; extracts of the Indian root are now being produced

and exported. In the Matto Grosso district of Brazil the drug is collected

from wild plants. The collector, using a pointed stick, levers the plant from

the ground and, having removed most of the roots, replaces it in the

ground, where it usually lives to produce further crops. The roots are dried

in the sun or by fires. Other South American ipecacuanhas are collected in

a similar way.

Macroscopical characters. The underground portion consists of thin,

horizontal rhizomes from the lower surface of which roots are given off.

Some of the latter remain thin, while others develop an abnormally thick

bark and become annulated.

The Matto Grosso drug occurs in tortuous pieces up to 15 cm long and

6 mm diameter, but it is usually smaller. The colour of the outer surface

varies from a deep brick-red to a very dark brown, the colour being very

largely dependent on the type of soil in which the plant has been grown.

Most of the roots are more or less annulated externally, and some have

a portion of the rhizome attached (Fig. 6. A), while separate portions of

rhizome and non-annulated roots are also found. Fig. 6 Ipecacuanha. A, Cephaelis ipecacuanha roots with rhizome; B, C.

acuminata roots with rhizome (both xl ]; C, transverse section of root; D, transverse section of rhizome (both x4); E, cork cells in surface view; F, starch

granules (mounted in cold lactophenol); G, idioblast containing calcium oxalate crystals; H, elements from Schultze maceration of wood (all x200). a\, Complete annulation of C. ipecacuanha; 02, incomplete annulation of C. acuminata; ck, cork; e, endodermis; f, fibrous cell; id, idioblast containing calcium oxalate; p, pith; pd, phelloderm; ph, phloem; rh, rhizome; tr.v, tracheid

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vessel; xy, xylem; xy.p, xylem parenchyma.

The root breaks with a short fracture

and shows a thick greyish bark and a small, dense wood, but no pith. The

rhizomes, on the other hand, have a much thinner bark and a definite pith

(Fig. 6 C, D). The drug has little odour, but is irritating and sternutatory

when in fine powder, and has a bitter taste.

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Ipecacuanha stems, although containing the same alkaloids as the

roots, usually contain them in smaller proportion. An excessive amount of

stem must, therefore, be regarded as an adulteration.

Microscopical characters. A transverse section of the root (Fig. 6 C)

shows a thin, brown cork, the cells of which contain brown, granular material.

Within this is a wide secondary cortex (phelloderm), the cells of which are

parenchymatous and contain starch, usually in compound grains with from

two to eight components, or raphides of calcium oxalate. Constituents: Ipecacuanha contains the alkaloids emetine, psychotrine,

psychotrine methylether and emetamine. Action and uses: Ipecacuanha is used as an expectorant and emetic

and in the treatment of amoebic dysentery. Emetine has a more

expectorant and less emetic action than cephaeline, a fact that accounts

for the preference shown for the Brazilian drug. In the treatment of

amoebic dysentery emetine hydrochloride is frequently given by injection,

and emetine and bismuth iodide by mouth. Psychotrine and its O-methyl

ether are selective inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus and their

study could lead to the development of therapeutically useful agents.

Indole alkoloids Ergot alkoloids

12. Producing plant: a Claviceps purpureErgot

Family: Clavicipitaceae Crude drug: Secale cornutum

Sclerotiums of Ergot

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Ergot (Ergot of of a fungus, Claviceps pur-Rye) is the dried sclerotium

purea Tulasne (Clavicipitaceae), arising in the ovary of the rye.

Controlled field cultivation on rye is the main source of the crude drug.

The most important producers are Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Switzerland

and former Yugoslavia. With modern farming the supply of 'natural' ergot is

decreasing and fields of rye are devoted to its cultivation. Different selected

strains of C. purpurea are used for the production of the alkaloids

ergotamine, ergocristine, or ergocornine and ergokryptine. The fungus C.

purpurea and other species such as C. microcephala Wallr., C. nigricans

Tul. and C. pas-pali produce ergots on many members of the Gramineae

(including the genera Triticum, Avena, Festuca, Poa, Lolium, Molinia

and Nardus) and Cyperaceae (including the genera Scirpus and

Ampelodesma). Many of these ergots appear to be extremely toxic and to

produce typical ergotism. In the case of the rye, the plant becomes

infected in the spring or early summer by the ascospores of the fungus.

These are carried by the wind or by insects to the base of the young

ovary, where in damp weather they find sufficient moisture to germinate,

forming filamentous hyphae which enter the wall of the ovary by enzyme

action and form a soft, white mass over its surface. During this stage the

sphacelia, as the white mass is called, produces a yellowish, reducing

saccharine secretion, 'honeydew'. At the same time chains of small oval

conidiospores are abstricted from the ends of some of the hyphae. The

honeydew attracts ants, weevils and other insects, which carry the

conidiospores to other plants and so spread the disease.

During the sphacelia stage the hyphae only penetrate the outer part of

the ovary, but as development proceeds they penetrate deeper and

deeper, feeding on the ovarian tissue and finally replacing it by a compact

tissue (pseudoparenchyma), which forms the sclerotium or resting stage

of the fungus. The sclerotium increases in size during the summer and

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projects, bearing the sphacelial remains at its apex, from the ear of the

rye.

Ergot is either collected by hand or separated from the rye by special

machines, that which is collected before the rye harvest being said to be

the more active. Any ergot which is not collected falls to the ground and in

the following spring puts out a number of stalked projections known as

stromata. These have globular heads in the surface of which are a large

number of flask-shaped pockets called perithecia. Each perithecium

contains several sacs or asci, each of which contain eight of the thread-like

ascospores, which, as previously mentioned, infect the young rye ovaries in

the spring.

History. There is considerable doubt as to whether ergot and ergotism were known

to the ancients, and it is impossible to say whether the 'ignis sacer' of the Romans

referred to ergotism. The outbreaks of 'ignis St Antonii', or St Antony's fire, which

occurred during the Middle Ages, do, however, appear to have been of ergot origin.

Outbreaks of ergotism occurred in Germany in 1581, 1587 and 1596 and at intervals

in Europe until recent years.

World-wide, sporadic reports of ergot poisoning still appear in the literature and

in 1992 an analysis of rye flour sold in Canada showed that low-level

contamination by the fungus still exists.

The obstetric use of ergot was known in the sixteenth century, but the drug

was not widely employed until the nineteenth century.

Macroscopical characters. The drug consists almost entirely of

sclerotia, the amount of other organic matter being generally limited to not

more than 1%. Each sclerotium is about 1.0-4 cm long and 2-7 mm

broad; fusiform in shape and usually slightly curved. The outer surface,

which is of a dark, violet-black colour, is often longitudinally furrowed and

may bear small transverse cracks. Ergot breaks with a short fracture and

112

shows within the thin, dark outer layer a whitish or pinkish-white central

zone of pseudoparenchyma in which darker lines radiating from the

centre may be visible. Ergot has a characteristic odour and an

unpleasant taste.

Powdered ergot when treated with sodium hydroxide solution develops a

strong odour of trimethylamine. In filtered ultraviolet light it has a strong

reddish colour by means of which its presence in flour may be detected.

Constituents: The ergot alkaloids (ergolines) can be divided into two

classes: (1) the clavine-type alkaloids, which are derivatives of 6,8-

dimethylergoline and have been extensively studied in cultures of the

mycelium of the ergot fungus; and (2) the lysergic acid derivatives, which

are peptide alkaloids. It is the latter class that contains the pharma-

cologically active alkaloids that characterize the ergot sclerotium (ergot).

Each active alkaloid occurs with an inactive isomer involving isolysergic

acid. Among the less important constituents of ergot may be mentioned

histamine, tyramine and other amines and amino acids; acetylcholine;

colouring matters; sterols (ergosterol and fungisterol); and about 30% fat.

The cell walls are chitinous.

Action and uses: Although whole ergot preparations were traditionally

used in labour to assist delivery and to reduce post-partum haemorrhage,

ergot itself has been largely replaced in the pharmacopoeias by the isolated

alkaloids. Only ergometrine produces an oxytocic (literally 'quick delivery')

effect, ergotoxine and ergotamine having quite a different action.

Ergometrine is soluble in water or in dilute alcohol. It is often known, par-

ticularly in the USA, as ergonovine. Ergotamine and the semisynthetic

dihydroergotamine salts are employed as specific analgesics for the treat-

ment of migraine. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25), prepared by partial

synthesis from lysergic acid, is a potent specific psychotomimetic

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114

13. Producing plant: Rauwolfia serpentina

Rauvolfia

Family: Apocynaceae

Crude drug: Rhizoma et radix Rauwolfiae

Rauvolfia rhizomes and roots

Rauwolfia consists of the dried rhizome and roots of Rauwolfia ser-

pentina (Rauvolfia serpentina), Apocynaceae, a small shrub found in

India, Pakistan, Burma, Thailand and Java. The geographical source

appears to influence the alkaloidal content, and manufacturers tend to

prefer drug obtained from India or Pakistan. Reserpine, the most

important constituent, is contained in many other species of Rauwolfia. History. Although used in India from time immemorial, it was not until 1942 that

favourable reports were published of the use of the drug in powdered form. Since

then research workers have studied the pharmacognosy, chemistry,

pharmacology and clinical uses of many species of Rauwolfia and of the

alkaloids obtained from them. The drug is collected mainly from wild plants, but cultivation of the drug

will probably increase as wild plants become more scarce; in parts of India

collectors are required to leave some root from each plant in the ground for

future growth. Nevertheless, and coupled with the low seed viability, the

plant is regarded as an endangered species in India.

Macroscopical characters: It usually occurs in cylindrical or slightly

tapering, tortuous pieces about 2-10 cm long and 5-22 mm in diameter.

The roots are rarely branched and rootlets, 0.5-1 mm in diameter, are

rare. Pieces of rhizome closely resemble the root but may be identified

by a small central pith; they occasionally have attached to them small

pieces of aerial stem (Fig 7).

The outer surface is greyish-yellow, light brown or brown with slight

wrinkles (young pieces) or longitudinal ridges (older pieces); occasional

circular scars of rootlets. In this species the bark exfoliates readily,

particularly in the older pieces, and may leave patches of exposed wood.

The drug breaks readily with a short fracture. The smoothed transverse

surface shows a narrow, yellowish-brown bark and a dense pale yellow

wood, which occupies about three-quarters of the diameter. Both bark

and wood contain abundant starch. The recently dried drug has a slight

odour which seems to decrease with age. Taste, bitter.

Constituents: Rauwolfia contains at least 30 alkaloids, which total

some 0.7-2.4%. Other substances present include phytosterols, fatty

acids, unsaturated alcohols and sugars.

Fig 7 Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria roots. A, Root of R. serpentina (xl); a, transverse section (TS) of same (xl); B, root of R. vomitoria, xl; b, TS of same (xl); C, diagrammatic TS of R. serpentina root (xl 5); D, diagrammatic TS of R. vomitoria root (xl 5); E, TS of cork of R. serpentina; F, TS of the secondary wood of R. serpentina; G, fibres and vessel of R. serpentina, isolated by maceration; H, TS of cork of R. vomitoria; I, TS of the secondary wood of R. vomitoria, E, F, G, H and I, (all xl 50]. ck, cork; f, fibre; g.r, growth ring; m.r, medullary ray; pd, phelloderm; ph, phloem; r, resinous material; s, starch; sc, group of sclereids; v, wood vessel; xy, xylem (J. D. Kulkarni, partly after T. E. Wall is and S. Rohatgi [R. serpentina) and W. C. Evans [R. vomitoria))

115

116

In 1931 Siddiqui and Siddiqui isolated ajmaline (rauwolfine), ajmalinine.

ajmalicine, serpentine and serpentinine. The chief therapeutically

important alkaloids are reserpine.

Standardization. An assay for total alkaloids is not a true measure of

therapeutic activity, since only some of the alkaloids have the desired

pharmacological action. The BPC 1988 and USP/NF1995 determine the

reserpine-like alkaloids by utilizing the colour reaction between an acid

solution of reserpine (and rescinnamine) and sodium nitrite solution.

An estimated 3500 kg of ajmalicine is isolated annually from either

Rauwolfia or Catharanthus spp. by pharmaceutical industries for the

treatment of circulatory diseases. Conflicting reports on the possible

involvement of the rauwolfia alkaloids in breast cancer have engendered

a natural hesitation in their use. A report in the Lancet (1976) suggested

that the alkaloids do not initiate the carcinogenic process but that they

promote breast cancer from previously initiated cells.

Action and uses: Rauwolfia preparations and reserpine are used in

the management of essential hypertension and in certain neuropsychiatric

disorders. Ajmaline, which has pharmacological properties similar to

those of quinidine, is marketed in Japan for the treatment of cardiac

arrhythmias.

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Purine alkaloids

14. Producing plant: Theobroma cacao

Cocoa

Family: Sterculiaceae

Crude drug: Semen Cacao

Cocoa seeds

Cocoa seeds {Cocoa Beans) are obtained from Theobroma cacao

(Sterculiaceae), a tree usually 4—6 m high. Cocoa is produced in South

America (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela and Guiana), Central

America, the West Indies, West Africa (Nigeria and Ghana), Ceylon and

Java.

History. Cocoa has long been used in Mexico and was known to Columbus and Cortez.

Cocoa butter was prepared as early as 1695.

Cocoa fruits are 15-25 cm long and are borne on the trunk as well as on

the branches. Cocoa plantations are very vulnerable to pest attack and

recently modern pheromone technology has been used to control the

cocoa pod borer, also known as the cocoa moth (Conopomorpha

cramerella), the most serious pest of the crop in S.E. Asia. Collection

continues throughout the year, but the largest quantities are obtained in

the spring and autumn. The fruits have a thick, coriaceous rind and

whitish pulp in which 40-50 seeds are embedded. In different countries

the seeds are prepared in different ways, but the following may be taken

as typical: the fruits are opened and the seeds, embedded in the whole

pulp or roughly separated from it, are allowed to ferment. Fermentation

occurs in tubs, boxes or cavities in the earth; the process lasts 3-9 days,

and the temperature is not allowed to rise above 60°C. In Jamaica

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fermentation is allowed to proceed for 3 days at a temperature of 30-

43°C. During this process a liquid drains from the seeds, which change in

colour from white or red to purple, and also acquire a different odour and

taste. After fermentation the seeds may or may not be washed. They are

then roasted at 100-140°C when they lose water and acetic acid and

acquire their characteristic odour and taste. Roasting facilitates removal

of the testa. Plain or bitter chocolate is a mixture of ground cocoa nibs

with sucrose, cocoa butter and flavouring. Milk chocolate contains in addi-

tion milk powder.

Macroscopical characters. Cocoa seeds are flattened ovoid in shape.

2-3 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. The thin testa is easily removed from pre-

pared cocoa beans, but is difficult to remove from those that have not

been fermented and roasted. The embryo is surrounded by a thin mem-

brane of endosperm. The cotyledons form the greater part of the kernel

and are planoconvex and irregularly folded. Each shows on its plane

face three large furrows, which account for the readiness with which the

kernel breaks into angular fragments. Both testa and kernel are of a red-

dish-brown colour, which varies, however, in different commercial varieties

and depends on the formation of 'cacao-red* during processing.

Constituents: Cocoa kernels contain 0.9-3.0% of theobromine and the

husks contain 0.19-2.98% of this alkaloid. The seeds also contain 0.05-

0.36% caffeine, cocoa fat or butter (nibs 45-53%. husk 4-8%). During

the fermentation and roasting, much of the theobromine originally present

in the kernel passes into the husk. The constituents other than fat and

theobromine are extremely complex and have been intensely studied in

recent years. The fresh seeds contain about 5-10% of water-soluble

polyphenols (epicatechol. leucoanthocyanins and anthocyanins) which

are largely decomposed during processing, forming the coloured complex

formerly known as 'cocoa-red'. Condensed tannins are also present, and

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some 84 different volatile compounds, including glucosinolates, are

responsible for the aroma

Theobromine is produced on the commercial scale from cocoa husks.

The process consists of decocting the husks with water, filtering, precip-

itating "tannin' with lead acetate, filtering, removing excess of lead and

evaporating to dryness. Theobromine is extracted from the residue by

means of alcohol and purified by recrystallization from water.

Action and uses: Cocoa has nutritive, stimulant and diuretic properties.

Theobromine is used as a diuretic. It has less action on the central nerv-

ous system than caffeine but is more diuretic. In its isomer, theophylline,

the diuretic effect is even more marked. Oil of theobroma is used in

pharmacy chiefly as a suppository base.

Allied drugs. Kola seeds (bissy or gooroo nuts). Commercial kola

consists of the dried cotyledons of the seeds of various species of Cola

(Sterculiaceae), trees found in West Africa, the West Indies, Brazil and

Java. The colour of fresh seeds varies, those of C. acuminata being white

or crimson, C. astrophora red, C. alba white and C. vera (C. niti-da) (which

is possibly a hybrid of the two latter species) either red or white. The dried

cotyledons are usually of a dull, reddish-brown colour and more or less

broken. They are usually graded as 'halves' and 'quarters'. The whole

seeds are 2-5 cm long, and in the seeds usually imported there are two

cotyledons. Odourless; taste, slightly astringent.

Kola seeds contain caffeine (1-2.5%) and a little theobromine, which

appear to be partly in the free state and partly combined. Kola also

contains about 5-10% of tannoids (the 'kolatin' of earlier workers),

particularly catechol and epicatechol. During preparation, oxidation and

polymerization of these produces the insoluble phlobaphene 'kola-red'. It

has been suggested.

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Coffee consists of the seeds of Coffea arabica and other species of

Coffea (Rubiaceae). It contains caffeine (1-2%), tannin and chloro-genic

(caffeotannic) acid, fat, sugars and pentosans.

Prepared coffee is the kernel of the dried ripe seeds of various

species, including C. arabica (Arabica coffee), C. liberica and C.

canephora (Robusta coffee) (Rubiaceae), deprived of most of the seed

coat and roasted. The kernels are dark brown, hard and brittle, elliptical or

planoconvex and about 1.0 cm long. Coffee has a characteristic odour

and taste. A decoction is used as a flavouring agent in Caffeine Iodide

Elixir. Prepared coffee contains about 1-2% of caffeine, probably

combined with chlorogenic acid and potassium. Other constituents

include nicotinic acid, fixed oil and carbohydrates caramelized during

roasting.

C. arabica, both as whole plants and as cell suspension cultures, has

been considerably employed to study purine alkaloid variations and

biosynthesis (q.v.).

Tea consists of the prepared leaves of Camellia sinensis (Thea sinensis)

(Theaceae), a shrub cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, East Africa,

Mauritius, China and Japan. The leaves contain thease, an enzymic

mixture containing an oxidase, which partly converts the phlobatannin into

phlobaphene. This oxidase may be destroyed by steaming for 30 s. Tea

contains 1-5% of caffeine and 10-24% of tannin; also small quantities of

theobromine, theophylline and volatile oil. The alkaloid content of the

leaves is very much dependent on age and season.

Callus and root suspension cultures of C. sinensis have been shown to

accumulate caffeine and theobromine .

The possible beneficial effects of drinking black or green tea have

received considerable coverage in the medical and national press. An

infusion of tea contains in addition to caffeine a mixture of polyphenols

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including epigallocatechin-3-gallate possessing strong antioxidant and

free-radical scavenging properties. Possible beneficial effects are:

inhibition of angiogenesis, a process involving the growth of blood

vessels necessary for tumour growth and metastasis; the treatment of

genetic haemochromatosis by the inhibition of absorption of iron by

tannates and other ligands; treatment of blindness caused by diabetes

(an angiogenic related condition); and a lowering of the risk of ischemic

heart disease in older men.

TERPENOID ALKALODS

15. Producing plant: Aconitum napellus

Wolfsbane

Family: Ranunculaceae

Crude drug: Radix Aconiti

Wolfsbane root

Aconite (Wolfsbane Root) consists of the dried roots of Aconitum

napellus (Ranunculaceae), collected from wild or cultivated plants. A.

napellus is a polymorphic aggregate extending from Western Europe to

the Himalayas. Cultivated forms have deeper coloured flowers, and

darker green and less narrowly divided leaves than the wild plants.

Macroscopical characters. Aconite differs in appearance according to

the season of collection. Most Continental aconite is collected from plants

at the flowering stage and therefore consists mainly of parent roots. The

parent roots bear the remains of aerial stems and are more shrivelled than

the daughter roots, which bear large, apical buds. Rootlets may be

present but these are usually broken off. The odour is usually slight but

samples vary in this respect. Taste at first slightly sweet, followed by tingling

and numbness (taste with care; long chewing may be painful). Transverse

sections cut about one-third of the length from the crown show; a stellate

cambium with five to eight angles. The amount of lignified tissues is small,

the greater part of the root consisting of starch-containing parenchyma

of the pith and secondary phloem. Constituents: Aconite contains terpene ester alkaloids, of which the

most important is aconitine. Aconite also contains other alkaloids such

as mesaconitine, hypaconitine, neopelline, napelline and neoline. The

percentage of total alkaloid in the drug is about 0.3-1.2%. About 30% of

the total is ether-soluble aconitine. In view of the different groups of

alkaloids reported by workers over the years, and the large variation in

aconitine contents of roots, it seems that in all probability there is

considerable chemical variation between varieties of A. napellus

Aconine Benzoytaconine

Aconitine

Japanese aconite

Japanese aconite was formerly an article of European commerce. The

roots are shorter and plumper than the European drug and dark grey or

brownish in colour. Aconitum japonicum possesses cardiotonic properties

122

123

and the principal alkaloid associated with this activity is higenamine which is

active at about the same dosage levels as the Digitalis glycosides. The

only other cardioactive alkaloid obtained is coryneine chloride (dopamine

methochloride) from A. carmichaelii. The reported yield of both alkaloids

was small. These species are important in Oriental medicine and have

clinical usage. Action and uses: Aconite is a very potent and quick-acting poison which

is now rarely used internally except in homeopathic doses. About a

teaspoonful of some Aconitum preparations can kill an adult, much less

can be fatal to a child. Aconitine causes cardiac arrest and respiratory

failure in a short time after being taken internally. The drug is used for

the preparation of an antineuralgic liniment. In recent years, Aconitum’s

primary use has been as a fact –acting analgesic for relieving pain,

especially pain that is associated with rheumatism and neuralgia. Caution! Under co curcumstasesshould Aconitum be collected, prepared or used for self-

medication. The entire plant is extremely poisonous and can kill. Contact with the skin may

cause allergic reactions and even poisoning.

STEROIDAL ALKALODS

16. Producing plant: Veratrum album Hellebore white Family: Liliaceae Crude drug: Rhizome cum radicibus Veratri Hellebore rhizomes and roots American veratrum (Green Hellebore), Veratrum viride (Liliaceae), and

European veratrum (White Hellebore), V. album, are very similar

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perennial herbs, whose rhizomes and roots are almost indistinguishable

either macroscopically or microscopically. Some alkaloidal constituents

are common to both species. The American drug is collected in the

eastern parts of Canada and the USA and white hellebore in central and

southern Europe. History. The North American Indians were aware of the therapeutic activity of

American hellebore and it was employed by the early European settlers. In

Europe the closely allied drug obtained from V. album had long been used. Until

about 1950 veratrums, except as insecticides, were being little used. Since then

they have been the subject of much research and are now employed in the

treatment of hypertension.

The rhizome is dug up in the autumn, often sliced longitudinally into

halves or quarters to facilitate drying, and sometimes deprived of many

of the roots.

Macroscopieal characters. The rhizome, if entire, is more or less

conical and 3-8 cm long and 2-3.5 cm wide; externally brownish-grey.

The roots, if present, are numerous and almost completely cover the

rhizome. Entire roots are up to 8 cm long and 4 mm diameter, light brown

to light orange, and usually much wrinkled (for transverse section, see

Fig. 42.8H). Commercial American veratrum is more frequently sliced

than is the drug from V. album, and more of the roots remain attached to

the rhizome. Odourless, but sternutatory; taste, bitter and acrid.

Constituents: There are two distinct chemical groups of veratrum

steroidal alkaloids and these are now referred to as the jerveratrum and

ceveratrum groups.

Jerveratrum alkaloids contain only 1-3 oxygen atoms and occur in the

plant as free alkamines and also combined, as glucosides, with one

molecule of D-glucose. Examples are pseudojervine derived from

jervine and veratrosine derived from veratramine.

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Ceveratrum alkaloids are highly hyroxylated compounds with 7-9

oxygen atoms. They usually occur in the plant esterified with two or more

various acids but are also found unconjugated. It is these ester alkaloids

that are responsible for the hypotensive activity of veratrum; examples are

the esters of germine, protoverine and veracevine.

Action and uses: American veratrum is used for the preparation of

Veriloid, a mixture of the hypotensive alkaloids. European veratrum is

used for the preparation of the protoveratrines. Both drugs, and the

closely-related cevadilla seeds (Schoenocaulon officinale), are used as

insecticides.

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MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING POLISACCHARIDES

1. What kind of polysaccharides is used in medicine and for what

purpose?

2. What is the role of gums and mucilage’s in the plant life? 3. Mention the specificity of the collection, drying and storing of

mucilage containing plans. 4. How can we prove the presence of mucilage in the plant? 5. Mention the characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological action of Linum usitatissimum. 6. Mention the characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological content of Althea officinalis. 7. Mention the characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological content of Plantago species. 8. Mention the characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological content of Tussilago farfara. 9. Mention the characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological content of Laminaria. 10. Give the Latin names of the medical plants containing mucilage.

127

1. Producing plant: Althea officinalis

Althaea armeniaca

Marshmellow officinal

Marshmellow Armenian

Family: Malvaceae

Crude drug: Radices Altheae

Marshmellow roots

Marshmallow root is derived from Althaea officinalis (Malvaceae), a

perennial herb which is found wild in moist situations in Europe. In general

appearance it closely resembles the common hollyhock, Althaea rosea. The

plant has a woody rootstock from which arise numerous roots up to 30 cm in

length. The drug is chiefly collected on the Continent from cultivated plants

at least 2 years old. The roots are dug up in the autumn, scraped free from

cork and dried, either entire or after slicing. The drug occurs in whitish,

fibrous pieces about 15-20 cm long and 1-2 cm in diameter, or in small

transverse slices. Odour, slight; taste, sweetish and mucilaginous. A

transverse section shows a bark about 1-2 mm thick which is separated by

a greyish, sinuate cambium from the white, radiate wood. The section

shows numerous mucilage cells, the contents of which are coloured a deep

yellow by a solution of sodium hydroxide.

Marshmallow root contains about 10% of mucilage, the amount being

season-dependent; it contains a polysaccharide giving on hydrolysis galac-

128

tose, rhamnose, galacturonic acid and glucuronic acid. Starch, pectin and

sugars, and about 2% of asparagine are also present.

Constituents: All parts of the marshmallow plant contain varying

amounts of mucilage (the highest concentration is in the roots) and

pectin; these substances are primarily responsible for the herb’s

soothing properties in the digestive tract. The root is rich in sugars as

well. Marshmallow also contains compounds that are antiseptic and

anti-inflammatory and that mildly stimulate the immune system. Action and uses: Marshmallow root, and also the leaves with flowers,

is used as demulcents, particularly for irritable coughs and throat and

gastric inflammation. Marshmallow is recommended for relieving

asthma, bronchitis, colds and sore throat, cough, inflamed gums,

stomach ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease, and as an aid for weight

loss. Marshmallow syrup is especially recommended for dry coughs.

2. Producing plant: Linum usitatissimum

Flax

Family: Linaceae

Crude drug: Semina Lini

Flax seeds

A slender annual herb, flax has a solitary, erect stem that branches at

the top and narrow, spear-shaped, gray-green leaves. Simple five-

petaled pale blue flowers are followed by seed capsules that contain

small, shiny, flattened brown 10 seeds. The seeds are ovate, flattened

129

and obliquely pointed at one end; about 4-6 mm long and 2-2.5 mm

broad. The testa is brown, glossy and finely pitted.

Though to be a native of Asia, flax is cultivated worldwide. The Romans

were probably responsible for spreading flax as a crop plant throughout

Europe. Flax is a multipurpose herb. Its slender stalks are a source of

strong, supple fibers used for countless centuries to make rope, nets,

sacks, bowstrings, sails and linen fabric. Linseed oil from the crushed

seeds has long been used in paints and was once the essential

ingredient in linoleum. The seeds have been baked into breads since

ancient Greece and Roman.

Seeds are collected when they are ripe. Odourless; taste, mucilaginous

and oily.

Constituents: The outer layer of the seed is rich in polysaccharides,

while the inner part of the seed is rich in fatty oil. Flax seeds also

contain lignans, proteins. Linseed contains about 30-40% of fixed oil,

6% of mucilage, 25% of protein and small quantities of the cyanogenetic

glucosides linamarin and lotaustralin. Other constituents arc

phenylpropanoid glycosides, flavonoids, the lignan (-)-pinoresinol and

the cancer chemoprotective mammalian lignan precursor secoisolarici-

resinol diglucoside. Fresh seeds of flax contain the glycoside

linamarine, during the breakdown of which HCN appears, which can

cause intoxication in great doses, that’s why it is desirable to use seeds

of flax in the meal after roasting them.

Cell cultures of Linum album are able to synthesize and accumulate

the lignans podophyilotoxin and 5-methylpodophyllotoxin.

Flax seed oil contains large amount of an omega-3 fatty acid known an

alpha-linoleic acid. It is important to mention that flax seeds contain 100

to 800 times the amount found in most other plant foods.

130

Linseed oil. The extraction of linseed oil is one of hot expression of a

linseed meal and the press is adjusted to leave sufficient oil in the cake

to make it suitable as a cattle food.

Linseed oil of is a yellowish-brown drying oil with a characteristic

odour and bland taste: much commercial oil has a marked odour and

acrid taste. On exposure to air it gradually thickens and forms a hard

varnish. It has a high iodine value as it contains considerable quantities

of the glycosides of unsaturated acids. Analyses show linolenic acid,

C17H29COOH (36-50%), linoleic acid oleic acid together with some

saturated acids—myristic, stearic and palmitic (5-11%).

Action and uses: In modern medicine, flax is recommended as a safe,

gentle laxative for chronic constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, and

diverticulitis. The herb is used to treat coughs, sore throats, bronchitis,

emphysema, gastric disorders. Flaxseed oil is used to decrease the

blood cholesterol level fighting atherosclerosis. Lignans of the flaxseed

have been shown to reduce the concentration in the blood steam of

certain forms of estrogen that promote tumor growth in endometrial and

breast cancer.

Crushed linseed is used in the form of a poultice and whole seeds are

employed to make demulcent preparations. The oil is also used in

liniments, and research has suggested that hydrolysed linseed oil has

potentially useful antibacterial properties as a topical preparation in that

it is effective against Staphylococcus aureus strains resistant to

antibiotics. Linseed cake is a valuable cattle food.

131

3. Producing plant: Plantago major

Plantago media

Plantago lanceolata

Plantain

Family: Plantaginaceae

Crude drug: Folia Plantaginis

Plantain leaves For the pharmaceutical production Plantago major is the main raw

material, a biannual plant with a short, vertical rhizome and numerous

roots and elliptic leaves in rosettes. Small, light brown flowers bloom at

the tips of the stem. The fruit is a capsule with 8 to 13 seeds. Leaves

are elliptic, with whole margins, light green, 24cm long, 3 to 11cm wide.

They have no odour, taste is bitter. It is native to Europe and Asia. The

leaves are collected during flowering.

Constituents: Leaves contain mucilage, glycoside aucubin, tannins

and iridoids, carotene, ascorbinic acid, vitamin K, flavonoids.

Action and uses: Leaves are used as anti-inflammatory, expectorant.

“Plantaglucide” preparation is received from the leaves, which has

antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory action. “Plantaglucide” is used during

hypoacidic gastritis, stomach and duodenal ulcers with normal or

decreased acidity. Fresh leaves and the whole herb are used to receive

the “juice of plantain”, which is used during anacid gastritis and chronic

colitis.

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4. Producing plant: Plantago psyllium

Psyllium

Family: Plantaginaceae

Crude drug: Semen psyllii

Psyllium seeds

Psyllium is a small herbaceous annual with long and strait stalks that

shoot up about 30-40cm, ending in clusters of many small white

flowers. Flowers give way to seed capsules in about 60 days. The ripe,

dark to bright brown, shiny, elliptical to ovate seeds are 2-3mm long.

The seeds are narrower and somewhat smaller than plantain seeds. An

essential characteristic of high-quality material is a high swelling factor.

Psyllium likes sandy soil and dry, sunny weather. It is native to India,

Iran, and grows throughout the Mediterranean region, and in Europe,

India, Pakistan, North Africa, Iran and western Asia.

Constituents: The herb contains mucilage, carotene, flavonoids,

tannins. The seeds contain glycoside aucubin, mucilage, proteins, and

fixed oil.

Action and uses: The fresh herb is used to prepare the “juice of

plantain” which is used during anacid gastritis and chronic colitis. Seeds

are used as a treatment for irritable bowel syndrome, hemorrhoids,

inflammatory bowel disease, high cholesterol, obesity. Seeds of

Plantago psyllium act as bulk laxatives which help in maintaining a

regular bowel movement.

133

5. Producing plant: Tussilago Farfara

Coltsfoot

Family: Asteraceae

Crude drug: Folia Farfarae

Coltsfoot leaves

A fast growing deciduous perennial is common to Europe, grows in

damp places. The hermaphrodite flower appears in spring before the

leaves. The leaves are hoof-shaped, with angular teeth on the margins,

green above and coated with matted, long white hairs on the lower

surface. The leaves are harvested in June and early July. The flowers

are bright yellow, with a characteristic scaly pedicle. Plants have an

extensive root system and are used to stabilize banks. A very easily

grown plant.

Constituents: The leaves are rich in mucilage up to 10%, which on

hydrolysis yields a number of sugars and uronic acids, iridoids, organic

acids, carotene, saponins, β-cytosterines. The plant contains traces of

liver-affecting pyrrolizidine alkaloids and is potentially toxic in large

doses. These alkaloids have not proved toxic at low dosages in tests

and there is no suggestion that this plant should not be used

medicinally.

Action and uses: An effective demulcent and expectorant herb,

coltsfoot is one of the most popular European remedies for the

treatment of a wide range of chest complaints. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids

have a toxic effect upon the liver, but are largely destroyed when the

plant is boiled to make a decoction. The leaves should not be used for

more than 4 - 6 weeks at a time, the herb should not be taken whilst

pregnant or breast-feeding and it should not be given to children under

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the age of six. The plant is antitussive, astringent, demulcent, emollient,

expectorant, stimulant and tonic. It is widely used in the treatment of

coughs and respiratory problems. The plant is of particular use in the

treatment of chronic emphysema and silicosis, helping to relieve the

persistent cough associated with these conditions. Coltsfoot is

particularly effective when used in combination with liquorice

(Glycyrrhiza species), thyme (Thymus vulgaris).

6. Producing plant: Laminaria digitata

Kelp

Family: Laminariaceae

Crude drug: Thalii Laminariae

Kelp blade Kelp is common, brown marine alga. It grows attached rocky substrates

with dome shaped cluster of root-like structures know as holdfasts. The

smooth and flexible stem (stipe) gives rise to a broad, leathery frond

(blade) that is divided into ribbon-like segments.

Laminaria digitata occurs in cold coastal waters along rocky shorelines

in the Northern Atlantic Ocean in the lower inter tidal to sub tidal zone.

Closely related species, such as Laminaria japonica, grow in similar

habitats along northern Pacific ocean. Most kelp is mechanically

harvested using boat-mounted devices to pull the algae up from the

seabed. Blades are spread on screens to dry. Dried kelp is used in

many herbal preparations.

Constituents: Kelp is a good source of folic acid (vitamin B) as well as

several other vitamins (B1, B2, B12, A, C); minerals such as potassium,

magnesium, calcium, iron, iodine. Kelp contains all the essential amino

acids necessary in human diet, making it a valuable source of protein

135

(about 9 percent weight). It is also a source of a fine, very sweet sugar

known as mannitol.

Action and uses: In modern medicine kelp is often incorporated into

nutritional supplements as a source of vitamins, minerals and a rich

source of iodine. Kelp containing preparations are often suggested for

the treatment of high blood pressure, thyroid hormone deficiencies,

arthritis, and to promote weight loss. It decreases the level of blood

cholesterol. The preparations of kelp are also used during chronic and

atonic constipations as a mild laxative, during colitis, enterocolitis.

Allied drugs: Cetraria or Iceland moss, Cetraria islandica

(Parmeliaceae), is a foliaceous lichen growing amidst moss and grass in

central Europe, Siberia and North America, and on the lower mountain

slopes of central Europe and Spain. For medicinal purposes it is usually

collected in Scandinavia and central Europe.

The drug consists of irregularly lobed, leafy thalli, about 5-10 cm long

and about 0.5 mm thick. The upper surface is greenish-brown and

sometimes covered with reddish points, while the lower surface is pale

brown or grayish-green and marked with white, irregular spots. The dried

drug is brittle but becomes cartilaginous on moistening with water. Odour,

slight; taste, mucilaginous and bitter. A 5% decoction forms a jelly on

cooling, which is stained blue by iodine (distinction from carrageen).

136

MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING CARDIOACTIVE GLYCOSIDES

1. Which groups are involved in the aglycone of cardial glycosides

and which functional groups satisfy the specificity of the action

of cardial glycosides?

2. What is the pharmacological action of polar and non polar

cardial glycosides?

3. What are the structural and physical activity differences

between polar and non polar cardial glycosides?

4. What kind of qualitative reactions do you know for cardial

glycosides?

5. How are the preparation of cardial glycosed containing plants

standardized and how is the quantity of them defined?

6. What is the role of sugar molecules in cardial glycosides’

structure?

7. How are dried cardial glycoside containing plants?

8. Mention the microscopic and macroscopic characteristics of

Digitalis purpurea?

9. What is the chemical content and the pharmacological action of

Digitalis purpurea?

10. What kinds of preparations are made from Digitalis purpurea

and Digitalis lanata?

11. Mention the characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological content of Convallaria majalis.

12. Mention the characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological content of Adonis vernalis?

137

13. Mention the characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological content of Strophantus Kombe

1. Producing plant: Digitalis purpurea

Digitalis lanata

Foxglove

Family: Scrophulariaceae

Crude drug: Folia Digitalis

Foxglove leaves

Digitalis (Purple Foxglove Leaves) consists of the dried leaves of Digitalis

purpurea. It is required to contain not less than 0.3% of total cardenolides

calculated as digitoxin. The foxglove is a biennial or perennial herb

which is very common in the UK and most of Europe, including some

Mediterranean regions of Italy, and is naturalized in North America. It is

produced commercially in Holland and Eastern Europe. In the first year the

plant forms a rosette»of leaves and in the second year an aerial stem

about 1-1.5 m in height. The inflorescence is a raceme of bell-shaped

flowers of the floral formula K (5), C (5), A4 didynamous, G (2). The

common wild form of the plant has a purple corolla about 4 cm long, the

ventral side of which is whitish but bears deep purple eyespots on its inner

surface. The fruit is a bilocular capsule which contains numerous seeds

attached to axile placentae. Digitalis grows readily from seed. In the wild

state it is usually found in semi-shady positions. Either first- or second-

year leaves are permitted by the pharmacopoeias.

There has been a long-standing general belief that the pharmacol-

ogical activity of leaves increases during the course of a day to reach a

maximum in the early afternoon. Biological assays have given some

138

support to this supposition and variations involving individual glycosides

have also been reported.

After collection the leaves should be dried as rapidly as possible at a

temperature of about 60°C and subsequently stored in airtight containers

protected from light. Their moisture content should not be more than

about 6%.

Macroscopical characters. Digitalis leaves (Fig. 2) are usually ovate-

lanceolate to broadly ovate in shape, petiolate and about 10-30 cm long

and 4-10 cm wide. The dried leaves are of a dark greyish-green colour.

The lamina is decurrent at the base; apex subacute. The margin is

crenate or dentate and most of the teeth show a large water pore. Both

surfaces are hairy, particularly the lower, and a fringe of fine hairs is found

on the margin. The veins are depressed on the upper surface but very

prominent on the lower. The main veins leave the midrib at an acute

angle, afterwards branching and anastomosing repeatedly. The drug has

no marked odour, but a distinctly bitter taste.

Digitalis lanata, the leaves of which are used as a source of the

glycosides digoxin and lanatoside C is a perennial or biennial herb about

1 m high, indigenous to central and southeastern Europe. It is also

cultivated in Holland, Ecuador and the USA. Some 1000 tonnes of plant

material are required annually to meet world demand. The leaves are

sessile, linear-lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate and up to about 30 cm

long and 4 cm broad. The margin is entire, the apex is acuminate and

the veins leave the midrib at a very acute angle. The distinctive

microscopical characters are the beaded anticlinal walls of the epidermal

cells, the 10-14-celled nonglandular trichomes which are confined almost

exclusively to the margin of the leaf, and the glandular hairs found on both

surfaces; some have bicellular heads and unicellular stalks, while others

have unicellular heads and 3-10-celled, uniseriate stalks. As in D.

purpurea, pericyclic fibres and calcium oxalate are absent.

Microscopical characters. A transverse section of a foxglove leaf

shows a typical bifacial structure and a midrib strongly convex on the

lower surface. Stomata and hairs are present on both surfaces, but are

more numerous on the lower one. Calcium oxalate is absent. Surface

preparations show that the upper epidermis consists of polygonal,

relatively straight-walled cells, and bears both clothing and glandular

hairs. The cells of the lower epidermis are wavy, and the stomata and hairs

much more numerous than on the upper surface of the leaf.

Digoxigenin Diginatigenin (Series C) (Series D)

Fig. 1 Aglycones of Digitalis lanata cardioactive glycosides.

139

140

Constituents: The primary (terra) glycosides (purpurea glycoside A,

purpurea glycoside B and glucogitaloxin) all possess at C-3 of the genin a

linear chain of three digitoxose sugar moieties terminated by glucose

(Fig 1). On drying, enzyme degradation takes place with the loss of the

terminal glucose to give digitoxin, gitoxin and gitaloxin, respectively.

Digitoxin and gitoxin are therefore the main active components of the dried

drug. Poor storage conditions will lead to further hydrolysis and

complete loss of activity. It is generally agreed that first-year leaves

collected July-August have the highest content of total glycosides and that

after a fall during the winter months, another peak, but not as high as the

first-year one, is reached at the time of flowering.

Digitalis purpurea leaves also contain anthraquinone derivatives,

Saponins have also been isolated from the leaves, the sapogenins being

produced more readily than cardenolides towards the end of the growing

season. A number of leaf flavonoids have been described.

Anthraquinone derivatives, similar to those found in D. purpurea. have

been recorded in the leaves and a number of flavonoid glycosides

characterized.

Action and uses: It was late 1700s when foxglove’s value in treating

the symptoms of a weak heart (a condition known as dropsy) came to

light. It was widely prescribed by physicians for controlling the edema

(swelling) associated with congestive heart failure, as well as for cardiac

insufficiency and abnormalities in the heartbeat. The foxglove

cardioactive glycosides digoxin, digitoxin are effective in treating

congestive heart failure, because they strengthen the force of heart

contraction, while at the same time slowing heartbeat, so the period of

relaxation between beats is lengthened. The heart muscle is thus able

to rest even though it is working harder. Foxglove glycosides have

cumulative ability, thus their use must be careful and under the doctor’s

control.

Fig 2 Digitalis purpurea leaf. A, First-year leaf (x0.25); B, transverse section midrib of first-year leaf (xl 5); C, upper epidermis; D, lower epidermis; E, trichomes (all x200); F-H, scanning electron micrographs: (F) lower surface or leaf and G, H ditto showing glandular trichomes. a.v, Anastomosing veins; c, collenchyma, cic, cicatrix; d.b, decurrent base; d.m, dentate margin; e, endodermis; ep, epidermis; g.t, glandular trichome; g.t,, ditto surface view; m, mesophyll; p, palisade; ph, phloem; s.m, serrate margin; st, stoma; t, trichome base; xy, xylem.

The leaves of D. lanata are used almost exclusively for the preparation

of the lanatosides and digoxin. Over the past decades digoxin has become

141

142

se of the drug now amounts to several thousand kilograms per

year.

the most widely used drug in the treatment of congestive heart failure. In

long-term treatments patients require about 1 mg day-1 and the world-

wide u

Proprietary preparations of the lanatoside complex, lanatoside C and

lanatoside A are available in various countries but the glycoside from D.

lanata most widely used is digoxin. Acting similarly to digitalis leaf,

digoxin is more rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract than are

the purpurea glycosides, which renders it of value for rapid digitalization

in the treatment of atrial fibrillation and congestive heart failure.

Lanatoside C is less well absorbed than digitoxin but it is less cumulative

and for rapid digitalization the deacetyl derivative is preferable.

hantus Kombe

h

i

2. Producing plant: Strop

Strophant

Family: Apocynaceae

Crude drug: Semina Strophant

Strophanth seeds This tropical liana grows in Africa and was quite familiar to native tribes

that had used it widely through the centuries. Leaves opposite and

decussate or ternate. Corolla colour shades of white and red initially,

later turning yellow and purple. Corolla consisting of tube, corona and

lobes; the corona 10-lobed with lobes arranged in pairs between the

corolla lobes; the lobes produced into long linear tails. Anthers

connivent into a cone at the apex of the style. Ovary bilocular. Fruits of 2

divergent, rigid or woody, tapering follicles. Seeds are lance-ovoid,

flattened and obtusely edged; from 7 to 20 mm. in length, about 4 mm.

143

dor heavy when

of the arrows in it, so they were even able

Europe and a tincture prepared from

in breadth and about 2 mm. in thickness; externally, of a light fawn color,

with a distinct, greenish tinge, silky lustrous from a dense coating of

closely appressed hairs, (S. Kombe); or light to dark brown, nearly

smooth and sparingly hairy (S. hispidus), bearing on one side a ridge

running from about the center to the summit; fracture short and

somewhat soft, the fractured surface whitish and oily; o

the seeds are crushed and moistened; taste very bitter.

Native tribes obtained a thick liquid from its seeds, containing the

poison. They dipped the end

to kill an animal sometimes.

Seeds of East African Strophanthus kombe were formerly official in

pharmacopeias of many countries of

them was used similarly to digitalis. Constituents: The principal glycosides are K-strophanthoside, K-

strophanthin-(3 and cymarin. all based on the genin strophanthidin. Many

minor glycosides have also been isolated. The seeds also contain about

30% of fixed oil; the bases trigonelline and choline, resin and mucilage.

Strophanthus gratus seeds contain 4—8% of ouabain (G-strophanthin), a

rhamnose glycoside more stable than those present in other species. It

can be isolated in a pure crystalline form, and has been used as a

standard in biological assays and for the preparation of ouabain

injections. Ouabain is also the principal glycoside of the wood of the

African Acokanthera schimperi (A. ouabaio). Action and uses: The effects of the Strophanthus glycosides begin

more rapidly and are of shorter duration and don’t have a cumulative

activity. Strophanthin K is usually administered by intravenous injection

or occasionally intramuscularly; subcutaneous injections may give rise

to local inflammation. It acts in 5 to 15 minutes after intravenous

injection, the effect lasting about 24 hours. If a digitalis preparation has

144

-125 to 0-5 mg. It is used in acute

at-ment by administering digitalis by mouth

ntil full benefit is secured.

asant’s eye

Spring peasant’s eye herb

ed

plant, whereas a cut

been given during the previous 14 days, strophanthin-K is best avoided.

The usual dose of strophanthin-K is 0

and chronic congestive heart failure.

Ouabainum (Strophanthin-G) takes effect in 5 to 10 minutes and is used

when very rapid benefit is required, especially in congestive heart

failure. For this it is usually given as a single intravenous injection of 0-

25 mg. which should not, as a rule, be repeated for at least 24 hours. It

is preferable to continue tre

u

3. Producing plant: Adonis vernalis

Spring phe

Family: Ranunculaceae

Crude drug: Herba Adonidis vernalis

Adonis vernalis is an herbaceous perennial extending from south-east

Sweden to south Europe and eastwards to western Siberia. It blooms in

early spring and has a rich, golden, buttercup-like glow. Its leaves are

like filigree, and very delicate. Its Latin name is derived from the ill-fat

Adonis, from whose blood it sprang, according to the Greek legends.

The aerial parts of Adonis vernalis plants are used, and collected from

initial blossoming until the fruits fall, but the best quality of material is

obtained during full bloom. As there is no established cultivation of the

species, all material is gained from wild stock. Collecting the plant by

pulling out the flowering stem may destroy the

about 5-10cm above ground may be sustainable.

145

igitalin, but is much stronger and is said not

ed in epilepsy, administering it with

romide of potassium. It should not be given when there is gastro-

: Convallaria majalis

Folia Convallariae

Constituents: The plant yields heart glycosides-cardenolids: Adonidin,

Adonitoxin, Adonitoxol, K strophanthin-β, cimarin and has an action

almost exactly like that of d

to be cumulative. The herb also contains saponins, organic acids,

flavonoids, hydrocarbons. Action and uses: It works almost exactly like digitalin, which comes

from Foxgloves, but doesn't build up in the body. It is used especially in

cases where people are also suffering from kidney disease, as well as

heart problems, in remedies for chronic cardiac problems and as a

tranquilizer. It is especially commended where arrhythmia with feeble

cardiac force and dyspnoea and dropsy are present. It has long been a

popular remedy in Russia for dropsies of both heart and kidney origin. It

acts like cardiotonic, diuretic and sedative. It is undoubtedly

emmenagogue and has been advis

b

intestinal irritation or inflammation.

4. Producing plant

Lily of the valley

Family: Liliaceae

Crude drug: Herba Convallariae

Lily of the valley herb

Flores Convallariae

Lily of the valley flowers

Lily of the valley leaves

146

cm wide leaves and

sides are also present in the leaves, and the

The lily of the valley, Convallaria majalis (Liliaceae) is much used on the

continent of Europe and in herbal medicine for its cardioactive properties

which are similar to those of digitalis but much less cumulative. Lily-of-

the-valley has lovely bell-shaped flowers that emerge in May. These

plants spread freely and remain lush through frost. They are extremely

easy to grow and love to grow in an area of partial shade. May lily is 15

to 30 or 40 cm high, has two 10 cm long and 4-10

small fragrant white blossoms. It grows in places, having an altitude of

up to 1400 m. The fruit is a bright-red strawberry. Constituents: Every part of the plant is poisonous because it contains

about 20 poisonous glycosides such as convallatoxin, convallarin, and

convallamarin, as well as saponins. The principal glycoside is

convallatoxin which on hydrolysis gives strophanthidin and (-)-rhamnose.

The glycosides appear to be formed in the leaves and a turnover

apparently takes place towards the end of the vegetative period. A

number of flavonoid glyco

roots contain a saponin convallamaroside. The flowers also contain

flavonoids and cumarins. Action and uses: Flowers, leaves and the herb of Convallaria are used

to receive preparations (infusum, Corglycon) used in chronic congestive

heart failure. Convallarin and convallamarin are powerful cardiac

tonics and diuretics and are also used in allopathic medicine. All parts

of the plant are antispasmodic, cardiotonic, strongly diuretic, emetic,

and sedative. Its efficiency in dropsy is evidenced when there is

sluggishness of the general circulation, with extreme inefficiency of the

capillary circulation and greatly diminished blood pressure. In these

cases, if the kidneys are not seriously diseased, it can be made to

induce extreme diuresis and give prompt relief. It overcomes general depression, favors elimination, adds power and regularity of action to

147

the heart, overcomes distress of breathing, conduces to rest and sleep,

and induces a general sense of improved well-being. It is an excellent

remedy with which to improve the tone and vigor of the heart after the

depressing effects of protracted fevers or violent acute inflammation,

especially of the lungs and bronchi. An essential oil is obtained from the

flowers is used in perfumery.

148

MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING SAPONINS

Saponins have a high molecular weight and a high polarity and their

isolation in a state of purity presents some difficulties. Often they occur as

complex mixtures with the components differing only slightly from one

another in the nature of the sugars present, or in the structure of the

aglycone. According to the structure of the aglycone or sapogenin, two

kinds of saponin are recognized - the steroidal (commonly tetracyclic

triterpenoids) and the pentacyclic triterpenoid types.

1. What kind of medical compounds are saponins?

2. How can saponins determined in medical plants?

3. Mention the quantitive and qualitative reactions for saponins.

4. Mention the pharmacological activity of activities.

5. What plants contain steroidal saponins? Mention their uses in

medicine.

6. What plants contain triterpenoid saponins and mention their uses

in medicine?

7. Mention the specific characteristic, chemical content and

pharmacological action of Glycyrrhiza glabra.

8. Mention the specific characteristic, chemical content and

pharmacological action of Equisetum arvense.

9. Mention the specific characteristic, chemical content and

pharmacological action of Orthosiphon stamineus.

10. Mention the specific characteristic, chemical content and

pharmacological action of Ginseng.

149

11. Mention the specific characteristic, chemical content and

pharmacological action of bryonia alba.

1. Producing plant: Glycyrrhiza glabra

Liquorice

Family: Leguminosae

Crude drug: Radices Glycyrhhizae

Liquorice roots

Licorice is a perennial herb that grows to 1m tall and has a woody,

branching, brown rhizome (underground stem). Compound leaves are

composed of three to seven pairs of small oblong leaflets, while purplish

flowers bloom in terminal spikes. Fruits are smooth, reddish-brown

pods. Native to southern Europe and western Asia, Glycyrrhiza glabra is

now cultivated in many temperate regions worldwide, including parts of

North and South America, Australia. Fracture, Fibrous; odour, faint, but

characteristic; taste, sweet and almost free from bitterness. Unpeeled

'Russian' liquorice occurs in somewhat tapering pieces up to 30 cm long

and 5 cm in diameter. It is of less regular appearance than the Spanish

and consists of rootstock and roots. The surface is covered with a

somewhat scaly, purplish cork. The pieces of rootstock often bear buds

and have a pith, but the roots may be distinguished from the stolons of

the Spanish drug by the absence of buds. Fracture, very fibrous, the

strands of fibres tending to separate from one another. This variety is

sometimes peeled. The taste is sweet but usually not entirely free from

bitterness or acridity. 'Persian' liquorice from Iran closely resembles the

Russian variety and is generally unpeeled. Anatolian or Turkish liquorice

may be peeled or unpeeled and some pieces may have a diameter of up

to 8 cm.

Fig 1. Glycyrrhiza glabra. A, Transverse section of stolon (x25); B, fragment of cork layer from powder, in surface view; C, portion of longitudinal section through phloem; D, longitudinal section of wood; E, starch granules (all x200). c, Cambial zone; ck, cork layer; cr, calcium oxalate crystals; k, nonfunctional sieve tissue (keratenchyma); m.r, medullary ray; p, pith; pd, phelloderm; phi, phloem fibres; v, vessel; xy. f, xylem fibres; xy. p, xylem parenchyma.

Microscopical characters. Both roots and runners show secondary

thickening—the absence of a medulla in the root and its tetrarch

structure serving to distinguish the sections. The epidermis and most of

the cortex are absent, being thrown off by the development of cork. The

outer surface of the unpeeled drug is bounded by some 10 rows of

narrow cork cells. Within the cork is a phelloderm or secondary cortex

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composed of parenchymatous cells, some of which may become

collenchymatous. These cells contain simple starch grains about 10 pin

diameter; a few contain prisms of calcium oxalate (Fig 1).

Constituents: Since 1990 considerable research has been published on

the constituents of liquorice mainly by Japanese workers in whose country

the drug, imported from China, is an important traditional medicine.

Unfortunately, the Chinese commercial drug, as investigated, may be

derived from a number of species, e.g. Glycyrrhiza uralensis, G. inflate

and G. glabra, so that it is not always possible to assign particular

reported constituents to a specific source.

Liquorice owes most of its sweet taste to glycyrrhizin, the potassium

and calcium salts of glycyrrhizinic acid. Glycyrrhizinic acid is the

diglucopyranosiduronic acid of glycyrrhetic (glycyrrhetinic) acid, which

has a triterpenoid structure (Fig. 2). Other hydroxy-and deoxy-

triterpenoid acids related to glycyrrhetic acid have been isolated; the C-

20 epimer of glycyrrhetic acid is named liquiritic acid.

The yellow colour of liquorice is due to flavonoids and these have

received further considerable study since the antigastric effect of

flavonoid-rich fractions was recognized in 1978. They include liquiritin

(Fig. 2), isoliquertin (a chalcone) which occurs as a glycoside and during

drying is partly converted into liquiritin, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritigenin

(chalcone form) and other compounds. Isoliquiritigenin is reported to be

an aldose-reductase inhibitor and may be effective in preventing diabetic

complications. An examination of liquorice from five countries has shown

the flavonoid content to be geographically consistent, varying only in the

relative proportions of constituents. Japanese traditional (kampo) extracts

prepared by boiling show a high content of flavonoid aglycones which

may be pharmacologically more active than the parent glycosides. Other

active constituents of liquorice are polysaccharides with a pronounced

activity on the reticuloendothelial system. Research on these, at first

devoted to G. uralensis, has been extended to G. glabra from which

glycyrrhizan GA has been characterized as the representative

polysaccharide with immunological activity.

Fig 2. Triterpenoid saponin and flavonoids of Glycyrrhiza glabra The roots also contain about 5-15% of sugars (glucose, sucrose); about 1-

2% of asparagine (amide of aspartic or aminosuccinic acid); 0.04-0.06%

volatile compounds: β-sitosterol: starch: protein: bitter principles

(glycyramarin). The latter are particularly abundant in the outer tissues and

are therefore largely removed in the peeled variety of liquorice.

Action and uses: Liquorice has long been employed in pharmacy as a

flavouring agent, demulcent and mild expectorant. The recognition of the

deoxycorticosterone effects of liquorice extracts and glycyrrhetinic acid

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has led to its use for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, Addison's

disease and various inflammatory conditions. Interestingly, the flavonoid

component of the root, which possesses antimicrobial properties, also

exerts spasmolytic and anti-ulcerogenic activity.

Unlike cortisone, liquorice may give symptomatic relief from peptic ulcer

pain. It has recently been reported that glycyrrhizin gel can act as a useful

vehicle for various drugs used topically; not only are the antiinflammatory

and antiviral effects relevant but also glycyrrhizin enhances skin

penetration by the drug. Most of the liquorice imported is used in the

tobacco trade and in confectionery.

Caution! Excessive consumption of liquorice leads to hypertension,

water retention and hypokalemic alkosis.

2. Producing plant: Equisetum arvense Horsetail Family: Equisetaceae Crude drug: Herba Equiseti Horsetail herb Equsetum arvense (horsetail) is widely distributed throughout the

temperate climate zones of the Northern Hemisphere, including Asia,

North America, and Europe. It is a unique plant with two distinctive types

of stems. One variety of stem grows early in spring and looks like

asparagus, except for its brown colour and the spore-containing cones

on top. The mature form of the herb, appearing in summer, has

branched, thin, green, sterile stems and looks like a feathery tail.

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Constituents: Horsetail is rich in saponins, silicic acid and silicates,

which provide approximately 2 to 3% elemental silicon; potassium,

aluminium, manganese, bioflavonoids.

Action and uses: Since recommended by the Roman physician Galen,

several cultures have employed horsetail as a folk remedy for kidney

and bladder troubles, arthritis, bleeding ulcers, and tuberculosis. The

presence of flavonoids is believed to cause the diuretic action, while the

silicon content is said to exert a connective tissue strengthening and

antiarthritic action. Horsetail may be beneficial in the treatment of

tuberculosis. Horsetail is very astringent and makes an excellent clotting

agent, staunching wounds, stopping nosebleeds and reducing the

coughing up of blood. The plant is anodyne, antihemorrhagic, antiseptic,

astringent, diaphoretic, diuretic, and haemostatic.

Horsetail is generally considered safe for nonpregnant adults. The

concern is that the correct species of horsetail is used; Equisetum

palustre is another species of horsetail, which contains toxic alkaloids

and is well-known livestock poison. Large quantities of the plant can be

toxic. This is because it contains the enzyme thiaminase, a substance

that can rob the body of the vitamin B complex.

3. Producing plant: Orthosiphon stamineus Java tea Family: Lamiaceae Crude drug: Folia Orthosiphonis staminei Java tea leaves Orthosiphon stamineus is an unusual plant for pots, containers or

planted out in the garden and perennial brush in its native country. It

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features long white or blue flowers with long stamens (the "cat's

whiskers") over glossy mid-green foliage. The plant is native to tropical

eastern Asia. Of the family Lamiaceae, it is cultivated for its unusual

flowers and as a remedy for urinary system ailments. Constituents: Leaves of the plant contain triterpenoid saponins of α –

amirin type. They also contain bitter glycoside – orthosiphonin, essential

oil, organic acids, tannins and others.

Action and uses: It has a diuretic activity and is used in chronic and

acute kidney diseases, followed by congestion, albuminuria, azonemia,

also stone diseases. The diuretic effect is followed with the excretion of

uric acid and chlorides. It causes an increase of the secretion of

stomach glands and enhances the amount of free HCl.

4. Producing plant: Panax ginseng

Ginseng

Family: Araliaceae

Crude drug: Radices Ginseng

Ginseng roots For some 2000 years the roots of Panax ginseng have held an honoured

place in Chinese medicine. It is produced in China, Korea and Siberia,

and considerable quantities, derived from P. quinquefoli-um, are

exported from the eastern USA and Canada through Hong Kong. It is

one of the major botanical drugs of US foreign trade and growers in

north-central Wisconsin produce an estimated 90% of the US cultivated

drug. Ginseng is now cultivated commercially on a relatively small scale

on farms in England (Biggleswade), Holland. Germany and France

(Champagne District). The most expensive ginseng is that derived from

Korean root. The plant, about 50 cm tall with a crown of dark green

verticillate leaves and small green flowers giving rise to clusters of bright

red berries, is cultivated under thatched covers and harvested when 6

years old. Sun-drying of the root, after removal of the outer layers,

produces white ginseng, whereas the red ginseng is obtained by first

steaming the root, followed by artificial drying and then sun-drying. The

roots are graded and packed.

Constituents: P. ginseng roots have been thoroughly studied by

modern methods of analysis and, of the many compounds isolated; the

medicinal activity appears to reside largely in a number of dammarane-

type saponins termed ginsenosides by Japanese workers and

panaxosides by Russian workers. However, the two series of

compounds are not absolutely identical with respect to the sugar

moieties. Around 30 ginsenosides (e.g. ginsenosides R0. Ra, Rbl. Rbi.

etc.) have been described. The panaxosides are termed panaxoside A.

B. C. etc.

On hydrolysis the panaxosides yield principally oleanolic acid (see Fig.

3), panaxadiol and panaxatriol. Ginseng root, therefore, contains a

mixture of both steroidal and pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins.

Fig 3 Steroids associated with ginseng.

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Some of the ginsenosides of P. quinquefolium are the same as those of

the Chinese and Korean drug; others appear to differ.

Two other groups of compounds present in the root which have known

therapeutic activity are high molecular weight polysaccharides (glycans)

and acetylenic compounds. The glycans of P. ginseng have been named

panaxans (A-U) and those of P. quinquefolium. quinquefolans (A, B and C).

Those glycans tested have hypoglycaemic, antiulcer and immunological

properties. A considerable number of mainly C17, but also C14, polyacetylenic

alcohols have been isolated from the roots in recent years and are typified

by panaxynol and panaxydol. These compounds have been shown to

have antitumour properties and Japanese patents exist for their isolation

and derivatization.

Action and uses: In Asia the chug is held in esteem for the treatment of

anaemia, diabetes, gastritis, sexual impotence and the many conditions

arising from the onset of old age. In the West, too, it has in recent years

become an extremely popular remedy particularly for the improvement

of stamina, concentration, resistance to stress and to disease; in this

sense the action of the drug is described as 'adaptogenic'.

Many 'ginseng' products are available as OTC products either for oral

administration or as cosmetic preparations. In the US mainstream market

for herbal sales, for the first eight months of 1999 ginseng stood at third

place, with retail sales valued at over S60 million.

Allied species. Eleutherococcus senticosus (Acanthopanax sentico-

sus), Siberian ginseng, has been employed in the former USSR as an

abundant and inexpensive substitute for ginseng. The drug is now

described in the BPIEP 2000. It is also cultivated in China for the roots

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which are used as a tonic and sedative. The roots contain active

saponins (eleutherosides), different to those of Panax ginseng, and a

series of glucans (eleutherans A-G) and a heteroxylan with

'adaptogenic' properties. In test models the eleutherans have been

shown to have hypoglycaemic activity. The isolation and structure

determination of two new glycosides of protoprimulagenin A from the

root have been reported.

5. Producing plant: Bryonia alba

Bryony

Family: Cucurbitaceae

Crude drug: Radices Bryoniae albae recens

Bryony fresh roots

Bryonia alba is a herbaceous vine, climbing by means of tendrils.

Bryonia alba is found in Central Europe, Sweden, and Denmark. It has

white flowers, regularly lobed leaves, and black berries. The root is

harvested in the autumn and is be used fresh or or dried.

Constituents: Roots of Bryony contain saponins white, crystallizable

bodies, bryonin and bryonitin. Starch, sugar, gum, wax, fatty

constituents, albumen, cellulose, and salts, are also present in the root. Action and uses: In full physiological doses it is a powerful hydragogue

cathartic, being so irritating that it may produce gastro-intestinal

inflammation. It excites the peripheral nerves and capillaries to such an

extent as to produce irritation and even inflammation. In toxic doses it

will cause dizziness, lower temperature; pulse becomes weak, cold

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perspiration over the body, delirium, dilated pupils and a general

depression of the nervous system. It is useful in acute serous and

synovial membrane inflammation, with or without exudation. It retards

exudation and encourages absorption if exudates have formed. A

remedy is of great value in the treatment of all acute inflammation of the

thoracic viscera, in which case it is alternated or associated with other

indicated remedies. It is indicated in rheumatism, in back pain after

injury and backaches during illness. It is chiefly used at the present day

in small doses, as a remedy in acute and chronic serous maladies, in

glandular enlargements, in scarlatina to lessen the tendency to aural

complications that may terminate in otorrhoea and deafness, in chronic

orchitis, in chronic rheumatic affections, pleuritic and pulmonic

disorders, fevers, etc., and to overcome constipation and regulate the

bowels. Bryonia should never be given in as large doses so as to get its

hydragogue, cathartic effect.

Caution! All parts of the plant, and especially the root, are poisonous.

The root can cause severe diarrhoea and vomiting, resulting in death

within a matter of hours.

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MEDICAL PLNATS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING FLAVONOIDS

The flavonoids which occur both in the free state and as glycosides are

the largest group of naturally occurring phenols. More than 2000 of

these compounds are now known, with nearly 500 occurring in the free

state. They are formed from three acetate units and a phenylpropane

unit.

1. What lies in the base of flavonoids’ structure?

2. What are the functional groups responsible for the colour,

solubility, reactability of flavonoids?

3. What is the role of flavonoids in the plants’ life?

4. Which flavonoids have antihypertensive, antiarrhythmic, sedative

activities?

5. Which flavonoid containing plants are used as cholagogues,

antibacterial remedies?

6. Which flavonoid containing plants are used to stop bleeding?

7. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Hawthorn.

8. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Leonurus.

9. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Polygonum hydropiper.

10. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Polygonum persicaria.

11. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Polygonum aviculare.

12. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Helychrysum arenarium.

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13. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Sophora japonica.

14. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Aronia melanocarpa.

15. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Ononis arvensis.

16. Mention the external differences of P. Hydropiper, P. persicaria

and P. aviculare.

1. Producing plant: Crataegus oxyacantha

Crataegus sanguinea

Hawthorn

Family: Rosaceae

Crude drug: Flores Crataegi

Fructus Crataegi

The leaves, flowers and false fruits are all medicinally useful, the

leaves and flowers being used principally for the preparation of infusions,

etc. with the fruits employed in the manufacture of prepared

medicaments. Crataegus is a thorny, deciduous tree, native to Europe,

western Asia, North Ameica, and North Africa and have a long medical

and ethnobotanical history.

The dried reddish-brown to dark red fruits have a slight odour and

mucilaginous, slightly acid taste. The flowers are 5 seized, white clusters.

Constituents: The leaves, flowers and berries of hawthorn contain a

variety of bioflavonoids that appear to be primarily responsible for the

cardiac actions of the plant. The bioflavonoids found in hawthorn are

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oligomeric procyanidins, vitexin, quercitin, hyperoside. The fruits contain

1-3% oligomeric procyanidins, the structures of which appear to be only

partially ascertained together with flavonoids, principally hyperoside

about 1%. The leaves in contrast contain less hyperoside and more

vitexin rhamnoside. The flowers also contain triterpenic saponins,

essential oil, amines (choline, acetylcholine, trimetylamin). Fruits also

contain tannins, saponins, hydrocarbons, fixed oil.

Action and uses: Hawthorn has numerous beneficial actions on the

heart and blood vessels. It may improve coronary artery blood flow and

contractions of the heart muscle. The byoflavonoids in hawthorn are

potent antioxidants. Hawthorn extracts may mildly lower blood pressure

in some individuals with high blood pressure. It is beneficial for persons

with stage II congestive heart failure. Hawthorn is widely used as a mild

cardiac tonic particularly for patients of advancing age. It is used in

“heart weakness”, which accompanies neurasthenia or nervous

weakness. It has a general curative effect upon the functional action of

the central nervous system, increases the strength, regulates the action

of the heart, and causes a general sense of well being.

2. Producing plant: Leonurus cardiaca

Motherwort

Family: Labiatae (Lamiaceae)

Crude drug: Herba Leonuri

Leonurus is an upright prickly bush with a height of up to 150cm tall.

The

flowers are pale pink to purple, very hairy, in whorls of 6 to 12,

alternating up the stems with leaves. The leaves are dark green above,

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pale below, oak-shaped and deeply lobed into three, especially at the

bottom. Prickly. Blooms in late-June to August. Native to Eurasia. The

harvest of the leaves and the entire flower stalk with clippers is when the

flowers are in full bloom, anywhere from late June into August, being

sure to leave enough flower stalks for

reseeding to occur.

History: the early Greeks gave motherwort to pregnant women suffering from anxiety.

This use continued and gave the herb the name mother wort, or “mother’s herb.” Its other

prominent action is on the heart, giving it the species name cardiaca or the Greek

kardiaca, or heart. Leonurus comes from the Greek leon for “lion” and ouros for “tail”, as

the plant was thought to resemble the tail of a lion. There is an old tale about a town

whose water source is a stream flowing through banks of motherwort. Many of the

townspeople lived to be 130 years old and recall one who reportedly lived to 300 years. In

ancient China, motherwort was reputed to promote longevity.

Constituents: The herb contains flavonoids (rutin, hiperoside),

saponins, organic acids, alkaloids (stachydrine, leonurine), tannins,

iridoids. Action and uses: Preparations of motherwort have sedative,

hypotensive; cardiotonic activity. Motherwort is especially valuable in the

treatment of female weaknesses and disorders, allaying nervous

irritability, inducing quiet and passivity of the whole nervous system. It is

also seen as a remedy for heart palpitations, it has a strengthening

effect, especially on a weak heart. The antispasmodic and sedative

effects promote relaxation rather than drowsiness. The leaves are

antispasmodic, astringent, cardiac, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, nervine,

sedative, stomachic, tonic and uterine stimulant. They are taken

internally in the treatment of heart complaints (notably palpitations) and

problems associated with menstruation, childbirth and menopause,

especially of nervous origin. Although an infusion can be used, the taste

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is so bitter that the plant is usually made into a conserve or syrup. An

alcoholic extract is said to possess superior action to valerian (Valeriana

officinalis). The plant has been found effective in the treatment of

functional heart complaints due to autonomic imbalance.

3. Producing plant: Polygonum hydropiper

Water pepper

Family: Polygonaceae

Crude drug: Herba Polygoni hydropiperis

Water pepper herb

Polygonum hydropiper is an annual herb. The branched stem, 20 to

90cm in length, creeps at first, then becomes semi-erect. The leaves are

lanceshaped, shortly stalked, wavy, more or less acute, glandular

below, fringed with hairs. The stipules form a short inflated ochrea. The

greenish-pink flowers are in long, slender, loose racemes that mostly

droop at their tips. It is a native of most parts of Europe, in Russian Asia

to the Arctic regions. Found abundantly in places that are under water

during the winter. The fruit is black and dotted, as long as the perianth,

three-sided and nut-like. The leaves have a pungent, acrid, bitter taste

(something like peppermint), which resides in the glandulate dots on its

surface, no odour. Constituents: The herb contains flavonoids (Kaempferol, rutin,

hyperoside, quercetin, hyperin.), tannins, organic acids, vitamins C, K,

PP, carotene, alkaloids.

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Action and uses: The herb is a remedy being valued especially for its

astringent properties which makes it useful in treating bleedings of

gastro-intestinal tract, uterus, skin problems, etc. The leaves are anti-

inflammatory, astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic. The whole

plant is decocted and used in the treatment of a wide range of ailments

including diarrhoea, dyspepsia, itching skin, excessive menstrual

bleeding and haemorrhoids. A poultice of the plant is used in treating

swollen and inflamed areas.

4. Producing plant: Polygonum persicaria

Lady’s thumb

Family: Polygonaceae

Crude drug: Herba Persicariae

Lady’s thumb herb

Polygonum persicaria is a branched annual with stems growing erect or

spreading from 0.2 to 1 metre long; lance-shaped leaves with black

blotch in centre and a thin papery sheath with long hairs at the base;

flowers are pink in a small spike-like cluster. Leaves are alternate, short-

petiolate to sessile above, to 11cm long, 2cm broad, glabrous to sparse

appressed pubescent, typically with purple splotch near middle of blade,

entire. Native to Europe. Likes moist to wet waste ground, disturbed

sites, meadows, streambanks, roadsides, railroads.

Constituents: The herb contains flavonoids: avicularin, hyperfine,

hyperoside, quercitin, vitamin C.

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Action and uses: The leaves are astringent, diuretic, rubefacient and

vermifuge. An infusion has been used as a treatment for gravel and

stomach pains. A decoction of the plant has been used as a poultice to

help relieve pain. A decoction of the plant has been used as a foot and

leg soak in the treatment of rheumatism. The crushed leaves have been

rubbed on poison ivy rash. It is also used to stop bleedings.

5. Producing plant: Polygonum aviculare

Knotgrass

Family: Polygonaceae

Crude drug: Herba Polygoni avicularis

Knotgrass herb

Polygonum aviculare is an annual growing to 0.3m. It is in flower from

June to October, and the seeds ripen from August to October. It has

creeping stems with oval leaves and white or pink hermaphrodite

flowers. It flowers from late spring to early autumn. It grows on the

waysides and near paths into fields. Constituents: The plant contains flavonoids: avicularin, quercitin,

hyperoside; tannins; carotene, vitamins K, C, E, organic acids, silicic

acid.

Action and uses: Knotweed is a safe and effective astringent and

diuretic herb that is used mainly in the treatment of complaints such as

dysentery and haemorrhoids. It is also taken in the treatment of

pulmonary complaints because the silicic acid it contains strengthens

connective tissue in the lungs. The whole plant is anthelmintic,

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astringent, cardiotonic, cholagogue, diuretic, febrifuge, haemostatic,

lithontriptic and vulnerary. It was formerly widely used as an astringent

both internally and externally in the treatment of wounds, bleeding, piles

and diarrhoea. Its diuretic properties make it useful in removing stones.

6. Producing plant: Helychrysum arenarium

Everlasting flower

Family: Asteraceae

Crude drug: Flores Helichrhrysi

Everlasting flower flowers

Helichrysum arenarium is deciduous perennial that prefers sandy loam

soil. The plant in native to Europe and grows in dry sandy places,

heaths, dunes, pine forests etc. The plant grows 25cm tall. Stems are

several; leaves are alternate, gray because of the hairing. Leaves are

alternate, entire, liner-spatulate at the bottom, liner-lanceolate near the

top of the stem. Flowers are in a globular capitulum, calyx is composed

from dry, lemon-yellow or orange leaflets.

The drug is collected when the flowers aren’t open yet. The flowers

have a weak aromatic odour, taste is bitter-aromatic.

Constituents: Flowers contain flavonids: helichrysin, naringenin,

apigenin, kaempferol and their glycosides; essential oil, tannins, organic

acids, ect.

Action and uses: The action of Helichrysum is due to its flavonoid

content. The choleretic, hepatoprotective and detoxifying activities of the

inflorescence of Helichrysum arenarium have been known for a long

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time from herbal medicine. The fresh or dried flowers are cholagogue,

spasmolytic, antibacterial, diuretic, stomachic. The preparations of

Helichrysum are used in the treatment of liver and gall bladder

disorders, increasing the bile secretion, decreasing the level of bilirubin

and cholesterol in the blood, as a diuretic in treating rheumatism,

cystitis; they also enhance stomach and pancreas secretion.

Preparations of Helichrysum are recommended during hypertonic

disease and atherosclerosis.

7.Producing plant: Sophora japonica

Coralbean

Family: Fabaceae

Crude drug: Alabastra Sophorae japonicae

Coralbean ovate flowers

Fructus Sophorae japoniceae

Coralbean fruits

Sophora japonica is is native to eastern Asia (mainly China; despite the

name, it is introduced in Japan), is a popular ornamental tree in Europe

and North America, grown for its, borne in late summer after most other

flowering trees have long finished flowering. It makes a broad,

spreading tree to 10-20 m tall and as much broad. Leaves are

imparipinnate, 11-25cm long and 9-13cm wide. Leaflets are 2-5cm long,

lustrous and mature from bright to dark green. The flowers are pale

yellow to creamy white, pea-like, slightly fragrant, hang in 15 to 30cm

long clusters. The bloom time is August. The fruit is a 3" to 8" green

pod, a loment, with constriction between each seed like a string of

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beads; green pods turn yellow and eventually brown in October. It is

cultivated in South Europe as a decorative and medical plant. Flowers

are collected when they haven’t been in blossom yet (June-July), fruits –

when they are unripe yet, they are light green and juicy.

Constituents: Fruits and flowers contain rutin. The content of rutin

reaches up to 20% in flowers, before they open. Fruits also contain

Kaempferol, tannins.

Action and uses: Rutin and quercetin are received from ovaries of the

flowers, which are prescribed in the form of tablets. Both are used for

the prophylaxis and treatment of P vitamin hypovitaminosis and

diseases followed with venous permeability disorders. The buds, flowers

and pods are concocted and used in the treatment of a variety of

ailments including internal haemorrhages, poor peripheral circulation.

The ovaries, especially just before the plant flowers, are a rich source of

rutin and this is a valuable hypotensive agent. The seedpods are

abortifacient. This remedy should not be prescribed for pregnant

women.

8. Producing plant: Aronia melanocarpa Black chokeberry Family: Rosaceae Crude drug: Fructus Aroniae melanocarpae recens Black chokeberry fresh fruits Aronia melanocarpa is woody shrub, 1-2m high, equal width. Glossy,

pendulous clusters of black fruit suspended before lustrous green

leaves are pleasing when viewed up close in summer, but the flower

display and fall color are excellent even from afar. Flowers are set nicely

against the lustrous foliage, are whitish- pink and borne in loose clusters

of up to 8. Opening in mid-May, these clusters can reach 5cm in width.

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Fruits are 10-15mm in diameter, the bluish-black fruit hang down in

clusters of 10 or so from red pedicels. They color in September, but

aren't really noticed until the leaves change color and drop in fall. The

glossy fruit will persist through January, but will begin to dry out at that

point. It derives the name 'chokeberry' from the extremely astringent

taste that birds supposedly won't tolerate, but it can be quite a pleasant

flavor with sweetener.

Constituents: Fruits contain a significant amount of flavonids with

vitamin P activity (rutin, quercetin, hesperidin), high concentration of

polyphenols and anthocyanins.

Action and uses: Aronia melanocarpa flavonoid content has an activity

to stimulate circulation, protect the urinary tract, and strengthen the

heart. Fresh fruits and their juice are used in the treatment of

hypovitaminosis of vitamin P, hypertonic disease of the II and III stage.

9. Producing plant: Ononis arvensis

Rest-harrow

Family: Fabaceae

Crude drug: Radices Ononidis

Rest-harrow roots Ononis arvensis is a perennial growing to 0.6m by 1m. The whole plant

is covered with glandular hair, the stem is with thorns, roots reach up to

1m of length. Leaves are trifoliate, covered with glandular hair, dentate,

sticky with a definite odour. The plant is in flower from June to

September, and the seeds ripen from August to October. The flowers

are hermaphrodite, beautiful, pink or white, after getting dried they get

blue. Flowers are in rich spikes. The fruit is a pod with 2-4 kidney

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shaped, brown seeds. For medicinal purposes mainly the root is used. It

is taken out in September-October, washed in cold water, cut, and dried

in a windy place in 40-50 degrees. The plant was officinal in the former

Soviet Union, Czech Republic, Serbia, Austria, and Switzerland.

Constituents: The roots contain flavonoids, mainly isoflavone

glycosides – ononin, onospin, onogenin, also kempferol, astragalin and

others. They also contain tannins, resins, essential oil, starch, organic

acids (lemon acid), mucilage.

Action and uses: Rest-harrow is known in folk medicinal practice as

diuretic, lithontriptic and sudorific. It stops bleeding, and cures

headache, rheumatism, skin chronical spots, urethra inflammation, etc.

The use of rest-harrow alcohol extract for 2-3 weeks has shown positive

results among patients having haemorrhoids. In the 7-10th days of the

session the pains have been totally relieved, bleeding has been

restricted, intestine functions have been normalized. The root decoction

and alcohol extract have shown good results against itches around anus

resulting because of haemorrhoids. It also had positive effect on

appetite, and relived pain around stomach. The medicinal plant has no

toxic effects.

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MEDICAL PLNATS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING PHENOLICGLYCOSIDES, CUMARINES,

FUROCUMARINES, LIGNANS

Phenols probably constitute the largest group of plant secondary

metabolites. Widespread in Nature, and to be found in most classes of

natural compounds having aromatic moieties, they range from simple

structures with one aromatic ring to highly complex polymeric substances

such as tannins and lignins. Phenols are important constituents of some

medicinal plants and in the food industry they are utilized as colouring

agents, flavourings, aromatizers and antioxidants.

1. How are phenols classified?

2. What is the role of phenols in plants’ life?

3. What is the pharmacological activity of phenols?

4. Mention the pharmacological activity of lignans.

5. What is the pharmacological activity of cumarins?

6. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Uva ursi?

7. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Filix mas?

8. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Aesculus hippocastanum.

9. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Rhodiola rosea.

10. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Sambucus nigra.

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11. Mention the plants containing lignans and their pharmacological

activities.

12. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Podophyllum peltatum.

13. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Schizandra chinensis.

14. Mention the specific characteristics, chemical content and

pharmacological activity of Ammi visnaga.

Simple phenolic compounds

1. Producing plant: Arctostaphylos uva ursi Bearberry Family: Ericaceae Crude drug: Folia Uvae ursi Bearberry leaves

Bearberry leaf consists of the dried leaves of Arctostaphylos uva-ursi.

An uva-ursi is a small, creeping, evergreen shrub found in central and

northern Europe and in North America. The leathery leaves are dark

green to brownish-green, 2-3 cm long, obovate or spatulate, gradually

narrowing to a very short petiole, apex obtuse or refuse. They are

coriaceous in texture and almost glabrous. The upper surface is shiny and

marked with sunken vein-lets; the lower surface is lighter and marked with a

network of dark vein-lets. Clusters of tiny, white or pink, bell-shaped flowers

give rise to small, shiny red fruits. The drug is odourless but has an astringent

and somewhat bitter taste.

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Constituents: Bearberry contains the glycosides arbutin and methyl-

arbutin, about 6-7% of tannin, (+)-catechol, ursone and the flavone

derivative quercetin. Some 14 phenolic acid constituents, including

gallic and ellagic acids, have been recorded. The pharmacopoeial drug

is required to contain at least 8.0% of hydroquinone derivatives

calculated as arbutin.

Action and uses: Bearberry has been used for centuries for its

astringent, antiseptic, and diuretic properties. It is recommended for

urinary tract infections including chronic cystitis and urethritis, as well for

kidney and gallstones, gout and gonorrhea. In the body arbutin is

converted to hydroquinones and their derivatives – that have been

shown strong antibacterial and antifungal properties. They also have an

antiseptic and astringent effect on linings of the urinary tract. Arbutin and

its breakdown products only work well as antibacterial agents when urine

is alkaline, so herbal practitioners often suggest excluding fruits, juices,

acidic foods from the diet while taking bearberry preparations. Caution! In large doses hydroquinones can be toxic. Bearberry

preparations should only be used for short periods. This herb should not

be used by pregnant women, children and individuals with kidney

diseases.

2. Producing plant: Filix Mas

Male fern

Family: Polypodiaceae

Crude drug: Rhizoma Filicis Maris

Male fern rhizome Male fern (Filix Mas) consists of the rhizome, frond bases and apical bud

of Dryopteris filix-mas. Male fern is dug up in the late autumn, divested of

most of its roots and dead portions and dried. It must have retained its

green colour internally. It is collected in large quantities in the Harz and

Thuringian mountains. The drug occurs in pieces about 7-25 cm in

length, consisting of a rhizome about 2 cm diameter surrounded by

frond bases which bring the total diameter of the pieces to about 4 or 5

cm. Some of the larger pieces are sliced to facilitate drying. The frond

bases are brown externally and densely covered with ramenta; internally

they are green, and show in transverse section from six to nine pale

yellow meristeles (distinction from Athyrium filix-foemina). The rhizome is

brownish externally and yellowish-green internally. On long storage the

interior becomes brown, the activity decreases and the drug is no longer fit

for use. The drug has little odour. The taste is at first sweetish, afterwards

becoming bitter and extremely nauseous.

Fig. 1. Male fern. A, Whole drug (x0.5); B, transverse section of rhizome and

surrounding frond bases (xl); C, entire ramentum; D, edge of same (x50); E,

section through rhizome showing intercellular glands (x65); F, transverse

section of a leafy base of Athyrium filix-foemina. a, Starch granules; g.t.

glandular trichome; m, meristele.

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Characteristic features as seen under the microscope are starch-

containing parenchyma cells, the intercellular spaces of which show

shortly stalked internal secretory glands. The ramenta have very

characteristic two-celled marginal projections (Fig. 1).The internal

glandular hairs have been studied by electron microscopy and shown to

biosynthesize the anthelminthic compounds described below. History. The vermifuge properties of ferns were known to the ancients, their use being

mentioned in the works of Dioskurides, Theophrastus, Galen and Pliny. After lapsing into

disuse, male fern was reintroduced by a French physician, Jobert in 1869.

Fig 2 Phloroglucinol derivatives of male fern

Constituents: The active constituents of male fern are phloroglucinol

derivatives which occur as mono-, bi-, tri-and tetracyclic compounds.

Two or more molecules of the simple monocyclic derivatives such as

aspidinol, filicinic acid and filicinyl butanone may condense to give bicyclic

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177

compounds such as albaspidin and flavaspidic acid or tricyclic ones such

as filicic acid (Fig. 2). The monomers do not appear to be present to any

extent in the living plant, and the often reported presence of aspidinol and

desaspidinol results from the breakdown of larger molecules, particularly

in the presence of alkali. The drug and its extract are assayed for 'filicin',

'crude filicin' or 'crude filicic acid', a mixture of the ether-soluble acidic

(phenolic) substances mentioned above.

Action and uses: Male fern, usually in the form of the oleoresin, is used

as a tenicide. Its use requires care, as cases have occurred in which it

has been absorbed and resulted in blindness. Safer drugs are now

available.

OXYCOUMARINS

3. Producing plant: Aesculus hippocastanum

Horse chestnut

Family: Hippocastanacea

Crude drug: Semina hippocastani

Horse chestnut seeds

The deciduous horse chestnut tree, with its columnar trunk and tall,

domed crown of branches grows rapidly to about 30m, blooming in three

to four weeks from spring to early summer. Leaves are opposite with a

long pedicle, palmate, round in a shape, 25cm long, composed of 5-7

large oval leaflets. Flowers are beautiful, white or pink, and have a

candle like appearance. Fruits are spiny capsules, each with 2 to 4

compartments containing the well known rich deep-brown, shiny-smooth

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seeds. Aesculus hippocastanum grows throughout the temperate

Northern Hemosphere. It is native to western Asia, but now is cultivated

and naturalized in most temperate regions.

Constituents: Medicinally the seeds have long been used for their

dioxycoumarin (aesculin, aesculetin, fraxin) and saponin content, the

principal component being aescin (in recent publications termed 'escin')

which occurs in concentrations of up to 20% in the dried seeds. As with a

number of these well-known triterpenoid saponins it is only recently that it

has been possible to elucidate completely their chemical structures and,

as with other crude saponins, aescin itself has been shown to be a

mixture of many closely related compounds. Acid hydrolysis of the

aescin complex gives the saponin aescigenin and the sugars glucose,

xylose, galactose and glucuronic acid together with esterifying acetic,

butyric, isobutyric, angelic and tiglic acids.

Seeds also contain flavones (quercetin, kaempferol and their glycosyl

derivatives), tannins and anthocyanidins.

Action and uses: Extracts of horse chestnut have been traditionally

employed both in the West and East for the treatment of peripheral

vascular disorders including haemorrhoids, varicose veins, leg ulcers

and bruises. Thus some of the aescins are anti-inflammatory, inhibiting

the activity of lysosomal enzymes that damage capillary walls;

coumarins cause a thinning of the blood, so much so that horse chestnut

is contraindicated with anticoagulants such as warfarin; tannins tone the

blood vessel walls and flavonoids are anti-inflammatory.

Aescin has been shown to reduce oedema, decrease capillary

permeability and increase venous tone.

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PHENOLIC ALCOHOLS

4. Producing plant: Rhodiola rosea

Rhodiola

Family: Crassulaceae

Crude drug: Rhizomata et radices Rhodiolae roseae

Rhodiola roots and rhizomes

Growing to 70cm tall, Rhodiola rosea is a small perennial with

inbranched stems surrounded by freshy, alternate leaves. At the end of

the stems, small flowers, usually yellow or pale-green, appear from

spring through summer in corymbs. Small, deep-brown fruits contain

seeds. The rhizome is thick with many roots. Rhodiola is native to

Himalaya and grows in the Northern Hemisphere at high elevations in

Asia, North America. Extremely resistant to cold, rhodiola is often called

Arctic root because it grows at high northern latidutes. Flowers bloom

from May to August and seeds ripen from July to August.

In the 18th century, Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus named the plant

Rhodiola rosea (Dioscorides wrote about Rodia riza in 77 A.D. in his De

Materia Medica) for the rose-like fragrance of the freshly cut root.

The drug is collected during flowering and seed ripening.

Constituents: Though research has been done since the mid -1960s, it

has occurred mostly in Russia, has been published in Russian, and is

rarely translated into English. The rhizome cantains phenolic alcohols,

glycosides salydrosid and thyrosol, flavonoids, β-cytosterines, gallic

acid, ect.

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Action and uses: Traditionally Rhodiola was used throughout Eastern

Europe and Asia as a tonic to increase physical and mental

performance, endurance and strength. It has been used for depression,

fatigue, anemia, cardiovascular disease, impotence, infection, altitude

sickness, and many gastrointestinal ailments and nervous system

disorders.

In 1975 the Ministry of Health registered and approved rhodiola extract

as a medicine and tonic, and a large-scale commercial production

began in the Soviet Union. Russian science dubbed rhodiola an

adaptogen, an herb that increases an organism’s ability to adapt to

stress with few side effects. Rhodiola improves mental and physical

performance under stress. Rhodiola also shows promise in treating

some types of cancer, but more human studies are needed. In animal

studies Rhodiola inhibited tumor growth and decreased metastasis.

5. Producing plant: Sambucus nigra

Elder flower

Family: Caprifoliaceae

Crude drug: Flos Sambuci

Elder flower flowers

This shrub or small tree is native throughout Europe and Western and

Central Asia: commercial supplies of the flowers come principally from

Eastern Europe.

The elder inflorescence consists of small regular flowers arranged in

compound umbel-Like cymes; calyx superior, 5-toothed; corolla flat, rotate,

deeply 5-lobed, creamy white with 5 stamens inserted in the tube; anthers

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yellow. The flowers have a slightly bitter taste and a sweet, not altogether

agreeable odour.

Constituents: The drug contains a small proportion (up to c. 0.2%) of a

semi-solid volatile oil consisting of free acids, principally palmitic acid,

alkanes. By 1985 over 80 components had been identified in the oil.

Flavonoids (up to 3.0%) are predominantly flavonols and their glycosides:

rutin predominates with smaller quantities of isoquercetrin, astragalin and

hyperoside together with the aglycones quercetin and kaempferol.

Other constituents are triterpenes (or- and β-amyrin principally as esters

of fatty acids), triterpene acids (ursolic, oleanolic and 20/3-hydroxyursolic

acids), various other plant acids (chlorogenic, p-coumaric, caffeic and

ferulic acids, and their /3-glucosides), sterols, mucilage, tannin and traces

of cyanogenetic glycoside sambunigrin.

There are limits for discoloured, brown flowers (15%) and for fragments

of coarse pedicels and other foreign matter (8%). Thin-layer

chromatography is employed as a test for identity with further

modification to detect adulteration with Sambucus ebulus.

Allied species. Sambucus ebulus (danewort) is a perennial, foetid

glabrous herb with a creeping rhizome and upright little-branched

stems. It occurs throughout Europe and apart from habit, is distin-

guished from S. nigra by obvious ovate stipules. S. canadensis,

American elder, is a somewhat smaller tree than S. nigra and is widely-

spread throughout North America; it is used similarly to S. nigra.

Action and uses: In modern herbal medicine, elder is used primarily in

treating influenza, colds, and feverish conditions. The extracts also

stimulates antibody protection. Elder flowers are administered

principally as an infusion or herbal tea for the treatment of feverish

conditions and the common cold; it acts as a diaphoretic but the

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mechanism and constituents involved are unclear. The flowers also have

diuretic properties.

It may be noted that the sialic acid-binding lectin present in elder stem-

bark extracts finds considerable current use in certain biochemical

procedures.

LIGNANS

6. Producing plant: Podophyllum peltatum

Mayapple

Family: Berberidaceae

Crude drug: Rhizomata Podophylli

Mayapple rhizome

Podophyllum peltatum is a small. Hardy perennial with a long, creeping

rhizome and usually unbranched stems. Each stem bears one or two

large leaves that are deeply divided into four to nine triangular-shaped

lobes. Drooping white flowers with yellow centers are succeeded by

fleshy fruits full of dark brown seeds. Native to America, mayapple

grows in wet meadows and in damp, open woods. It woodlands the

appearance of the umbrella-like leaves of mayapple is sure sign of

spring. Each round, smooth stem that rises from the damp ground is

crowned by just one or two leaves and single white strong-smelling

flower. A 5cm long green fruit develops from the flower and ripens to

yellow during the summer; it looks like a tiny lemon. The fruit is the only

edible part of a poisonous plant.

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Constituents: The plant contains lignans, podophyllin which is

composed of several toxic glycosides, the most active of which is

podophyllotoxin. Two derivatives of podophyllotoxin that have been

formulated into anticancer drugs are etoposide and teniposide.

Action and uses: Native Americans valued the mayapple as a

purgative, emetic and liver tonic. Podophyllin has been used in

preparations to kill certain types of benign skin tumors such as warts.

They are easily absorbed through the skin and can cause serious

systemic side effects. Etoposide and teniposide are powerful agents

that kill cancer cells, particularly those that are undergoing cell division.

They are used in chemotherapy to inhibit the growth of tumors,

characterized by uncontrolled cell division.

Caution! All parts of mayapple are poisonous, except ripe fruits.

Mayapple preparations should never be used by pregnant women due

to their potential to cause birth defects or death of the fetus.

PHENOLIC ACIDS

7. Producing plant: Schizandra chinensis

Schizandra

Family: Schizandraceae

Crude drug: Fructus Schizandrae

Schizandra fruits

Semen Schizandrae

Schizandra seeds Schizandra chinensis is a monoecious liana, native to Northern China,

Korea, Japan and Eastern Russia, usually found climbing round tree

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trunks. The leaves are elliptical, and the flowers cream, with a pleasant

odour. It flowers appear in May and June and give way to clusters of red

berries that ripen in August and September. The berries are scarlet,

small and ovoid, hanging clusters. When dry they are wrinkled, dark

reddish brown, with a sticky pulp and yellow kidney-shaped seed. Its

use in Chinese medicine goes back 5,000 years; in Chine it is still

considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs. It has been in Russian

Pharmacopoeia since 1961. In August and September when fruits are

ripe and bright red, they can be harvested.

Constituents: The fruits and seeds contain lignans, including

schizandrin A, B; schizandrol A, B; gomisins H, K, L, M, N; flavonoids;

antocyans, essential oil. Fruits also contain vitamin C, organic acids,

pectins, sugars; seeds contain fixed oil.

Action and uses: Schizandra has been used in China since ancient

times to prolong life and increase energy, and act as a general and

sexual tonic, especially for men. It is also used to reduce sweating,

detoxify the liver, enhance kidney function and suppress cough in lung

disease. The adaptogenic, liver protecting, cardiovascular and anti-

inflammatory effects, antifatigue properties have been tested in several

animal studies and approved. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging

effects have also been described. Lignans of Schizandra chinensis fruits

and seeds increase liver cytochrome P 450 enzymes, which supports

the detoxifying and anticancer properties attributed to the plant.

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Chromones

8. Producing plant: Ammi visnaga

Khella

Family: Apiaceae

Crude drug: Fructus Ammi visnagae

Khella fruits

Also known as the “toothpick plant”, as the woody pedicles can be used

for this purpose, Ammi visnaga is an herbaceous annual reaching 1.5m

in height, with divided filiform leaves and typically umbelliferous flowers.

It grows in the Middle East and is collected, particularly in Egypt. The

drug consists of the dried ripe fruits of Ammi visnaga, which are very

small, broadly ovoid and usually found as separate grayish-brown

mericarps. The greyish-brown mericarps are usually separate but are

sometimes attached to the carpophore. Each mericarp is broadly ovoid

and about 0.5 mm long. It has five prominent primary ridges and six vittae.

Odour, slightly aromatic; taste, very bitter.

The drug has a long history of use in the Middle East, especially Egypt,

as an antispasmodic in renal colic, for asthma and as a coronary

vasodilator for angina.

Constituents: The active principles are furanocumarins, the most

important being khellin, together with visnagin, visnadin and khellol

glucoside.

Action and uses: The drug has long been used in Egypt. Khellin,

visnadin and visnagin are vasodilators, with calcium channel blocking

and spasmolytic activity. Khellin, which is now commercially available in

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tablets and injection, is a potent coronary vasodilator. It has been

employed in the treatment of angina pectoris and bronchial asthma, but

its use appears to be limited by undesirable side-reactions. Khellin was

the starting material for the development of several important semi-

synthetic derivatives such as sodium cromoglycate, which is widely

used as a prophylactic treatment for asthma, hay fever and other

allergic conditions, often in the form of an inhaler or eye drops. It was

also the basis for the development of nifedipine (a calcium channel

antagonist and vasodilator) used in heart disease, and amiodarone, a

cardiac antiarrhythmic.

187

MEDICAL PLNATS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING ANTHRAQUINONES AND GLYCOSIDES

Substances of the anthraquinone type were the first to be recognized,

both in the free state and as glycosides. Further work showed that

natural products also contained reduced derivatives of the

anthraquinones (oxanthrones, anthranols and anthrones) and com-

pounds formed by the union of two anthrone molecules (i.e. the

dianthrones).

1. How are antraquinones classified?

2. What kinds of antrachinone derivatives are used in medicine?

3. Haw are the methyl derivatives of antraquinone called and what

kind of pharmacological activity do they suppose?

4. Which plants contain antraquinone dimmers and what kind of

pharmacological activity do they have?

5. Which plants contain polyantraquinones and what is their

pharmacological activity?

6. Mention the chemical content of Hypericum and its

pharmacological action.

7. Mention the chemical content of Rubia tinctorum and the

pharmacological activity of it.

8. How can we determine the identity and good quality of Cascara

bark?

9. What kind of antraquinones does Cascara bark contain and how

do they act pharmacologically?

10. Mention the specificity of the action of Rheum palmatum roots?

11. What kinds of antraquinones does Rheum contain and what is its

pharmacological activity?

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12. What organs are the crude drugs of Cassia and what is their

pharmacological action?

13. Mention the microscopic characteristics of Cassia.

14. Mention the preparations made from Aloe crude drug and what is

their pharmacological action?

15. What are the identification reactions for anraquinones?

16. What are the reactions for the definition of the quantities content

of antraquinones?

17. Mention the physical and chemical characteristics of

anraquinones.

1. Producing plant: Cassia angustifolia

Cassia acutifolia

Senna

Family: Fabaceae

Crude drug: Fructus Cassiae

Folia Cassiae

Senna fruits

Senna leaves

Senna (Sennae Folium) consists of the dried leaflets of Cassia senna L.

(C. acutifolia Delile), which are known in commerce as Alexandrian or

Khartoum senna, and of Cassia angustifolia Vahl, which are known in

commerce as Tinnevelly senna. The senna plants are small shrubs

about 1 m high, with paripinnate compound leaves. Senna has erect

woody stems and leaves are divided into small, oval, leathery green

leaflets arranged on either side of a narrow, grooved stalk. Stems

terminate in spikes of yellow flowers from which 5cn long pea-like pods

develop. The pods contain 6 or more seeds. C. senna is indigenous to

tropical Africa and is cultivated in the Sudan (Kordofan, Sennar). C.

angustifolia is indigenous to Somaliland, Arabia, Sind and the Punjab,

and is cultivated in South India (Tinnevelly).

Alexandrian senna is collected mainly in September, from both wild

and cultivated plants. The branches bearing leaves and pods are dried

in the sun and conveyed.

Macroscopical characters. Senna leaflets bear stout petiolules. The

lamina has an entire margin, an acute apex, and a more or less asym-

metric base (Fig 1). The surfaces are pubescent. Odour, slight but

characteristic; taste, mucilaginous, bitterish and unpleasant.

Fig. 1 Senna leaflets. A, Indian senna; B, Alexandrian senna (both xl); C, transverse section of leaflet (x80); D-H, elements of the powder (all x200); D, leaflet fragment in transverse section; E, F, epidermal fragments in surface view; G, isolated trichomes; H, portion of fibre group with crystal sheath, c, collenchyma cic, cicatrix; cr], cr2, calcium oxalate crystals of the cluster and prismatic type respectively; f, fibre groups; I.e. lower epidermis; I.p. lower palisade layer; m, mesophyll; muc, mucilage; m.a. mucronate apex; p.m, press mark, s, stoma (paracytic type); u.e. upper epidermis; u.p. upper palisade layer; xy, xylem.

189

Senna pods (Sennae Fructus) are the dried, ripe fruits of C. senna and

C. angustifolia (Leguminosae). The Tinnevelly pods are longer and

narrower than the Alexandrian and the brown area of pericarp

surrounding the seeds is greater. The remains of the style are distinct in

the Tinnevelly but not in the Alexandrian. After soaking in water the pods

are readily opened and about six wedge-shaped seeds are disclosed

(Fig 2).

Fig. 2. Senna fruits. A, Tinnevelly fruit; B, Alexandrian fruit; C, Alexandrian pod opened to show seeds (all xl); D, seed of Alexandrian fruit; E, seed of Tinnevelly fruit; F, transverse section of seed; G, isolated embryo with one cotyledon removed (all x4); H, stem with Tinnevelly fruit attached (xl); I, transverse section of pericarp (x90;) J, transverse section of seed coat; K, fragments of epidermis with stomata; L, fragment of epidermis with trichome; M, fibrous layers from endocarp in surface view (all x200); a, brown areas of pericarp covering seeds; c, cotyledons; e, endosperm; e.f, fibrous endocarp; ep, epicarp; f, funiculus; m, mesocarp; p, plumule; pi, placenta; p.I, parenchymatous layers of testa; p.m, press marks from other pods; r, radicle; s, seed; st, stalk; s.p, P) subepidermal palisade; s.p, (A), stylar point; s.r, spathate ridge; tr, trichome; v.b, vascular bundle partially enclosed by fibres.

190

191

Constituents: Since Tutin first isolated aloe-emodin and rhein in 1913,

many other compounds based on these two have been obtained. Later

sennosides A, B, C, D were isolated from senna leaves. These are the

glycosides of heterodianthrones involving rhein and aloe-emodin;

palmidin A: aloe-emodin dianthrone-diglycoside, rhein-anthrone-8-

glycoside, rhein-8-diglucoside, aloe-emodin-8-glucoside, aloe-emodin-

anthrone-diglucoside, ect. Senna also contains the yellow flavonol

colouring matters kaempferol. The active constituents of the pods are

located in the pericarp; they are similar to those of the leaves, together

with sennoside A, which constitutes about 15% of the sennoside

mixture.

Action and uses: The use of laxatives is increasing and senna

constitutes a useful purgative for either habitual constipation or

occasional use. It lacks the astringent after-effect of rhubarb. Despite the

availability of a number of synthetics, sennoside preparations remain

among the most important pharmaceutical laxatives. Today many over

the counter laxatives contain senna as at least one of their active

ingredients (Senade; Glaksena; Regulax; Senadexin, ect).

Caution! Senna is so powerful in its action that it can cause sharp, severe

stomach pains as well as intestinal cramping. Chronic use can disturb

electrolyte balance, or cause dependency or severe side effects.

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2. Producing plant: Frangula alnus

Cascara

Family: Rhamnaceae

Crude drug: Cortex Frangulae

Cascara bark Frangula alnus is a bush or small tree 3m high. The branches are thorn

free. The bark of young branches are brown-red, shining, smooth, with

white lentils. Leaves are alternate, whole edged, wide elliptic, with 6-8

side veins. Flowers are small greenish white, that are followed by red

fruits that turn black as they ripen. Grows in Europe, at water sides.

The bark is collected before flowering when it separates readily from the

wood. Longitudinal incisions about 5-10 cm apart are first made in the

trunk and the bark removed. The tree is then usually felled and the branch

bark separated. The pieces are dried in the shade with the cork uppermost.

During preparation and storage the bark must be protected from rain and

damp or partial extraction of the constituents may occur or the bark may

become mouldy. The bark must be kept for at least 1 year before use or be

treated by a 105ºC temperature (for oxidation), as the reduced forms of

antraquinons (antrones and antranols) present in the bark can cause

severe laxative effect, followed by vomiting and intestinal pains. The bark

appears to increase in medicinal value and price until it is about 4 years

old.

The bark occurs in quills, or channelled or nearly flat pieces. All of these

forms may attain 20 cm in length, the thinner bark being most esteemed.

The flat strips from the trunk are usually much wider (up to 10 cm) than

the quills or channelled pieces (about 5-20 mm) obtained from the

branches.

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Constituents: In a fresh bark glocosides of antrone and antronol are

present, after a year the products of their oxidation appear:

glukofrangulin, frangulin, frangul-emodin, chryzophanolic acid.

Action and uses: It is widly used in chronic constipations. Cascara is

also taken as a remedy for colitis, hemorrhoids and jaundice. Cascara is

considered the least likely to cause undesirable side effects such as

intestinal cramping.

3. Producing plant: Rheum palatum

Rhubarb

Family: Polygonaceae

Crude drug: Radices Rhei

Rhubarb roots

Rhubarb (Chinese Rhubarb) consists of the dried underground parts of

Rheum palmatum. The drug appears still to be obtained from both wild

and cultivated plants grown on the high plateaux of Asia from Tibet to

south-east China. The drug is required to contain not less than 2.2% of

hydroxy anthraquinone derivatives calculated as rhein. Rheum palmatum is

2-2.5m tall herb, with has thick, deep roots, a jointed stalk, and loose

panicles of flowers along the top that bloom yellow or white and turn red.

The rosette leaves can reach 1.5m long, are jagged, hand-shaped, 60-90

sm wide.

Provided that the older accounts are still substantially correct, the

rhizomes are grown at a high altitude (over 3000 m) dug up in autumn or

spring when about 6-10 years old, decorticated and dried. The

decorticated rhizomes are when whole roughly cylindrical ('rounds') or if

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cut longitudinally are in planoconvex pieces ('flats'). Pieces used often to

show a hole indicating that they had been threaded on cords for drying.

The drug is exported from Shanghai to Tientsin, often via Hong Kong.

The better qualities are packed in tin-lined wooden cases containing

either 280 lb or 50 kg, and inferior quality in hessian bags.

History. Chinese rhubarb has a long history. It is mentioned in an herbal of about 2700 BC

and subsequently formed an important article of commerce on the Chinese trade routes to

Europe. Today it still holds a place in medicine.

Constituents: As with other anthraquinone-containing drugs, the chemical

complexity of rhubarb was not fully appreciated by the earlier research

workers. Free anthraquinones were the first substances to be isolated:

chrysophanol, aloe-emodin, rhein, emodin and emodin monomethylether

orphyscion. In addition to the above purgative compounds, rhubarb contains

astringent compounds such as glucogallin, free gallic acid, (-)-epicatechin

gal-late and catechin. Rhubarb also contains starch and calcium oxalate. Action and uses: Preparations of Rhubarb are famous as

astringent/cathartic. In small doses they have an astringent properties;

and in large doses-cathartic (as well as a strong laxative). Tannins in the

root cause as astringent action making it useful in the early stages of

diarrhea, dysentery and other intestinal problems. Rhubarb is used as a

bitter stomachic and in the treatment of diarrhoea, purgation being

followed by an astringent effect. The drug is suitable as an occasional

aperients, and for the treatment of chronic constipation. Experiments in

animals have shown rhubarb extracts to be effective in preventing and

treating gastric bleeding and ulcer formation. It is used in different

forms of preparations: powders, decocts, tablets, extracts.

Other rhubarbs. 1. Chinese rhapontic. This is known commercially as 'Chinese Rhapontica' but

has been offered under the names of 'Tai-Hwang' or 'Tze-Hwang' without

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indication that it is a rhapontic type. It consists of untrimmed pieces sometimes

split longitudinally. The transverse surface shows a radiate structure, with

concentric rings of paler and darker colour, and a diffuse ring of star spots. The

centre may be hollow. The odour, which is sweetish, differs from that of official

rhubarb. Rhapontic rhubarb, like the official, gives a positive test for

anthraquinone derivatives. When the test for absence of rhapontic rhubarb is

applied, it gives a distinct blue fluorescence, which may be further intensified by

exposure to ammonia vapour.

2. Indian rhubarb. Indian rhubarb consists of the dried rhizome and roots of R.

australe (formerly called R. emodi) and webbianum. It is found in Pakistan,

Kashmir, Nepal and eastern India. Since World War II, when there was a

shortage of Chinese rhubarb, large quantities of the Indian drug have been

exported. It occurs in unpeeled or partly peeled pieces, which are barrel-shaped

or planoconvex, shrunken and light in weight. The freshly fractured surface is

dull orange to yellowish-brown. Cork cells are easily found in the powder. It

contains anthraquinone derivatives and in ultraviolet light shows a deep violet

fluorescence. The anti-inflammatory activity of the roots has been studied.

3. Japanese rhubarb. A hybrid of R. coreanum and R. palmatum. It contains

anthraquinone derivatives, naphthalene glycosides similar to those illustrated

for senna, stilbene glycosides and (+)-catechin.

3. Producing plant: Aloe Arborescens Aloe vera Aloe Family: Liliaceae Crude drug: Folia Aloes recens Aloes fresh leaves

Aloes is the solid residue obtained by evaporating the liquid which

drains from the transversely cut leaves of various species of Aloe

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(Liliaceae). The juice is usually concentrated by boiling and solidifies on

cooling.

The official {BP, EP, RP, USP) varieties of aloes are the Cape from

South Africa and Kenya, and the Barbados (Curacao) from the West

Indian Islands of Curacao, Aruba and Bonaire. There are separate

pharmacopoeial monographs for each type. Socotrine and Zanzibar vari-

eties are no longer official.

Aloe is a succulent, tender perennial, which has tough, fleshy,

grayish-green leaves that taper to a point like a spear. They have small,

spiny teeth along the margins. The leaves arise directly from the root

and grow as a circular cluster about 20-65cm tall. Yellow, tubular

flowers are produced on a branching flower stalk that rises above the

rest of the plant.

Aloe in native to Mediterranean coastal areas, but grows wild in

tropical and subtropical regions where the climate is sunny and dry,

including the southern Mediterranean, Latin America and the

Caribbean. It is also extensively cultivated worldwide.

Leaf structure. Transverse sections of an Aloe leaf usually show the

following zones: (1) a strongly cuticularized epidermis with numerous

stomata on both surfaces; (2) a region of parenchyma containing

chlorophyll, starch and occasional bundles of needles of calcium

oxalate; (3) a central region which frequently occupies about three-fifths

of the diameter of the leaf, consisting of large, mucilage-containing

parenchymatous cells; (4) a double row of vascular bundles which lie at

the junction of the two previous zones and have a well-marked pericycle

and endodermis. The aloetic juice from which the drug is prepared is

contained in the large, pericyclic cells and sometimes in the adjacent

parenchyma. When the leaves are cut, the aloetic juice flows out. No

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pressure should be applied or the aloes will be contaminated with

mucilage.

Preparation of Cape aloes. Cape aloes is prepared from wild plants of

Aloe. The leaves are cut transversely near the base and about 200 of them

are arranged round a shallow hole in the ground, which is lined with plastic

sheeting or more traditionally a piece of canvas or a goatskin. The leaves

are arranged so that the cut ends overlap and drain freely into the canvas.

After about 6 h all the juice has been collected and it is transferred to a

drum or paraffin tin in which it is boiled for about 4 h on an open fire. The

product is poured while hot into tins, each holding 25 kg, where it

solidifies. For export the tins are placed in cases holding two, four or eight

tins.

The source of aloe’s major role in herbal medicine in the bitter, yellow

liquid that is derived from the outer layer of its leaves.

Characters of Cape aloes. The drug occurs in dark-brown or greenish-

brown, glassy masses. Thin fragments have a deep olive colour and are

semitransparent. The powder is greenish-yellow, and when pieces of the

drug have rubbed against one another, patches of powder are found on

the surface. The drug has a very characteristic, sour odour (the so-

called rhubarb or apple-tart odour), which is particularly noticeable’ if one

breathes on the drug before smelling. Taste, nauseous and bitter. The

powder when examined under the microscope in lactophenol is usually

amorphous.

Constituents: Aloes contain C-glycosides and resins. The crystalline

glycosides known as 'aloin' contains not less than 70% anhydrous

barbaloin. The main crystalline glycoside, barbaloin, is found in all the

commercial varieties Barbaloin is a C-glycoside—a 10-glucopyranosyl

derivative of aloe-emodin-anthrone. Unlike O-glycosides, it is not

hydrolyzed by heating with dilute acids or alkalis. It can, however, be

decomposed by oxidative hydrolysis, with reagents such as ferric

chloride, when it yields glucose, aloe-emodin anthrone and a little aloe-

emodin.

As with other anthraquinone-producing plants, in Aloe species the content

of anthraquinones is subject to seasonal variation, and these compounds

are implicated in the active metabolism of the plant. The anthraquinone

derivatives are confined to the leaf juices and that aloin reaches a maximum

concentration in the dried leaf juices of Aloe in the summer (24.1% in

November) and is lowest in winter (14.8% in July).

Action and uses: The source of Aloe’s major role in herbal medicine is

the bitter, yellow liquid that is derived from it is seldom prescribed alone,

and its activity is increased when it is administered with small quantities of

soap or alkaline salts, while carminatives moderate its tendency to cause

griping. It is an ingredient of Compound Benzoin Tincture (Friars' Balsam).

Also known as drug aloe, aloe latex, aloe juice or aloe sap it has a

powerful purgative, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, encouraging cellular

repair, and stimulating the immune system effects. When the leaves are

kept for 12 days in inconvenient conditions (kept in the temperature

conditions of 4-8ºC) biostimulators are synthesized in the tissues of the

leaves. These compounds facilitate the processes of regeneration and

cause stimulating action. From the fresh biostimulators following

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preparations are prepared: Extract Aloe for injections, which is used

during eye diseases, stomach, duodenal ulcer diseases, bronchial

asthma, gynecological diseases; Fluid extract of Aloe which is used for

the treatment of the same diseases and is used per os; Aloe juice for

external use during bunts, inflammatory diseases of the skin, inflamed

wounds, and internal use during gastritis, gastroenteritis, enterecolitis,

constipations.

Alizarin derivatives

4. Producing plant: Rubia tinctorum

Madder

Family: Rubiaceae

Crude drug: Rhizomata cum radicibus Rubiae

Madder rhizome and roots

Madder (Rubia tinctorum), also called turkey red, is an Old World dye

plant native to S Europe. The herb's long fleshy root was the principal

source of various fast, brilliant red dye pigments until artificial production

of alizarin, the color principle of madder. The plant was known to ancient

peoples—madder-dyed cloth has been found in Egyptian mummy cases

and was cultivated in the East for centuries and in Europe from the late

Middle Ages. The Common Madder can grow to 1.5 m in height. The

evergreen leaves are 5-10 cm long and 2-3 cm broad, produced in

whorls of 4-7 star like around the central stem. It climbs with tiny hooks

at the leaves and stems. The flowers are small (3-5 mm across), with

five pale yellow petals, in dense racemes, and appear from June to

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August, followed by small (4-6 mm diameter) red to black berries. The

roots are between 20-30 cm long, up to 12 mm thick and reddish-brown

from outside and orange-red in the cut. The odour is weak and

characteristic, taste is sweet at the beginning, then tannic and bitter. It

prefers loamy soils with a constant level of moisture.

The roots are harvested in the autumn from plants that are at least 3

years old. Constituents: The roots and rhizomes contain up to 7%

hydroxyanthraquinones, alizarin mainly; ruberithrinic acid and other

organic acids, pectins. Action and uses: The root is aperient, astringent, cholagogue, diuretic

and emmenagogue. It is taken internally in the treatment of kidney and

bladder stones. Rubia gradually loosens and blasts stones, transforming

them into sand, and, due to its spasmolytic and urinative actions,

painlessly remove it from kidneys and urinary tracts. It is so difficult to

solve stones, as oxalic and phosphate are loosened. Rubia tinctorum is

applied for urolithiasis, inflammatory diseases of kidneys and urinary

tracts, gout, osteochondrosis. It gives spasmolytic and urinative effects,

promotes painless passing and removing small stones and sand from

kidneys and urinary tracts. When taken internally the root imparts a red

colour to the milk, urine and bones, especially the bones of young

animals, and it is used in osteopathic investigations.

The extratctum siccum and its tablets are used.

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Plyantraquinones

5. Producing plant: Hypericum perforatum

St. John’s wort

Family: Hypericaceae

Crude drug: Herba Hyperici

St. John’s wort herb

Hypericum consists of the dried aerial parts of Hypericum perforatum,

family Hypericaceae (Clusiaceae) gathered usually at the time of

flowering or shortly before. Commercial extracts are standardized on

their naphthodianthrone content, expressed as hypericin.

The plant is abundant throughout Europe in grassland, woodlands and

hedges, extending to the Himalayas and Central and Russian Asia, except

in Arctic regions. It was introduced into NE America and Australia at an

early stage of colonization where it has since become a noxious weed. It is

an herbaceous perennial, usually forming a colony with a spreading root

system. The bright yellow flowers are in handsome terminal corymbs.

Collection is from wild and cultivated plants and increased demand has

meant that farmers in the US and Australia who battled to eradicate it as a

weed now harvest it as a viable crop. Care should be taken during

collecting as contact photosensitivity has been reported. Drying at 70° for

10 hours is recommended.

Macroscopy. The drug consists of green leaf fragments and stems,

unopened buds and yellow flowers. Oil glands are visible in the leaves as

transparent areas, hence the specific name perforatum, and as small

black dots on the lower surface. The opposite, sessile leaves are 1.5-4.0

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cm in length, elliptical to ovate in outline, glabrous with an entire margin.

Pieces of hollow stem are cylindrical with two faint ribs on either side. The

odour is distinct and the taste slightly sweet and astringent. History. The plant was known in ancient Greece for its medicinal attributes and since the Middle

Ages has been used for its anti-inflammatory and healing properties. It also became highly

regarded for the treatment of mental illness. The generic name derives from the Greek hyper—

above, and icon (eikon)—picture, referring to the ancient practice of hanging the plant above

religious pictures to ward off evil spirits. The common name St John's wort is attributed to the fact,

among others, that it comes into flower around St John's Day (June 24th).

Constituents: Hypericum contains a variety of constituents with bio-

logical activity: Anthraquinones. Principally hypericin and

pseudohypericin; also iso-hypericin and emodin-anthrone, phenylated

phloroglucinol derivatives. Hyperforin (2.0-4.5%), adhyperforin and

furohyperforin, the latter at concentrations of about five per cent of the

hyper forin content. These phloroglucinols constitute the principal

components of the lipophilic extract of the plant.

Flavonoids. These include flavonols such as kaempferol, luteolin and

quercetin, the flavonol glycosides quercitrin, isoquercitrin and hyperoside.

The biflavonoid amentoflavone (Fig. 3) is confined principally to the

flowers. Volatile oil. up to 0.35% consisting principally of saturated hydro-

carbons including alkanes and alkanols in the range C16-C25.

Other constituents. Many other components of hypericum have been

reported including various plant acids (caffeic, chlorogenic, etc.), amino

acids, vitamin C, tannins and carotenoids.

Fig 3. Hypericins and phloroglucinols of hypericum.

Action and uses: St. John’s wort has been regarded as a healing

remedy for wounds-sores, burns, bruises, sprains, cuts, inflammations.

It is also used to treat stomach complaints, nervous exhaustion,

insomnia, depression. The current explosion in the popularity of St

John's wort relates to its unregulated availability for the treatment of

mild to moderate depression. In the USA for the first eight months of

1999, it ranked second to ginkgo as the best selling product of the

herbal mainstream market, with retail sales valued at over $78. In

Germany it represented 25% of all antidepressant prescriptions. It has

been described as 'Nature's Prozac' without the disadvantageous side-

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effects of the latter. The antidepressive activity of Hypericum perforatum

is due to hyperforin. Hypericin exhibits pronounced antiviral activity

against herpes, hepatitis.

Infuses, tinctures, “Novoimain” preparation of Hypericum perforatum are

used in the treatment of colitis, external- for the treatment of burns, gum

diseases, stomatitis, ect. The preparations of hypericum exhibit also

antimicrobial activity and are used in the treatment of phlegmonies,

infected wounds, stomach and duodenal ulcers, ect.

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MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIAL CONTAINING TANNINS

The term 'tannin' was first applied by Seguin in 1796 to denote sub-

stances present in plant extracts which were able to combine with protein

of animal hides, prevent their putrefaction and convert them into leather.

Most true tannins have molecular weights of from about 1000 to 5000.

Many tannins are glycosides.

1. Which kind of chemical compounds are called tannins?

2. What is the specific characteristic for tannins?

3. How are tannins classified?

4. What are the reactions defining the character of tannins?

5. What is the pharmacological action of tannins?

6. What are the factors acting on the cumulation of tannins?

7. How are the plants containing tannins collected, dried and

stored?

8. What is the crude drug of Quercus and how it acts

pharmacologically?

9. What are the functional groups responsible for the antibacterial

activity of tannins?

10. What are the reaction with the help of which we can find out

tannins in crude drugs/

206

1. Producing plant: Quercus infectoria

Dyer’s oak

Family: Fagaceae

Crude drug: Turkey Galls

Turkish galls

Turkish galls (Turkey Galls; Guild) are vegetable growths formed on the

young twigs of the dyer's oak, Quercus infectoria (Fagaceae), as a result

of the deposition of the eggs of the gall-wasp Adleria gallaetinctoriae.

The dyer's oak is a small tree or shrub about 2 m high which is found in

Turkey, Syria, Persia, Cyprus and Greece. Abnormal development of

vegetable tissue round the larva is due to an enzyme-containing secre-

tion, produced by the young insect after it has emerged from the egg,

which by the rapid conversion of starch into sugar stimulates cell division.

As starch disappears from the neighborhood of the insect, shrinkage

occurs and a central cavity is formed in which the insect passes through

the larval and pupal stages. Finally, if the galls are not previously collected

and dried, the mature insect or imago bores its way out of the gall and

escapes. During these changes the colour of the gall passes from a

bluish-grey through olive-green to almost white.

Galls are collected by the peasants of Turkey and Syria. After drying

they are graded according to colour into three grades, blue, green and

white. History. Galls were well known to the ancient writers and Pliny records the use

of their infusion as a test for sulphate of iron in verdigris, possibly the earliest

mention of an attempt to detect adulteration by chemical means.

Characters: Aleppo galls are globular in shape and from 10 to 25 mm in

diameter. They have a short, basal stalk and numerous rounded projections

on the surface. Galls are hard and heavy, usually sinking in water. The so-

called 'blue' variety is actually of a grey or brownish-grey colour. These, and

to a lesser extent the olive-green 'green' galls, are preferred to the "white'

variety, in which the tannin is said to have been partly decomposed. White

galls also differ from the other grades in having a circular tunnel through

which the insect has emerged. Galls without the opening have insect

remains in the small central cavity. Galls have a very astringent taste. Constituents: Galls contain 50-70% of the tannin known as

gallotannic acid; this is a complex mixture of phenolic acid glycosides

varying greatly in composition. It is prepared by fermenting the galls and

extracting with water-saturated ether. Galls also contain gallic acid (about

2-4%), ellagic acid, sitosterol, methyl betulate, methyl oleanolate, starch

and calcium oxalate. Nyctanthic, roburic and syringic acids have more

recently been identified and syringic acid has been identified as the

CNS-active component of the methanolic extract of galls. Tannic acid is

hydrolysable tannin yielding gallic acid and glucose and having the

minimum complexity of pentadigalloyl glucose. Solutions of tannic acid tend

to decompose on keeping with formation of gallic acid, a substance which

is also found in many commercial samples of tannic acid. It may be

detected by the pink colour produced on the addition of a 5% solution of

potassium cyanide.

Allied drugs. Many different kinds of galls are known. They are generally

produced on plants, but sometimes on animals. In addition to the large

number produced by insects, particularly of the genera Cynips and

Aphis, some are produced by fungi.

Chinese and Japanese galls are of considerable commercial importance.

They are produced by an aphis, Schlectendalia chinensis, on the petioles of

the leaves of Rhus chinensis (Anacardiaceae). These galls, which the

Chinese call 'wu-pei-tzu', meaning 'five knots', are irregular in shape and

partly covered with a grey, velvety down, the removal of which discloses a

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reddish-brown surface. They break easily and show a large, irregular cavity

containing insect remains. They contain 57-77% of tannin and have been

valued in China as astringents and styptics for at least 1250 years.

Crowned Aleppo galls are sometimes found in samples of ordinary

Aleppo galls. They are about the size of a pea, are stalked, and bear a

crown of projections near the apex. The insect producing them is

Cynips polycera.

Hungarian galls are produced by Cynips lignicola on Quercus robur

growing in former Yugoslavia. They are used in tanning. English oak

galls, formed by Adleria kollari on Quercus robur, contain about 15-20%

of tannin.

Action and uses: Galls are used as a source of tannic acid, for tanning

and dyeing, and in the manufacture of inks. Tannic acid is used as an

astringent and styptic.

2. Producing plant: Vaccinium myrtillus

Bilberry

Family: Ericaceae

Crude drug: Fructus Myrtilli

Bilberry fruits

Vaccinium myrtillus is a small, branching, decidous shrub that rarely

grows more than 40cm high. It has oval, glossy green leaves and white

or pinkish bell-shaped flowers that are followed by blue-black berries.

Bilberry, also known huckleberry grows in hilly and mountainous regions

of Asia, Europe, and North America. It is cultivated extensively for its

delicious fruit, which ripen from July to September. The soft blue-black

209

berries, about 0.5-1 cm in diameter, have persistent calyx ring at the

apex and contain numerous small oval seeds.

Constituents: The fruit contains anthocyanosides, mainly galactosides

and glucosides of cyaniding, delphinidin and malvidin, together with

vitamin C and volatile flavour components. Unlike other Vaccinium ssp.,

bilberry does not contain arbutin or other hydrochinone derivatives.

Action and uses: Anthocyanosides are powerful antioxidants that

scavenge free radicals – destructive particles formed in the body.

Bilberry anthocyanosides appear to strengthen capillaries, the smallest

blood vessels, by protecting them from free radical damage and by

stimulating growth of healthy connective tissue. Bilberry

anthocyanosides also appear to regenerate rhodopsin, a pigment found

in the retina critical to night vision. Bilberry fruits are recommended for

improving visual acuity, preventing and treating degeneration,

glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy, and for preventing cataracts.

Bilberry extracts are also used for varicose veins, atherosclerosis,

hemorrhoids, bruising. Preparations of the fruits and also the leaves are

employed to treat diarrhea and stomach upsets, and for inflammations

of mucous membranes of the mouth, throat, stomach lining, and urinary

tract.

3. Producing plant: Camellia (Thea) sinensis Tea Family: Theaceae Crude drug: Folia Theae Tea leaf buds

Tea grows as a large evergreen shrub or small tree. In the wild it may

reach 10m in height, but under cultivation tea plants are typically less

210

than 2m tall. Camellia’s lance shaped leaves are glossy dark green with

finely serrated edges. White, fragrant flowers are succeeded by small,

brown fruits with three partions; each of these contains a single seed.

Camellia is native to southest Asia, has been cultivated in China and

India for thousands of years. It is now widely cultivated throughout Asia,

parts of Africa and the Middle East. Camellia grows best in tropical or

subtropical climates where it receives plenty of sun and moisture.

Constituents: Tea contains caffeine, and much smaller amounts of

other xanthines such as theophylline and theobromine. The polyphenols

are the antioxidant constituents (in green tea these are mainly (-)-

epigallocatechin) together with theogallin, trigalloyl glucose. In black tea

they have been oxidized to form the tea pigments (theaflavins,

thearubigens and theaflavic acids).

Action and uses: Tea is a stimulant, diuretic, astringent and the

polyphenol catechins are powerful antioxidants. Tea is useful in

diarrhea, and in China it is used in many types of dysentery. The

polyphenols in green tea have cancer chemopreventive properties due

to their antioxidant capacity. The polyphenols of green tea have also

vitamin P activity and have a vein protective activity. Recently tea-and

green tea particular- has been shown to possibly reduce the risk of

atherosclerosis, lower total cholesterol while rising “good” high density

lipoprotein (HDL) levels in blood, reduce risk of heart attack, positively

stimulate the central nervous system. Some studies suggest that green

tea or green tea extract may help burn fat by raising the body’s

metabolic rate, but more research in this area is needed.

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CONTENTS

The methods of pharmacognostic observation of raw materials. 3 The macroscopic analysis of the raw material…………………………. 5 The microscopic examination of the crude drug……………………….. .8 Medical plants and raw materials containing terpanoids (isoprenoids) ……………………………………………………….…… 11 Medical plants and raw materials containing monocyclic monoterpenoids…………………………………………………………... 13 Mentha Piperita………………………………………………………………… 13 Salvia officinalis…………………………………………………………... 16 Thymus vulgaris, Th serpyllum.…………………………………………… 17 Rosmarinus officinalis…………………………………………………….. 19 Eucalyptus viminalis, E cinerea, E globules…………………………… 20 Medical plants and raw materials containing sesquiterpenes……….. 22 Tilia cordata, T. platyphyllos…………………………………………….. 22 Matricaria Chamomilla, M. matricarioides……………………………... 23 Artemisia absinthium……………………………………………………. .26 Artemisia cina …………………………………………………………… .28 Achillea millefolium……………………………………………………… 29 Zingiber officinale………………………………………………………… 31 Inula helenium…………………………………………………………… . 35 Medical plants and raw materials containing bicyclic terpenoides… 36 Tanacetum vulgare, T. parthenium…………………………………….. 36 Valeriana officinalis……………………………………………………… 37 Juniperus communis…………………………………………………….. 40 Medical plants belonging to the family Apiaceae and their raw materials…………………………………………………………… ……. 42 Anisum vulgare ………………………………………………………… 42 Foeniculum vulgare……………………………………………………….44 Carum carvi………………………………………………………………..46 Coriandrum sativum………………………………………………………47 Medical plants and raw materials containing iridoids…………….51 Gentiana lutea…………………………………………………………….52 Taraxacum officinale……………………………………………………. 55 Centaurium minor…………………………………………………………56 Acorus calamus…………………………………………………………..57 Humulus lupulus………………………………………………………… 58 Medical plants and raw materials containing vitamins……………61 Rosa species………………………………………………………………62 Ribes nigrum…………………………………………………………… 64 Primula veris……………………………………………………………… 65 Juglans regia………………………………………………………………67

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Calendula officinalis …………………………………………………… 68 Bidens tripartita……………………………………………………………69 Gnaphalium uliginosum………………………………………………….70 Hippophae rhamnoides…………………………………………………. 72 Urtica dioica……………………………………………………………… 73 Zea mays………………………………………………………………… 74 Capsella bursa-pastoris………………………………………………… 76 Lagochilus inebrians…………………………………………………… 77 Medical plants and raw materials containing alkaloids………….. 79 Ephedra equisetina, E intermedia, E major…………………………… 82 Colchicim speciosum…………………………………………………… 84 Atropa belladonna………………………………… …………………… 86 Hyoscyamus niger…………………………………………………………90 Datura stramonium……………………………………………………… .92 Erythroxylon coca……………………………………………………….. 96 Cinchona succirubra, C Ledgeriana, C. officinalis…………………….98 Echinops ritro…………………………………………………………….101 Thermopsis laceolata…………………………………………………. .102 Papaver somniferum……………………………………………………103 Cephaelis Ipecacuanha………………………………………………… 108 Claviceps purpurea………………………………………………………111 Rauwolfia serpentina…………………………………………………….114 Theobroma cacao………………………………………………………..117 Aconitum napellus……………………………………………………….121 Veratrum album…………………………………………………….. 123 Medical plants and raw materials containing polysaccharides 126 Althea officinalis, A. armeniaca……………………………………… 127 Linum usitatissimum…………………………………………………… 128 Plantago major, P. minor, P. lanceolata………………………………130 Plantago psyllium………………………………………………………. 131 Tussilago Farfara……………………………………………………… 132 Laminaria digitata………………………………………… ……..… 134 Medical plants and raw materials containing cardiac glycosides………………………………………………………………136 Digitalis purpurea, D. lanata…………………………………………. 137 Strophantus Kombe…………………………………………………….142 Adonis vernalis………………………………………………………….144 Convallaria majalis…………………………………………………….. 145 Medical plants and raw materials containing saponins……………………………………………………………… 148 Glycyrrhiza glabra……………………………………………………….149 Equisetum arvense…………………………………………………… 153 Orthosiphon stamineus……………………………………………….. 154 Panax ginseng……………………………………………………… 155

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Bryonia alba……………………………………………………………158 Medical plants and raw materials containing flavonoids……………………………………………………………….160 Crataegus oxyacantha, C. sanguinea…………………………………161 Leonurus cardiaca……………………………………………………..162 Polygonum hydropiper……………………………………………… 164 Polygonum persicaria ……………………………………………….165 Polygonum aviculare…………………………………………………. 166 Helychrysum arenarium………………………………………………. 167 Sophora japonica………………………………………………………168 Aronia melanocarpa…………………………………………………… 169 Ononis arvensis………………………………………………………….170 Medical plants and raw materials containng phenolic glycosides, cumarines, furocumarines, lignans………………………………172 Arctostaphylos uva ursi…………………………………………………173 Filix Mas…………………………………………………………………. 174 Aesculus hippocastanum………………………………………………177 Rhodiola rosea………………………………………………………… 178 Sambucus nigra……………………………………………………….. 180 Podophyllum peltatum………………………………………………… 181 Schizandra chinensis………………………………………………… 182 Ammi visnaga……………………………………………………………184 Medical plants and raw materials containng antraquinones and glycosides……………………………………………………………...186 Cassia angustifolia, C. acutifolia……………………………………...187 Frangula alnus………………………………………………………… 190 Rheum palmatum……………………………………………………… 192 Aloe Arborescens, A. vera……………………………………………. 194 Rubia tinctorum……………………………………………………… 198 Hypericum perforatum………………………………………………… 199 Medical plants and raw materials containing tannins………… 203 Quercus infectoria…………………………………………………………203 Vaccinium myrtillus……………………………………………………206 Camellia (Thea) sinensis…………………………………………. 207 References………………………………………………………………209

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CONTENTS The methods of pharmacognostic observation of raw materials ......................... 7 The macroscopic analysis of the raw material .................................................... 9 The microscopic examination of the crude drug. .............................................. 12

MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING TERPENOIDS (ISOPRENOIDS) .................................................................... 15 MEDICAL PLANTS AND ............................................................................. 54 RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING IRIDOIDS ............................................. 54

MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING VITAMINES .................................................................................................... 64 MEDICAL PLANTS ........................................................................................ 80 AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING ALKALOIDS .............................. 80 PROTOALKALOIDS ...................................................................................... 82 Phenethylisoguinoline alkoloids ....................................................................... 84 Tropane alkoloids ............................................................................................. 86 Quinoline alkoloids........................................................................................... 97 Quinolizidine alkoloides ................................................................................. 101 Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids .......................................................................... 102 OPIUM ........................................................................................................... 104 TETRAHYDROISOQUINOLINE MONOTERPENOID ALKALOIDS ...... 107 Indole alkoloids .............................................................................................. 109 Ergot alkoloids ................................................................................................ 109 Purine alkaloids .............................................................................................. 117 TERPENOID ALKALODS............................................................................ 121 STEROIDAL ALKALODS............................................................................ 123

MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING POLISACCHARIDES .................................................................................... 126

MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING CARDIOACTIVE GLYCOSIDES ................................................................ 136 MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING SAPONINS

........................................................................................................................ 148 MEDICAL PLNATS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING

FLAVONOIDS ............................................................................................... 160 MEDICAL PLNATS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING

PHENOLICGLYCOSIDES, CUMARINES, FUROCUMARINES, LIGNANS ........................................................................................................................ 172 Simple phenolic compounds ........................................................................... 173 OXYCOUMARINS........................................................................................ 177 PHENOLIC ALCOHOLS .............................................................................. 179 LIGNANS....................................................................................................... 182 PHENOLIC ACIDS ....................................................................................... 183

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Chromones ...................................................................................................... 185 MEDICAL PLNATS AND RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING

ANTHRAQUINONES AND GLYCOSIDES ................................................ 187 Alizarin derivatives......................................................................................... 199 Plyantraquinones ............................................................................................ 201 MEDICAL PLANTS AND RAW MATERIAL CONTAINING TANNINS 205 REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 211 CONTENTS ................................................................................................... 213