The Marine Science Institute University of the …innri.unuftp.is/pdf/Marine Protected Areas.pdf · The Marine Science Institute University of the Philippines Diliman 1101 Quezon

How can we reconcile sustainable fisheriesutilization with marine reserves?

In the previous discussions, we see the Philippinesand its Southeast Asian countries experiencingsimilar declines in their fishery resources. Jacksonet al.(2001) has implicated that this condition ofoverexploitation of the worlds fishery resources havebeen observed many times in the past even withtraditional communities. Perhaps the intuitive logichas urged many countries to take steps to curb thisdownward trend through the establishment of marine

protected areas (MPAs) and no-take zones (Fig. 1)(Roberts et al. 2002). In the Philippines, a pleasantturn of events has occurred where a burgeoningincrease in the number of MPAs has been observed(Fig. 2) (Aliño et al. 2000). Establishing more marinereserves could seem initially interesting consideringthe high dependence of its fishing population.

Historically varying objectives have been providedas the underlying basis for the establishment of anational integrated protected areas system (NIPAS)(Aliño and Uychiaoco 1999). Under the NIPAS act

Marine ProtectedAreas in thePhilippines

How much spillover do weneed?

PORFIRIO M. ALIÑO, PhDThe Marine Science InstituteUniversity of the PhilippinesDiliman 1101 Quezon City

PHILIPPINES

Figure 1. Global distribution of marine protected areas (MPAs). (Source: EMECS 2001)

one of the important criteria was“representativeness” perhaps akin to the concept forestablishing a global representative system of MPAsunder the International Union for Conservation ofNature - Commission on National Priority ProtectedAreas (IUCN-CNPPA, Kelleher et al. 1995). On theotherhand, in the Philippines most of the MPAs havebeen established for the purpose of sustainingfisheries utilization in the adjacent fishing areas (e.g.more like the Marine Fishery Reserves as stipulatedin Republic Act (RA) 8550, 1998; also see Pajaro etal. 1999). Arceo et al. 2001 summarizes the variouscriteria for establishment and the importance ofdetermining the threats and root concerns of apotential priority MPA (Table 1).

The works of the tandem of Alcala (1988, 2001)and co-workers, Russ and Alcala (1996), have beenone of the more acclaimed papers to demonstratethe effectiveness of having marine reserves in therecovery of depleted stocks (i.e. within the protectedareas). In the Philippines, a recent initiative to lookat an integrated framework of national priority

conservation areas has been undertaken using a seriesFigure 2. Over 400 MPAs have been reported in the Phil-ippines. (Source: Aliño et al. 2001)

Table 1. Example of evaluation criteria of significance values of MPA and the threat levels in each area to deriveimportant relative concerns in among various MPAs (Source: ARCBC 2001)

S IG N IF IC A N C E O F T H E M P A

MP

As

IN V

IETN

AM

Bio

geo

grap

hic

Nat

ura

lnes

s

Eco

log

ical

So

cial

Sci

entif

ic

Int'l

/Nat

iona

l

Pra

ctic

ality

Use

co

nflic

ts

En

dang

ered

sp

ecie

s

SU

M

AV

ERA

GE

MO

DE

1 4 3 2 2 3 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 .4 4 22 5 3 5 2 4 3 3 3 2 3 0 3 .3 3 33 1 3 4 3 3 5 4 3 2 2 8 3 .1 1 34 4 3 3 2 4 3 3 4 3 2 9 3 .2 2 35 3 2 3 1 2 1 3 3 2 2 0 2 .2 2 36 5 4 5 5 5 4 4 3 5 4 0 4 .4 4 57 4 4 4 1 3 1 4 3 3 2 7 3 .0 0 48 4 3 4 2 3 1 4 2 3 2 6 2 .8 9 49 4 3 4 1 3 1 3 3 2 2 4 2 .6 7 3

1 0 3 3 3 1 2 1 3 3 2 2 1 2 .3 3 31 1 5 3 4 5 4 5 2 4 4 3 6 4 .0 0 41 2 4 3 4 1 4 5 4 3 3 3 1 3 .4 4 41 3 4 4 4 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 5 2 .7 8 41 4 5 4 4 1 4 1 3 2 3 2 7 3 .0 0 41 5 4 3 4 1 3 1 3 3 3 2 5 2 .7 8 31 6 4 3 3 1 4 3 2 4 2 2 6 2 .8 9 41 7 4 4 4 1 2 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 .5 6 41 8 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 4 2 2 5 2 .7 8 3

S U M 7 0 5 8 6 7 3 3 5 9 4 0 5 7 5 2 4 9A V E R A 3 .8 9 3 .2 2 3 .7 2 1 .8 3 3 .2 8 2 .2 2 3 .1 7 2 .8 9 2 .7 2M O D E 4 3 4 1 3 1 3 3 2

O V E R A L L

of consultation workshops. This process utilizes amap based computerized Geographic InformationSystem (GIS) with the aid of experts’ opinion inidentifying priority areas based on taxonomic andhabitat significance values overlays (Fig. 3 a and b).

In addition, the number of priority areas in abiogeographic zone (sensu Aliño and Gomez 1994)was utilized to identify the allocation of the level ofrepresentative areas for conservation (Fig. 4).Oftentimes these areas are relatively large and even

T HR E AT S T O T HE M P A

MP

As

IN V

IETN

AM

LEV

EL O

F EN

FOR

CEM

ENT

Ove

rexp

loita

tion

Des

tru

ctiv

e fis

hing

Cor

al h

arve

st

Mar

icu

lture

Sed

imen

tatio

n

Sh

ore

con

vers

ion

Indu

stria

l po

llutio

n

Oil

pol

lutio

n

Dom

estic

sew

age

Ag

ricul

tura

l run

-off

Tou

rism

Man

grov

e d

efor

esta

tion

SU

M

AV

ERA

GE

MO

DE

1 0 4 4 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 8 1 .5 0 12 2 3 1 0 3 4 2 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 3 1 .9 2 13 3 2 1 0 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 5 2 .0 8 24 2 4 2 2 2 3 3 1 3 3 1 3 2 2 9 2 .4 2 35 0 4 3 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 .8 3 16 3 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 8 1 .5 0 17 0 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 5 1 .2 5 18 2 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 9 1 .5 8 19 0 3 1 0 4 4 2 1 1 1 3 1 4 2 5 2 .0 8 1

10 0 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 6 1 .3 3 111 2 4 3 2 2 3 4 3 2 3 1 3 0 3 0 2 .5 0 312 0 4 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 0 2 0 1 .6 7 113 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 .0 8 114 0 3 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 5 1 .2 5 115 2 3 2 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 4 2 .0 0 216 0 4 2 0 4 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 2 8 2 .3 3 217 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 .9 2 118 1 4 3 1 4 3 2 2 1 2 3 3 4 3 2 2 .6 7 3

S U M H IG H = 9 0 56 36 1 9 3 3 3 8 3 3 2 4 28 31 2 7 3 2 2 6AV E RA G E 3 .11 2 .00 1 .0 6 1 .8 3 2 .1 1 1 .8 3 1 .3 3 1 .56 1 .72 1 .5 0 1 .7 8 1 .4 4M O D E 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0

O V ERAL L

Table 1. (continuation)

Babuyan Corridor

Bohol Sea Corridor -

Surigao Strait

Balabac Strai t Corridor

Philippine Sea Corridor

Mindoro - Calavite Tablas Triangle

Tapiantana Corrido r

Panay

Gulf

- Guim

aras

Strait C

orrid

or

Ticao Pass - San Bernardino Strait - Samar Sea Corridor

S ibut u P assa ge - S ul u

Ar ch ipel ag o Cor ri dor

N

EW

S

Marine Corridor

MP20

MP01

MP03

MP04

MP05

MP06 MP07

MP09

MP02

MP08

MP27

MP36

MP35

MP34

MP24MP25

MP29

MP28

MP12

MP14

MP15

MP23

MP16

MP19

MP18

MP10

MP17

MP22 MP30

MP31

MP13MP11

MP26

MP21

MP32

MP33

N

EW

S

Marine Integrated

Figure 3a. Marine corridors identified in NBPSW(Source: Aliño et al. on-going program)

Figure 3b. Integrated map of important species andhabitats (Source: Aliño et al. on-going program)

identify interconnected priority areas that canserve as marine corridors. These marine corridorsare considered to be strategic areas whichfacilitate the continued exchange of materials andconnectivity of various marine biogeographicregions (Aliño et al. 2001).

Unfortunately the performance and effectivenessin many MPAs leaves much to be desired andthus have led to what many call “paper parks”.There seems to be a consistent indication thataround at least only 10-15% of these MPAs havebeen effective despite the tenuous concern ofsustaining the effectiveness in the long term(Kelleher et al. 1995; Aliño et al. 2001). What isinteresting in the work of Alcala and co-workersis that these studies were one of the first to showevidence to indicate that there was some spilloverof the accumulated biomass buildup in adjacent(Figs. 5 to 7). Subsequently they suggested thatthis spillover can redound to improved catch ratesin the adjacent fished areas. More and moreexamples are starting to demonstrate indicativespillover effects from protection (Roberts et al.2002).

Thus in the Philippines, there is an explicitprovision in the new fisheries code to encourage

Frequency Distribution of MPAs per Biogeographic Zone (A = P hil. Sea , B =W. Phil. Seas, C = Sulu Sea, D= Visayas & E = Celebe s Sea).

Figure 4. Frequency distribution of MPAs per marine biogeographic region. (Source: Aliño et al. 2000)

Figure 5. Biomass buildup of fish within the no-take areas.(Source: Russ 1991)

the establishment of a marine fisheryreserve in each coastal municipality. Thishas resulted in the upsurge of many smallmunicipal reserves around the country.Lachica-Aliño (1998) has also suggestedthat in areas where commercial fishing hasbeen banned for around 5 years recoveryof some of the fishery stocks may bepossible (Fig. 8).

Russ and Alcala (1994) has shown thatsustaining the no-take zone and theregulation of its adjacent areas is crucialor else the fish stock are vulnerable todecline rapidly (Figs. 9 and 10).

As part of the priority research projectsunder the Agriculture and FisheriesModernization Act, the project entitled:Enhancing Sustainable FisheriesUtilization through Marine FisheryReserves was funded through the Bureauof Agriculture Research (BAR) under itsNational Fisheries Network (Fig. 11). Thisproject seeks to investigate themechanisms for spillover at various scales:1) short range (through adult movement)

Figure 6. Concomittant buildup of fish in the fished areas. (Source: Alcala 1988)

Figure 7. Diversity of fish in Apo, Sumilon and Balicasag. (Source:Russ 1991)

and 2) medium to long distance range (adult migrationand larval dispersal mechanisms).

The understanding of the mechanisms in adult fishmovement utilizing tagging experiments are usefulin the design of marine protected areas on the small

scale (i.e. determining boundaries and the habitatattributes important to optimize biomass buildup onsite) (Figs 12a and b). This is crucial in designingthe optimum size of the no-take areas (Figs 13a to d).Since fish stocks and recruitment processes arethought to be open systems, understanding the genetic

Figure 8. Map of Ragay Gulf, Philippines subdivided into “highly fished” and “less fished” based on ordinationanalysis suggest that areas where commercial fishing has been banned catch rate have increased. (Source: Lachica1998)

Figure 9. Patterns of decline and recovery for the mostimportant family in the Sumilon fishery, the Fusiliers(Caesionidae). (Source: Redrawn from Russ and Alcala(1994) in Roberts and Hawkins 2000)

Figure 10. Patterns of decline and recovery for largepredatory fishes at Sumilon, the snappers (Lutjanidae),groupers (Serranidae) and emperors (Letrinidae).(Source: Redrawn from Russ and Alcala (1994) in Rob-erts and Hawkins 2000)

linkages of the stocks and their dispersal patternswould be crucial in the design of a network ofprotected areas.

Thus the interaction of passive larval dispersal andactive behavioral mechanisms of the adult andjuvenile fish are important in determining sites where

the best entrainment and replenishment sites are tobe located. In addition, population genetic stockdelineation could help gauge how reproductive outputand realized stocks might be linked. The geneticaffinity relationships help provide an indication forthe linkage between the take and no-take areaboundaries between adjacent MPAs. In addition, the

overexploitationoverexploitation

2003 & beyond2003 & beyond

P

P P

Plong -range

medium -range

short -range

Figure 11. Conceptual framework diagram on the aquaculture and fisheries AFMA-MFR program. (Source: Aliñoet al. on-going program)

100%50% 50%25% 25%

12.5% 12.5%

Island Ecosystem

MFR

Figure 12a. Proposed hypothetical spillover mechanismwithin the short range scale of isolated islands. (Source:Aliño et al. 2001)

70%

35%

35%

12.5%

12.5%

6.25%

6.25%Long Coast

MFR

Figure 12b. Proposed hypothetical spillover mechanismin long coastline stretches in the context of short-rangespillover. (Source: Aliño et al. 2001)

linkages provide a framework which can helpconnect the efforts of a federation of MPA fishermanagers towards having strategic framework forfisheries resource management. The Philippines hasa federation called “PAMANA KA SA PILIPINAS”(Pambansang Alyansa ng mga Maliliit naMangingisda na Nangangalaga ng Karagatan atSanktuaryo sa Pilipinas or National Alliance of SmallFisherfolks and Sanctuaries in the Philippines)wherein this acronym means heritage. Heritage isquite appropriate since one of their main principlesis to foster stewardship of their marine ecosystemheritage through a network of MPA and what they

can do as steward caretakers to pass on to the nextgenerations.

Aside from the biophysical regime of the MFRresource management, of major concern is how tomatch the biophysical management requirements withthe social and cultural dimensions in the managementof these areas. Due to the open access nature of thecommons, clarifying entitlements of ownership andtenure (stewardship) to the MPA is crucial to itssustainability (Fig. 15). This is also important becausethe subsequent institutional arrangements whichunfold become complex in the take and no-take

Island cluster networkIsland cluster networkin Honda Bayin Honda Bay

Figure 13c. Hypothesized possible spillover mechanismsin embayed areas in the medium range context. (Source:Aliño et al. 2001)

Figure 13d. Hypothesized possible spillover mechanismsin embayed areas in the medium range context. (Source:Aliño et al. 2001)

Consider in straight coastlines andConsider in straight coastlines andadjacent islands, leeward adjacent islands, leeward entrainmententrainment

Figure 13a. Spillover of islands and contiguouscoastlines with varying oceanographic features, smallto medium range context. (Source: Aliño et al. 2001)

Figure 13b. Spillover of islands and contiguouscoastlines with varying oceanographic features, smallto medium range context. (Source: Aliño et al. 2001)

areas.Appropriate matching and hierarchicallinkaging are often linked to the interaction between“ownership access (or quasi-tenurial arrangement ofresources and management control” considerations.In addition, the equity concerns in the allocation ofbenefits accrued from the protection play a strategicrole in sustainable financing and other non-economically linked benefits (e.g. empowerment,emancipated self-esteem and sense of community andheritage). As implied here, a more holistic perspectiveof MPAs do not only refer to the no-take zones butequally as critical are these areas outside the no-take

areas (Fig.16). Thus fisheries management and MPAmanagement are often viewed in the context ofintegrated coastal management (ICM) (Fig. 17).

As mentioned in the earlier section, mariculture andsea ranching has been also viewed as complementaryto MPA management and the context of coastalzoning, co-management and ICM (Fig. 18). Thissituation is exemplified in the experience of the seaurchin fishery collapse and its eventual combinationof grow-out and reseeding in Bolinao, Pangasinan(Juinio-Meñez et al. 2000). In the early 1990s the

Luzon

Visayas

Mindanao

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

The Marine Biogeographic Areas

The Marine Biogeographic Areas

I. South China SeaII. Sulu SeaIII. Visayas regionIV. North eastern Pacific SeaboardV. South eastern Pacific SeaboardVI. Celebes Sea

Political Archipelagic DivisionsLuzonVisayasMindanao

Source: Alino and Gomez 1994 Source: Alino and Gomez 1994

PANGALDAUANEL NIDO

NANGALAOCAMBARI

NORTH ISLETSOUTH ISLETBUGSUK

MANTANGULECANABUNGAN

J.BEAZLEYNE INVES

PANATA

PAG-ASA

LAWAK

Figure 14a. The marine biogeographic areas in thePhilippines. (Source: Aliño and Gomez 1994)

Figure 14b. Reef connectivity in the South China Sea(Source: Juinio-Meñez et al. 2001)

Figure 15. Management aptitude of Fijan customary fishing rights areas (Source: Polunin et al. 1996)

sea urchin fishery in Bolinao was a multimillion pesoindustry which collapsed (Fig. 19). In 1997 due tocompletion of the hatchery production technologyadoption, the closure of the life cycle of the sea urchinTripnuestes gratilla was achieved and linked to thefishery resources management interventions. Thusreseeding and grow-out of hatchery produced seaurchin juveniles were pursued together with fishercooperators. These mini-grow out areas (wherecooperators were made to understand that they haveto wait for the juveniles to spawn before they can

harvest them) serve like de-facto marine reproductivereserves. In addition, the reseeding in MPA no-takeareas require that the MPA also be managed like asea ranching area, where spillover of biomass aretreated as the main interest of their stewardshipinvestments (Fig. 20). This experience may be onepossible indication where spillover can be enhanced.Based on our initial simulation scenarios of spilloverof MPAs and the area needed for recovery of stocksfrom overexploitation, it would take an unreasonablylarge area to achieve recovery (Hilomen et al. 2002).

Figure 17. The participatory municipal coastal development plan of Bolinao, Pangasinan helps to provide integratedframework through zoning and community stewardship. (Source: Junio-Meñez et al. 2001)

Figure 16. The importance of MPAs as part of adaptive management as a “canary” to other stresses outside ofoverfishing. (Source: Polunin et al. 1996)

Aside from the local and national concerns of MPAs,transborder agreements have been initiated in someparts of the Philippines. The bilateral transborderagreement between Malaysia and the Philippines onthe Turtle Islands is a good example of how marineprotected areas offer value-added benefits tomaintaining goodwill among neighboring states aside

Figure 18. Combine sea ranching, grow-out and stewardship in fishery management (Source: Polunin et al. 1996)

Figure 19. Combine livelihood linked interventions to stewardship and the management framework. (Source: Juinio-Meñez et al. 2000)

from sustaining fisheries and protecting endangeredspecies. In addition, the large marine ecosystem(LME) approach referred to in our earlier discussionsis not only being pursued from an esoteric academicstandpoint but also efforts are under way in applyingthis in an ecoregional vision-mission, to manageLMEs as seen in the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine

Figure 20. The Marine Science Institute University ofthe Philippines Diliman researches utilize MPAs asimportant areas for reseeding sensu marine reproductivereserves (Source: Arceo et al. 2001; Juinio-Meñez 2001)

Ecoregion, together with the participation of localcommunities. In addition, disputed areas like theSpratlys in the South China Sea may not only serveas marine sanctuaries for fisheries replenishment butmay also serve as “PEACE parks” akin to those areasestablished in regions of conflict (WCPA 2000).

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