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THE MALAY SYARAH (COMMENTARY) OF AL-GHAZZALI’S WORKS
(1700-1900)
Megawati Moris
Abstract
It is a well-known fact that al-Ghazzali’s influence in the
Malay world or what is Southeast Asia today is both pervasive and
profound. The effect of his influence is evident in Malay-Muslim
religious thought and practice and it is felt until today. One of
the evidences which can be used to gauge this great thinker’s
influence is by looking at the translations and commentaries
(syarah) of local scholars of his works into Malay. It has been
proven that these Malay commentaries began in the eighteenth
century led by scholars such as ‘Abd al-Samad al-Palimbani and
Dawud al-Patani. There were various types of these translations and
commentaries which ranged from literal translations to commentaries
and to what some scholars considered to be original compositions
themselves. These writings, either in manuscript or printed, are
found in local libraries including the Pusat Manuskrip Melayu,
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia. In this paper I will list six
important Malay syarahs and describe briefly on their style and
content with the aim of showing what the Malay scholars considered
to be important from al-Ghazzali’s teachings to be transmitted to
the local Malay-Muslims who mostly did not understand Arabic and
hence, could not read the author’s original works. In this way, we
are able to see how the Malay scholars used these Malay syarahs to
interpret and transmit the teachings of Islam to the Muslim
community in the Malay world. Introduction
It is well known and widely accepted that Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali
(d. 505/1111), popularly known as Hujjat al-Islam (Proof of Islam),
had a pervasive and profound influence on the religious life and
thought of Muslims in the Malay World1. Studies have also shown
that environments in the Malay World were conducive to the
reception, assimilation and dissemination of the teachings of
tasawwuf or Sufism generally, and of al-Ghazzali particularly.2
1 In this article, the terms ‘Malay World’ and ‘Malay
Archipelago’ are used interchangeably. Occasionally, the term
‘Southeast Asia’ is also used to signify the same meaning. By these
three terms is meant the region which has been the home of people
of the Malay racial stock whose lingua franca, historically and
presently, is Malay. This region comprises present day Brunei,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, South Thailand and the
Philippines.
2 For example, R. O. Winstedt, The Malays: A Cultural History,
(London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1961); Syed Naguib
al-Attas, Some aspects of Sufism as Understood and Practiced among
the Malays (Singapore: Malaysian Sociological Research Institute
Ltd., 1963); G. W. J. Drewes, Directions for Travellers on the
Mystic Path (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1977); Azyumardi Azra,
Jaringan ulama: Timur Tengah dan Kepulauan Nusantara abad xvii dan
xviii (Bandung: Penerbit Mizan, cetakan 5, 1420/1999, cetakan 1,
1994); Nurman Said, “Al-Ghazzali’s works and their influence on
Islam in Indonesia,” (M.A. thesis, Institute of Islamic Studies,
McGill University, Canada, 1996); Alwi Shihab, Islam Sufistik:
‚Islam Pertama‛ dan pengaruhnya hingga kini di Indonesia, pengantar
K. H. Abdurrahman Wahid (Bandung: Penerbit Mizan, 2001); Martin Van
Bruinessen, Kitab kuning: Pesantren dan tarekat, tradisi-tradisi
Islam di Indonesia (Bandung: Penerbit Mizan, cetakan 3, 1999,
cetakan 1, 1995); Peter G. Riddell, Islam and the Malay-Indonesian
World: Transmission and Responses (Singapore: Horizons Books,
2001); http://venus.igalaksi.com/warisan/bughazali.htm>
(accessed 31 July 2002). Article originally published in Utusan
Malaysia, 5 November, 2001 and; Megawati Moris, “The influence of
al-Ghazzali on eighteenth and nineteenth century Malay thinkers and
their works, with an analysis of Shaykh ‘Abd al-Samad al-
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His influence was indicated from the beginning of the
Islamization of the Malay Archipelago in the thirteenth century
until the present time in various forms and with varying degrees of
interest and intensity. His writings, especially on tasawwuf had a
great impact on scholars who translated, summarized, commented and
adapted them for Malay and other native languages such as Javanese
and wrote their own works in different areas of thought based on
his views and interpretations. Until today, his books such as
Ihya’‘ulum al-din—acknowledged as the most important and
influential work on ethics in Arabic—are studied by not only
students in the Islamic education system but also the average
Malay-Muslim since they consider this work to provide true Islamic
knowledge and guidance to right action.
One of the evidences which can be used to gauge this great
thinker’s influence is by
looking at the translations and commentaries (syarah) of local
scholars of his works into Jawi which are Malay writings written in
a Malay adaptation of the Arabic alphabet with certain
modifications influenced by the Persian. These Jawi translations
and commentaries began in the eighteenth century and in fact the
period between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is
considered to be the time where al-Ghazzali’s influence is said to
have reached its summit in Malay-Islamic intellectual history as
indicated by the number of such works.3
They ranged from literal translations to commentaries and to
what some scholars considered to be original compositions
themselves. These writings, either in manuscript or printed, are
found in local libraries including the Pusat Manuskrip Melayu,
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia.
In this paper I have chosen six important and well-known works
representing the different types of Malay syarah in terms of style
and presentation focusing on the period between the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries i.e., 1700-1900. I will describe briefly on
their style and content with the aim of showing what the Malay
scholars considered to be important from al-Ghazzali’s teachings to
be transmitted to the local Malay-Muslims who mostly did not
understand Arabic and hence, could not read the author’s original
works. In this way, we are able to see how the Malay scholars used
these Malay syarah to interpret and transmit the teachings of Islam
to the Muslim community in the Malay world.
These syarah comprise of al-Ghazzali’s basic works on Sufism
namely, Bidayat al-
hidayah, Minhaj al-‘Abidin, Ayyuha al-walad and Ihya’ ‘ulum
al-din, written by four scholars who were the main proponents and
commentators of al-Ghazzali and normative Sufism. These four
scholars are ‘Abd al-Samad al-Palimbani (d. 1203/1789), Dawud ibn
‘Abd Allah al-Patani (d. 1265/1847), Wan Hasan ibn Wan Ishaq
al-Patani (Tuan Hasan Besut) (d. 1325/1908) and ‘Abd al-Samad ibn
Muhammad Salih al-Jawi al-Kelantani (Tuan Tabal) (d. 1891). These
writers, especially Shaykh ‘Abd al-Samad and Shaykh Dawud, were
recognized as the forerunners who used al-Ghazzali’s teachings as
their main perspective and foundation of their works on
tasawwuf.
Palimbani’s Siyar al-salikin, a Malay rendition of the Mukhtasar
ihya’ ‘ulum al-din” (Ph.d dissertation, ISTAC International Islamic
University Malaysia, 2007). 3 For a more elaborate account, see
Megawati Moris, “The influence of al-Ghazzali.”
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Studies4 have also shown that through their involvement as
students and teachers in scholarly networks centered in the
Haramayn (Mecca and Medina), Malay scholars who resided in the
Middle East (ashab al-Jawiyyin)5
The Malay Syarah of Al-Ghazzali’s Works
during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were spiritually
and intellectually connected with representatives of sober (sahw)
streams of Sufism; especially that of al-Ghazzali’s. The chains of
transmission--isnads and silsilahs—that were formed from these
networks are extremely significant in that literally
centuries-of-teachings were subsequently passed on to the local
Malay-Muslim communities through the writings of Malay scholars in
the networks who inherited these treasures from their masters. The
fruits of this wisdom and knowledge are found in the translations
and adaptations of these Malay scholars in particular.
In their original works, Malay scholars incorporated what
al-Ghazzali considered the obligatory (fard ‘ayn) in jurisprudence
(fiqh), as well as the principles of religion (usul al-din) and
Sufism (tasawwuf). The Malay scholar’s approach to writing these
books is to present the three sciences, namely, usul al-din, fiqh,
and tasawwuf. The first two are considered prerequisites to the
third and are hence, compulsory (fard ‘ayn) for adherents of the
Islamic spiritual path (tariqah). Hence, tasawwuf ranks higher and
is nobler than fiqh and usul al-din or kalam. As a consequence,
books on tasawwuf should contain teachings from the other two
sciences or branches of knowledge. In the wake of al-Ghazzali,
tasawwuf was considered beneficial knowledge (‘ilm al-nafi’) since
it provided the way to salvation of the human soul and the
attainment of direct knowledge of God (ma‘rifah). What follows
below are titles and abbreviated accounts of six selected
translations and adaptations—the latter sometimes referred to as
translations-cum-commentaries of al-Ghazzali’s writings in Jawi by
the four Malay scholars cited previously: Hidayat al-salikin The
full title of this text is Hidayat al-salikin fi suluk maslak
al-muttaqin written by Shaykh ‘Abd al-Samad. It is one of the most
influential and widely taught Malay texts in the traditional
learning institutions for example, the mosques and pondoks6 in
Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore until today. This work was
completed in Mecca in 1192/1778 and is principally a translation
from al-Ghazzali’s Bidayat al-hidayah7
4 See for example, John O. Voll’s study, “Hadith scholars and
tariqahs: An ulama group in the 18th century Haramayn and their
impact in the Islamic World,” Journal of Asian and African Studies,
vol. xv, no. 3-4 (1980): pp. 263-73; Nehemia Levtzion and John O.
Voll, “Introduction” in Eighteenth-century renewal and reform in
Islam, Nehemia Levtzion and John O. Voll (ed.), Syracuse University
Press, 1987), pp. 3-20; and A. Azra’s Jaringan ulama, pp.
15-21.
with additions from other sources for example, other works by
al-Ghazzali namely, Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, Minhaj al-‘abidin and Kitab
al-
5 The Jawi community, particularly students, is known in the
Arab world by this name that derives from the term ‘Jawi’ or
‘Jawah’, representing people from the Malay Archipelago in general.
Refer to A. Azra, Jaringan ulama, pp. 16-17. 6 ‘Pondok’ literally
means hut but it actually refers to a cluster of buildings used as
a center of Islamic education. It has similar characteristics to
the ‘surau’ and ‘pesantren’. 7 The Arabic work, Bidayat al-hidayah
fi al-adab wa al-akhlaq wa al-tasawwuf (Cairo: al-Maktabah
al-Tijariyyah al-Kubra, n.d.). For further details on this work see
‘Abd al-Rahman Badawi, Mu’allafat al-Ghazzali (Kuwait: Wakalat
al-Matbu‘at, 1977), pp. 138-40.
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arba‘in fi usul al-din; a work by ‘Abd al-Samad’s spiritual
guide and teacher Shaykh Muhammad bin ‘Abd al-Karim al-Sammani (d.
1189/1776) on the teachings and practices of the Sammanyyah Order
entitled al-Nafahat al-Ilahiyyah fi suluk al-tariqah
al-Muhammadiyyah; and works by scholars of Hadramawt origin such
as, Sayyid ‘Abd Allah bin ‘Alawi al-Haddad (d. 1132/1720), and by
Sayyid ‘Abd al-Qadir al-‘Aydarus (d. 1038/1628). The group of
learned Sayyids and Sufis from Hadramawt was included by ‘Abd
al-Samad as verifiers of al-Ghazzali’s works because of their
chains of transmission (isnad) as authentic commentators of
al-Ghazzali’s works and their local popularity and recognition
among the early figures who spread Sufism to the Malay world.8
This work—in manuscript and printed forms—carries two titles
namely, Hidayat al-salikin and Bidayat al-salikin; although the
contents are the same and the latter title is less commonly known.9
In the Pusat Manuskrip Melayu-Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia
(PMM-PNM) there are manuscript copies which are complete with the
title Hidayat al-salikin for example, MSS 225110, MSS 246711 and MS
2666.12 The work was first printed in Cairo, Egypt (1288/1871) and
was edited by the famous Malay editor and scholar Ahmad bin
Muhammad Zayn al-Fatani13 with subsequent printings in Mecca and in
the Malay world. With the maiden edition and printing of the
Hidayat al-salikin in Egypt through the pioneering efforts of Ahmad
al-Fatani, the Malay language was not only introduced into the
Middle East but also paved the way for the publication and printing
of other Jawi works on a larger scale.14
The Hidayat al-salikin is a book on tasawwuf for the elementary
(mubtadi’) level. In his introduction, ‘Abd al-Samad states that
the book contains knowledge which brings reverential fear of God
(Arabic: taqwa; Malay: takut akan Allah Ta‘ala)15
8 See Anne K. Bang, Sufis and scholars of the sea: Family
networks in East Africa, 1860-1925 (London: Routledge Curzon,
2003), p. 15 and Mostafa al-Badawi, Sufi sage of Arabia: Imam
‘Abdallah ibn ‘Alawi al-Haddad (Louisville: Fons Vitae, 2005), p.
23.
and which is beneficial for this world and the hereafter that is
necessary for every Muslim to acquire. He mentions that his work is
based on al-Ghazzali’s book entitled Bidayat al-hidayah discussing
some of its topics in Malay with additions of some other
appropriate topics for the benefit of those who do not know
9 Copies which bear the title Bidayat al-salikin include three
manuscript copies kept in the Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM),
Kuala Lumpur that were previously kept in the Muzium Islam Pusat
Islam; a lithographed edition in Singapore in 1873; and only one
printed edition. However, more printed books use this title. See a
transliterated version of the work published in three volumes by
Hj. Wan Mohd. Shaghir Abdullah, Hidayatus salikin Syeikh Abdus
Shamad al-Falimbani, (Kuala Lumpur: Khazanah Fathaniyah, third
edition/reprint 2000), 1:1. 10 Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia, (Kuala Lumpur: Perpustakaan Negara
Malaysia, 2000), p. 6. 11 Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Tambahan Pertama, (Kuala Lumpur:
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia, 2001), p. 45. 12 Katalog Manuskrip
Melayu Koleksi Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Tambahan Kedua, (Kuala
Lumpur: Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia, 2002), p. 49. 13 On this
Malay editor and scholar, who is the maternal grandfather of Hj.
Wan Mohd. Shaghir Abdullah, and his contributions, see W. M. S.
Abdullah, Syeikh Ahmad al-Fathani: Pemikir agung Melayu dan Islam,
2 vols. (Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Pengkajian Khazanah Klasik
Nusantara & Khazanah Fathaniyah, 1425/2005). See also, C.
Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka in the latter part of the 19th century,
trans. J. H. Monahan (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1931), pp. 286-87. 14 W.
M. S. Abdullah, Hidayatus salikin, 1:2, p. 6. 15 Referring to the
Qur’an (Surat al-baqarah, 2: 197): “And take a provision (with you)
for the journey, but the best of provisions is reverential fear.”
Hidayatus salikin, 1:9.
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Arabic.16 The original work aims to treat the beginning of
guidance, defined by al-Ghazzali as outward piety which entails
obeying God’s commands and prohibitions related to man’s outward
aspect or the body.17
In line with the meaning of outward piety, the book comprises of
three parts: first, acts of devotion; second, the avoidance of sins
and third; association with God and human beings. Interestingly, it
is a more basic book compared to the Hidayat al-salikin which also
deals with aspects of inward piety i.e., purification of the soul
from vices or evil qualities which, according to al-Ghazzali, forms
the end of guidance.
In the Hidayat al-salikin, ‘Abd al-Samad added expositions on
knowledge and the invocation (dhikr). On the latter subject, he
described the methods of the Sammaniyyah Sufi order
(tariqah).18
He also discussed the ten vices together with the corresponding
virtues which were not included in the Bidayat al-hidayah but were
all standard treatments in al-Ghazzali’s Ihya’‘ulum al-din, Kitab
al-arba‘in fi usul al-din and Minhaj al-‘abidin. Overall, the
Hidayat al-salikin is an introductory text that gives brief
explanations rather than long elaborations, but as the title
indicates, it provides guidance for travelers i.e., those embarking
on the spiritual path and hence, it is more spiritually advanced
and exclusive in terms of its guidance compared to the original
work. The Hidayat al-salikin’s main sources on tasawwuf are also
found in ‘Abd al-Samad’s more comprehensive work the Siyar
al-salikin.
The Hidayat al-salikin is arranged into a prologue (muqaddimah),
seven chapters (abwab) and an epilogue (khatimah). The prologue
contains two sections (fasl; plural: fusul). The first, explains
the advantages of beneficial knowledge (al-‘ilm al-nafi‘) and the
second, gives the benefits for those who acquire this knowledge. A
brief description of the seven chapters is as follows:
i. The First Chapter (Bab yang Pertama) introduces the
foundations of the articles of
faith (‘aqidah; plural: ‘aqa’id) of the Ahl al-sunnah wa
al-jama‘ah. ii. The Second Chapter (Bab yang Kedua) gives an
exposition on the external forms of
worship (‘ibadah yang zahir). iii. The Third Chapter (Bab yang
Ketiga) expounds on the avoidance of outward
disobedience or evil acts (ma‘siyah yang zahir). iv. The Fourth
Chapter (Bab yang Keempat) is on the avoidance of inward
disobedience
or vice (ma‘siyah yang batin). He mentions ten vices which are
stated in the Kitab al-arba‘in.19 They are: gluttony (Arabic:
sharah al-ta‘am; Malay: sangat gemar pada membanyakkan makan);
excessive speech (Arabic: sharah al-kalam; Malay: sangat gemar pada
membanyakkan perkataan); anger (Arabic: al-ghadab; Malay: marah);
envy (Arabic: al-hasad; Malay: dengki); miserliness and love of
money (Arabic: al-bukhl wa hubb al-mal; Malay: kikir dan kasih
kepada harta); love of glory (Arabic: hubb al-jah; Malay: kasih
akan kemegahan); love of the world
16 Hidayatus salikin, 1:9-10.
(Arabic: hubb al-
17 Muhammad Abul Quasem, Al-Ghazali on Islamic guidance, (Bangi:
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 1979), p. 11. 18 During his stay in
Medina ‘Abd al-Samad was appointed khalifah by his spiritual guide
and Shaykh of the Sammaniyyah order, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Karim
al-Sammani. 19 Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali, Kitab al-arba‘in fi uull
al-din, ed. ‘Abd Allah ‘Abd al-Hamid al-‘Urwani, (Damascus: Dar
al-Qalam, 1424/2003). On the vices, see the Third Part (al-qism
al-thalith): The Purification of the Soul from Blameworthy
Character-traits (tazkiyat al-qalb ‘an al-akhlaq al-madhmumah).
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dunya; Malay: kasih akan dunya); pride (Arabic: al-kibr; Malay:
membesarkan diri); conceit (Arabic: al-‘ujb; Malay: hairan akan
diri); and ostentation
v. The Fifth Chapter (Bab yang Kelima) gives a treatment on the
inward forms of worship (‘ibadah yang di dalam hati) and explains
the ten virtues in Kitab al-arba‘in.
(Arabic: al-riya’; Malay: menuntut martabat pada hati makhluq
supaya boleh kemegahan padanya).
20 They are: repentance (Arabic: al-tawbah; Malay: tawbat); fear
(Arabic: al-khawf; Malay: takut daripada Allah); renunciation
(Arabic: al-zuhd; Malay: benci akan dunia); patience (Arabic:
al-sabr; Malay: sabar); gratitude (Arabic: al-shukr; Malay: syukur
); sincerity and truthfulness (Arabic: al-ikhlas wa al-sidq; ikhlas
dan benar); trust in God (Arabic: al-tawakkul; Malay: tawakal);
love (Arabic: al-maÍabbah; Malay: kasih akan Allah Ta‘ala);
contentment with the Divine decree (Arabic: al-rida bi al-qada’;
Malay: rida dengan qada’ Allah Ta‘ala); and remembrance of
death
vi. The Sixth Chapter (Bab yang Keenam) gives an exposition on
invocation (dhikr), its merit (fadilah), spiritual etiquette (adab)
and method (kayfiyyah).
(Arabic: dhikr al-mawt; Malay: ingat akan mati).
vii. The Seventh Chapter (Bab yang Ketujuh) explains on the
spiritual etiquette (adab) of companionship (al-suhbah; bersahabat)
and intimate association (al-mu‘asharah; berkasih-kasihan) with the
Creator (khaliq) and with creation (al-khalq) i.e., associations
between God and humans and between human beings. For the latter,
the author initially discusses the spiritual etiquette of the
learned followed by the spiritual etiquette between student and
teacher, then between child and parents and lastly, between
friends.
The Epilogue (Khatimah) deals with the etiquette of two groups
of people: first, between people who know each other, and second,
between those who are unknown to each other among the generality of
Muslims. Siyar al-salikin The full title of this text is Siyar
al-salikin ila ‘ibadat Rabb al-‘alamin although it is also referred
to as Sayr al-salikin ila ‘ibadat Rabb al-‘alamin. I have chosen to
refer to the work by its former title based on arguments given in
support and because both the Jawi and Romanized versions of this
work are given this title.21 The Siyar al-salikin is by right a
partial translation of an abridgement (mukhtasar) of al-Ghazzali’s
Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din by ‘Abd al-Samad since he did not translate the
entire work. He wrote in the preface that he received inspiration
from God Almighty to translate the book of al-Ghazzali “…named
Lubab ihya’ ‘ulum al-din that is, the mukhtasar ihya’ ‘ulum al-din
…” in the year 1193/1779.22
20 See al-Ghazzali, Kitab al-arba‘in, Fourth Part (al-qism
al-rabi‘) on The Praiseworthy Character-traits (al-akhlaq
al-mahmudah).
According to ‘Abd al-Samad, the original work combines the
Shari‘ah and the tariqah, and its contents concern the sciences of
the
21 For a discussion on the variant reading of the title of the
text refer to Megawati Moris, “The Influence of al-Ghazzali,” pp.
114-120. In this article, I have made references to the following
editions of the text: Jawi edition: Siyar al-salikin ila ‘ibadat
Rabb al-‘alamin, 4 juz’, (Bangkok: Maktabah wa Matba‘ah Muhammad
al-Nahda wa awladihi, n.d.). This edition is a reprint of the text
published by ‘Isa al-Babi al-Halabi wa Sharikah, Cairo, 1372/1953.
In the Eulogy of the book (Taqriz al-kitab) it is stated that the
text is from the original manuscript of al-Shaykh ‘Abd al-Qadir
Fatani recorded while he was teaching it. Romanized edition:
Siyarus salikin: Jalan para salik untuk mengabdi diri kepada Tuhan
Rabbul ‘alamin, 4 Juz, Perbaikan Bahasa. Muhammad Labib, Tahqiq
& Pembetulan. Syed Ahmad Semait, (Singapura: Pustaka Nasional
Pte Ltd, 2003). 22 Siyar (J), 1:3: Siyar (R), 1:1.
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principles of religion, jurisprudence and Sufism; all of which
benefit those who tread towards the path of the next world or the
hereafter. He said he translated the text to Jawi and made several
useful additions for the benefit of those who do not understand the
Arabic language.23
Generally speaking, he followed the framework of the original
text. In terms of the chapters, he maintained both the number
(forty) and their headings. The contents of the Mukhtasar ihya’
‘ulum al-din are comprised primarily of verses from the Qur’an;
Hadith of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him); sayings of the
Companions, saints (awliya’), gnostics (‘urafa’) and pious Muslims
(salihin); and al-Ghazzali’s own commentaries extracted from the
Ihya’. ‘Abd al-Samad made many additions to the Mukhtasar ihya’
‘ulum al-din in three manners: first, he included sayings from
other Sufis especially those who came after al-Ghazzali; second, he
summed up al-Ghazzali’s explanations with his own short
commentaries; and third, he added totally new sections (fusul) not
found either in the Mukhtasar al-ihya’ or in the Ihya’. Hence,
although ‘Abd al-Samad considers the Siyar al-salikin as a
translation of the Mukhtasar al-ihya’, there is truth to the claim
of Indonesian scholar M. Chatib Quzwain—who wrote a comprehensive
study on the Malay text—that it is not merely a translation, but
more accurately, a composition by ‘Abd al-Samad.24
‘Abd al-Samad explicitly states his sources and cites them even
if they are from al-Ghazzali’s works, including the Ihya’ itself.
‘Abd al-Samad’s choice of sources shows a combination of the works
of scholars representing three streams of Sufi traditions namely,
Indian, Eastern (mashriqi) or Egyptian, and Western (maghribi).25
They indicate works of scholars who form part of the prevalent
movement in the Middle East towards a rapprochement of Shari‘ah and
Sufism, and within this framework, the works of al-Ghazzali and his
commentators prove influential. ‘Abd al-Samad was part of this
international scholarly community or network and the authorities he
chose for the Siyar al-salikin reflect the syntheses of the various
religious, intellectual and spiritual traditions he inherited and
assimilated and of which he was a product. The Siyar al-salikin is
written in Malay and played a vital role in the transmission
process that brought the teachings, perspectives and tendencies as
developed from these networks at the center of the Islamic world to
its peripheries; in this case, to the Malay Archipelago.26
The contents of this text are contained in four parts or volumes
which the author completed in ten years beginning from 1193/1779
until 1203/1789.27
23 Ibid.: Ibid., 2.
There are several copies of
24 See M. Chatib Quzwain, Mengenal Allah: Suatu studi mengenai
ajaran Tasawuf Syaikh ‘Abdus-Samad al-Palimbani, (Jakarta: P.T.
Bulan Bintang, 1985), p. 29. 25 For example from the Indian
tradition the important treatise entitled al-Tuhfah al-mursalah ila
al-nabi written by Muhammad bin Fadl Allah al-Hindi al-Burhanpuri
(d. 1029/1620); from the Egyptian stream, works by Zakariyya’
al-Ansari (d. 926 /1526) and ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha‘rani (d.
973/1565); and from the Maghrib or North Africa, works connected to
the Shadhiliyyah Sufi order such as, Kitab al-hikam by Ibn
Ata’illah al-Iskandari (d. 709/1309). For a list and analysis of
the sources of the Siyar al-salikin, see Megawati Moris, “The
Influence of al-Ghazzali,” pp. 121-132. 26 For a comprehensive
study on these cosmopolitan networks of scholars centered in the
Haramayn see A. Azra, Jaringan ulama. The English version of this
book is, The origins of Islamic reformism in Southeast Asia:
Networks of Malay-Indonesian and Middle Eastern ‘ulama’ in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, (NSW and Honolulu: ASAA in
association with Allen & Unwin and University of Hawai’i Press,
2004). 27 The dates of completion are mentioned by ‘Abd al-Samad
himself at the end of each volume of the text.
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the manuscript with the title Sayr al-salikin—both complete and
incomplete—in the Pusat Manuskrip Melayu-Perpustakaan Negara
Malaysia. Three of the completed copies are: MSS 2473, MSS 2665,
and MSS 3248.28 This book continues to be printed and is readily
available in book stores selling religious books in Malaysia,
Singapore and Indonesia reflecting its continuous importance and
popularity among students as well as the general Malay-Muslim
public. In recent years, two new Romanized editions29
of the Jawi work have been published with its language
modernized in an attempt to make reading and understanding it
easier.
The Siyar al-salikin comprises of a prologue or an introduction,
four parts and an epilogue or a conclusion. The prologue explains
on the superiority (fadl) of knowledge. The first part contains the
principles of religion (usul al-din) which includes the beliefs of
the Ahl al-sunnah wa al-jama‘ah (segala i‘tiqad ahli al-sunnah dan
jama‘ah) and religious duties i.e., the outward forms of worship
(segala ta‘ah ya‘ni ibadat yang zahir). The second part explains on
the norms of daily life and rules of ethics governing them (‘adat
ya‘ni hukum adab yang berlaku pada ‘adah) for example, in the
practices of eating and drinking, marriage, companionship etc. The
third part speaks on the vices or the ways which lead to perdition
(muhlikat ya‘ni membinasakan sekalian ‘amal) i.e., the outward and
inward forms of disobedience (yaitu segala ma‘siyah yang zahir dan
ma‘siyah yang batin). The fourth and final part gives an
explanation on the virtues or the ways which lead to salvation
(munjiyat ya‘ni melepaskan daripada yang membinasakan sekalian
‘amal) i.e., the inward forms of worship (yaitu segala ‘ibadah
batin). The epilogue comprises two parts: first, is an explanation
of the extent of God’s mercy for His servants (luas rahmah Allah
subhanahu wa Ta‘ala akan hambanya); the second is on the causes
that bring a good ending to death (segala sebab kebajikan kesudahan
mati). Minhaj al-‘abidin This Jawi work bears the same title in
Arabic as written by al-Ghazzali.30 The full title of this text is
Minhaj al-‘abidin ila jannat Rabb al-‘alamin. It is a translation
from the Arabic into Malay by Dawud al-Patani without the many
commentaries or expansions we found in ‘Abd al-Samad’s Hidayat
al-salikin and Siyar al-salikin. There is one copy of the
manuscript in its complete form in Pusat Manuskrip
Melayu-Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia i.e., MSS 2310.31 The work was
completed in Mecca in 1240/1825 and was printed for the first time
in Istanbul in 1305/1887.32 It was widely studied in the Malay
world and presently, there are still some teachers who teach the
text in traditional Islamic educational institutions and
mosques.33
28 Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi, PNM Tambahan Pertama 2001,
p. 51; Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi PNM Tambahan Kedua 2002, p.
48; Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi, PNM Tambahan Keempat 2006, p.
118, respectively.
29 They are: i) Siyarus salikin: Jalan para salik untuk mengabdi
diri kepada Tuhan Rabbul ‘alamin, 4 Juz, Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd,
Singapura, 2003; and ii) Sairus-salikin ila ‘ibadati Rabbil ‘alamin
(Perjalanan orang yang salik kepada Allah), 4 Juzuk, Diedit oleh
Abu Ali al-Banjari an-Nadwi (Ahmad Fahmi bin Zamzam), (Pokok Sena:
Khazanah Banjariah, 2002-2003). There is an earlier Romanized
edition by A. Muin Umar, (Banda Aceh: Musium Negeri Aceh,
1985/1986). Unfortunately, this edition is not available to the
writer. Refer to A. Azra, Jaringan ulama, p. 246 note no. 12. 30 An
edition of this text which can be downloaded from
http://www.ghazali.org/ is Minhaj al-‘abidin ila jannat Rabb
al-‘alamin, ed. Mahmud Mustafa Halawi, (Beirut: Mu’assasat
al-Risalah, 1989). 31 Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi PNM, 2000,
p. 47. 32 Printed by al-Matba‘ah al-Haj Muhammad Afandi. The
available present editions are printed by al-Ma‘arif Press of
Penang and Muhammad al-Nahdi of Bangkok based on the Egyptian
edition published by Dar Ihya’ al-Kutub al-
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In the Minhaj, as its title indicates, the author sets out the
path for those who desire the goal of paradise through worshiping
and serving God. In essence, worship is the means and end for a
life of success in this world and the next. According to
al-Ghazzali, it is a very difficult path with many steep inclines
(‘aqabat) that are full of danger with obstacles and enemies and
few friends to help along the way. Hence, Dawud al-Patani,
following al-Ghazzali, arranges the book according to each incline
comprising of seven ascents as follows:
i. Knowledge (al-‘ilm). Here he emphasizes the importance of
knowledge since
without it the act of worship is meaningless. He also discusses
on the hierarchy of the sciences based on what constitutes the
obligatory for the performance of the acts of worship and the
attainment of certain knowledge (‘ilm al-yaqin).34
ii.
Repentance (al-tawbah); in which he explains the need for the
servant to repent for his many sins, wrong-doings and vices and
sets the necessary obligations and conditions for it.35
iii.
Obstacles (al-‘awa’iq). In this section, Dawud al-Fatani
explicates the four major impediments of devoted worship and
selfless service to God that consist of (a) the world and what is
inside it; (b) human beings; (c) the devil; and (d) the human soul.
He then provides methods on how to overcome each respective
obstacle effectively. The methods are: (1) detachment from the
world; (2) isolation from people; (3) fighting against the devil
and defeating him; and (4) disciplining the soul and suppressing
the desires.36
iv.
Obstructions (al-‘awarid). In this section, he enumerates four
types of obstruction that distract the servant from performing and
concentrating on his acts of worship and furnishes the reader with
ways to overcome them. First is the servant’s preoccupation with
his sustenance (al-rizq) which can be countered with trust in God
(tawakkul ‘ala Allah); second are thoughts of dangers (al-akhtar)
and fears (al-makhafat) can be overcome by entrusting (tafwid) all
of his actions to God; third is destiny (al-qada’) which should be
faced with contentment (rida); and fourth, adversities and
misfortunes (al-shada’id wa al-masa’ib) which are to be endured by
the servant with patience (sabr).37
v.
Inducements (al-bawa‘ith), which comprise the fear (khawf) of
God’s punishment, and the hope (raja’) of reward from God. If these
two feelings are under the servant’s constant control then
performing the acts of worship are made smooth and easy.38
vi.
Impairments
‘Arabiyyah. In this article I refer to the edition printed in
Penang by al-Ma‘arif Press, n.d., hereafter cited as Minhaj
(J).
(al-qawadih); which comprise two blameworthy qualities that can
destroy the servant’s acts of worship, namely, ostentation (riya’)
and conceit (‘ujb).
33 In Bogor, Indonesia for example, the text was taught at the
Majlis Ta‘lim al-Ihya’ as part of its religious lecture (kuliah
ugama) program for the Muslim community. A modern Indonesian
translation and commentary has come out from the lectures, which
ran for several years, conducted by one of Indonesia’s great
‘ulama’ Haji Abdullah bin Nuh entitled Terjemahan lengkap Kitab
minhajul ‘abidin (Jalan bagi ahli ibadah) karangan: al-Imam
al-Ghazaly, (Bogor: Majlis Ta‘lim al-Ihya, 1979). In Malaysia, Hj.
W. M. S. Abdullah taught this text traditionally to a group of his
students in Kuala Lumpur until he died in 2007. 34 Minhaj (J), pp.
10-16. 35 Ibid., pp. 16-22. 36 Ibid., pp. 22-72. 37 Ibid., pp.
72-97. 38 Ibid., pp. 97-111
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These two vices can be overcome by the two opposing qualities of
sincerity (ikhlas) and remembrance of God’s grace (dhikr
al-minnah). Sincerity will cleanse the servant’s acts of worship
from any intention of ostentation or ‘showing off’ to others while
the constant remembrance of God’s grace and blessings will remove
his feelings of conceit and pride.39
vii.
Praise and gratitude
(al-hamd wa al-shukr) for the manifold blessings which God have
bestowed on mankind.
According to al-Ghazzali and as described in the poetic language
as translated by Shaykh Dawud, after the servant has completed the
last steep incline and afterwards descends to ‘flat land’ (jatuhlah
ia di dalam tempat turun), he will meet with his goal and desire
and will arrive at the station of blessing and field of longing
(perhentian kurnia dan padang rindu) and the garden of love (tanah
lapang mahabbah). He will enjoy the benefits and remain in this
state for the rest of his life: though his body remains in this
world his heart is already in the hereafter. When he is finally
called by the Lord of the Worlds, the angels will move him from his
happy but transient state to the eternal Divine Presence (hadrat
al-Ilahiyyah) and garden of Paradise (kebun syurga). There he will
meet his Lord, Allah the Almighty, the Merciful, the Benificent and
the Exalted (Tuhan Penghulunya yang amat Kasih Sayang lagi yang
mengurniakan dia lagi yang Mulia).40Ayyuha al-walad
This small treatise in Malay is a literal translation written by
Wan Hasan ibn Wan Ishaq al-Fatani or Tuan Hasan Besut in 1266/1850
from the Arabic work bearing the same title, Ayyuha al-walad. It
was first printed in Mecca by al-Matba‘ah al-Miriyyah al-Ka’innah
in 1311 A.H.41 The work was originally written by al-Ghazzali in
Persian.42 The original work, since it was written near the end of
his life, it is considered to have set down the Hujjat al-Islam’s
conclusions on tasawwuf or Sufism as the path to God based on his
own experience traveling it and practicing its requirements.43 It
was written in reply to a question from his student who was himself
a learned man and had spent many years studying all the branches of
knowledge. The question he posed was related to which knowledge
would be beneficial to him in the afterlife and which would not be
useful so he might abandon the study of those that are not useful.
The student’s concern was based on the Prophet’s hadith: “O Allah,
I seek refuge in Thee from knowledge which does not benefit.”44
Tuan Hasan, translating al-Ghazzali, began the treatise with the
qualification that his advice would merely be an extraction from
the mine of teachings of the Prophet (pbuh) and if the 39 Ibid.,
pp. 111-128 40 Ibid., pp. 9-10. 41 Refer to Haji Wan Mohd. Shaghir
Abdullah, “Tuan Guru Wan Hasan Besut Guru Keluarga Raja dan
Masyarakat Besut” in Ayyuha al-walad pada bicara wasiyat dan
nasihat, trans. Tuan al-Shaykh Hasan bin Ishaq al-Fatani, (Kuala
Lumpur: Khazanah al-Fathaniyah, third reprint 1424/2003), pp. 7-11.
42 Al-Murtada al-Zabidi states that, “Ayyuha’l-walad was written in
Persian, and certain of the learned men translated it and called it
by this famous name.” In al-Murtada al-Zabidi, Ithaf al-sadat
al-muttaqin bi-sharh asrar ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr,
1311/1893-94), 1:41, as cited by George Henry Scherer,
“Al-Ghazali’s Ayyuha’l-walad,” Ph.D thesis, The University of
Chicago, U.S.A., 1930, p. 27. 43 George Scherer, “Al-Ghazali’s
Ayyuha’l-walad,” p. 15. 44 Hadith: Ibn Majah, Sunan al-Mustafa,
Introduction, 23: 1 as cited in N. Faris, Book of knowledge, p. 3.
Wan Hasan Besut, Ayyuha al-walad, p. 4; Al-Ghazzali, Ayyuha
al-walad, trans. George Scherer, “Al-Ghazali’s Ayyuha’l-walad,” p.
1. The translation was downloaded from
http://www.ghazali.org/works/oson.htm (accessed 3 May 2006).
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student already has knowledge of the Hadith then he has no need
of further advice from him. However, the problem as al-Ghazzali
acknowledged, was the difficulty faced in accepting the advice and
working according to it. This applies especially to those who
preoccupy themselves in acquiring formal knowledge (‘ilmu yang
resmi) since they believe that knowledge alone is a means for their
safety and salvation. According to al-Ghazzali, knowledge and
action should come together, both are required: “Knowledge is the
tree and working is its fruit.”45 Furthermore there is
accountability in the knowledge that one acquires. A person who
acquires knowledge (mehasilkan ‘ilmu) but does not act according to
it (tiada ia ‘amal dengan dia) will be indicted for it on the day
of resurrection.46
Keeping in mind his student’s question on what is beneficial
knowledge, al-Ghazzali clarifies and Tuan Hasan translates
accordingly that the substance of knowledge is obedience and
worship and the meaning of these two essential elements is to
adhere and conform to the law (shara‘) in its commands (suruhan)
and prohibitions (tegahan) in word (perkataan) and deed
(perbuatan). Concretely, it means to emulate the Prophet (pbuh) in
his speech and action. Since the Prophet’s example sets the way of
the Sufis, al-Ghazzali reminds his student to be focused on the
real challenge of treading the path (berjalan bagi jalan ini),
which entails a struggle (mujahadah) to cut off the lusts of the
soul (memputuskan hawa nafsunya) and kill its desires with the
‘sword of discipline’ (pedang riyadah). Until and unless the veils
of negligence (lalai) and lusts (shahwat) are lifted from the
heart, the light of knowledge (ma‘rifah) will not be cast on
it.47
Al-Ghazzali mentioned that some of the questions asked by his
student could not be answered verbally since they can be known only
through experience when the traveler on the path of God attains the
state of realization. However, for the portion that could be
explained i.e., the conditions necessary for the travelers on the
path, he enumerated them as follows: first is true conviction
(i‘tiqad yang sahih) that does not contain heresy (bid‘ah); second
is sincere repentance (tawbat yang nasuh) after which one does not
return to sin; third is the satisfaction (minta rida) of
adversaries to the extent that no one has any claims left (tiada
tinggal haq) on him; fourth is the attainment of the knowledge of
the laws (‘ilmu shari‘ah) sufficient to perform God’s commands, and
for the science of the hereafter (‘ilmu akhirah), i.e., what is
essential for salvation (kelepasan);48 fifth that it is
indispensable to have a shaykh as a guide (murshid) who trains the
traveler to expel from his soul the evil qualities and replace them
with ones that are noble; sixth is to guard against associations
with evil people (orang yang jahat) so that he curtails the
influence of evil jinn and humans from his heart; and seventh is
that in all states or conditions (hal) to prefer poverty (faqr)
more than wealth (ghina’).49
Al-Ghazzali beseeched his student, “to work by what you know,
there will be revealed to you what you do not know.”50
45 Wan Hasan Besut, Ayyuha al-walad, p. 6; George Scherer,
“Al-Ghazali’s Ayyuha ’l-walad,” p. 2.
He reminded his student to be patient for this knowledge to
come
46 Ibid., pp. 4-6; Ibid., pp. 1-2. 47 Ibid., p. 11; Ibid., p. 5.
48 Ibid., pp. 11-14; Ibid., p. 6. 49 Ibid., pp. 14-15; Ibid., pp.
7-8. 50 Ibid., p. 16; Ibid., p. 9.
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to him because God will show him the signs (ayat) when he
reaches the time. He ascertained that this direct knowledge can
only be attained by traveling the spiritual path.51Munabbih
al-ghafilin
This is said to be ‘Abd al-Samad ibn Muhammad Salih al-Jawi
al-Kelantani’s or Tuan Tabal’s earliest work and he wrote it when
he was a young man of twenty-eight. It is recorded as a Jawi
translation of extracts from al-Ghazzali’s Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din and
Mishkat al-anwar.52 This information is partially correct since at
the end of the treatise states that it is a translation of extracts
from the Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din and Mashariq al-anwar not Mishkat
al-anwar. The Mashariq al-anwar was written by ‘Abd al-Wahhab
al-Sha‘rani (d. 973/1565) and gives instructions and explanations
on the necessity of performing religious duties.53 Tuan Tabal also
referred to this work in his book, Bab Harap as does ‘Abd al-Samad
in his Siyar al-salikin and additionally mentioned it as one of the
important tasawwuf texts for beginners. The latest known edition of
the Munabbih al-ghafilin is the one published in 1955, a reprint of
the 1285/1868 edition. A manuscript copy of this work printed by
al-Matba‘ah al-Ahliyyah, Kota Bharu, Kelantan which is now at the
Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.54
The Malay treatise is a short piece of work comprising of forty
pages which gives an exposition on the following topics: first is
what is required before death and at the time close to death
(barang yang dituntut dahulu daripada mati dan tatkala hampir
dengan mati); second is an essay on the agonies on the advent of
death (kesakitan sakrat al-mawt); and third is on the states of the
dead and those who love God (ahwal segala orang mati dan orang yang
kasih kepada Allah subhanahu wa ta‘ala).55 Basically, it is a loose
translation of excerpts of the first three chapters of the first
part of al-Ghazzali’s Kitab dhikr al-mawt wa ma ba‘dahu (Book of
the remembrance of death and the afterlife)56 as well as other
books in the Ihya’ such as Kitab al-tawbah (Book on repentance),57
Kitab al-khawf wa al-raja’ (Book of fear and hope),58 and Kitab
al-mahabbah wa al-shawq wa al-uns wa al-rida.59
Tuan Tabal does not divide the text into distinct chapters and
sections that comprise the expositions as they appear in the Ihya’
but writes continuously and without paragraphs.
51 Ibid.; Ibid. 52 See the Australian National University (ANU)
Library Catalogue on the Munabbih al-ghafilin available online at
(accessed 7 August, 2004). See also, Nurman Said, “Al-Ghazzali’s
works,” p. 61. 53 Its full title is Mashariq al-anwar al-qudsiyyah
fi bayan al-‘uhud al-Muhammadiyyah. (Geschichte der Arabischen
Literatur (GAL) II, 337 no. 14). It is also referred to as al-‘Uhud
al-Muhammadiyyah al-qudsiyyah. 54 In this article, we refer to this
copy of the work. 55 Munabbih, p. 4. 56 The three chapters are:
Chapter One: “On the merit which is in the remembrance of death,
and an encouragement to remember it;” Chapter Two: “On lengthy and
brief hopes;” and Chapter Three: “On the agonies and violence of
death, and the states preferable upon its advent.” See, Kitab dhikr
al-mawt wa ma ba‘dahu in Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, al-mujallad al-rabi‘,
560-589 and al-Ghazali, The remembrance of death and the afterlife
(Kitab dhikr al-mawt wa ma ba‘dahu), Book XL of the Revival of the
religious sciences (Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din), trans. T. J. Winter, with
an Intro. and Notes, (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1989),
pp. 7-55. 57 Ibid., 9-11. On repentance see Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din,
al-mujallad al-rabi‘, Kitab al-tawbah, pp. 5-82. 58 Ibid., 32-36.
Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, al-mujallad al-rabi‘, Kitab al-khawf wa
al-raja’, 4:198-256. English translation by William McKane,
Al-Ghazali’s book of fear and hope, (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1962).
See especially pp. 64-80. 59 Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, al-mujallad
al-rabi‘, Kitab al-mahabbah wa al-shawq wa al-uns wa al-rida,
4:375-414.
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Nonetheless, in terms of explaining of the subject matter, his
writing maintains a continuous flow, remains systematic and is
simple to understand. Tuan Tabal quotes many hadiths cited by
al-Ghazzali in the Ihya’. In the body of the text, he does not
mention his sources, which is a contrast from the style of ‘Abd
al-Samad who states explicitly his sources whenever he quotes them.
However, Tuan Tabal clearly has a profoundly sound grasp of the
original master’s teachings which he translated in elegant language
and reproduced faithfully in a simple and comprehensible style.
Minhat al-Qarib The full title of this text is Minhat al-Qarib
al-Mujib wa mugni al-Raghibin fi al-taqrib.60 As the author stated,
the Minhat is a translation-cum-commentary written in Jawi of parts
of al-Ghazzali’s Bidayat al-hidayah, Minhaj al-‘abidin and the
Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din as well as ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha‘rani’s al-Bahr
al-mawrud fi al-mawathiq wa al-‘uhud and Sharh wasiah
Matbuliyyah.61
This is Tuan Tabal’s largest and most comprehensive work and
comprises three hundred and twenty-seven pages. Its contents are
divided into the three requisite sciences namely, usul al-din, fiqh
and tasawwuf following al-Ghazzali’s classification and division of
knowledge. Hence, the book is based on the framework of the Ihya’
‘ulum al-din in terms of the arrangement of subject matters
discussed.
The work begins with an address (khutbah al-kitab) on the
excellence of knowledge and the learned based on several ahadith
characteristic of al-Ghazzalian introductions, which emphasizes the
superiority of the science of tasawwuf.62 The first section of the
work is an exposition on the creed (al-‘aqidah) of the Ahl
al-sunnah wa al-jama‘ah which reproduces important points from the
Kitab qawa‘id al-‘aqa’id (Book of foundations of the articles of
faith) of the Ihya’.63 The second section is on fiqh and comprises
the bulk of the work which is divided into sixteen books that are
subdivided into chapters and sections. It begins with expositions
on the acts of worship as follows: first on purification (Arabic:
al-taharah; Malay: bersuci); second on ritual prayer (al-salah;
sembahyang); third on almsgiving (al-zakah); fourth on fasting
(al-sawm; puasa); and fifth on the pilgrimage (al-hajj wa
al-‘umrah).64 Subsequently, it expounds on matters that invalidate
acts of worship and of some norms of daily life (‘adat) as
developed in the Ihya’ and several other items that are not. The
order of these Books are as follows: sacrifice (al-udhiyyah;
korban); selling and others (al-bay‘ wa ghayrihi; berjual dan
lainnya); distributive shares in an estate (al-fara’id); marriage
(al-nikah}); crime (al-jinayah), rebellion (al-bughah); adultery
(al-zina); holy war (al-jihad; berperang sabil); food (al-at‘amah;
makanan); racing (of horses and camels) (al-musabaqah; berlumba);
judiciary (al-qada’); freeing of slaves (al-i‘taq; memerdeheka
i.e., memerdeka).65
60 Printed by al-Matba‘ah al-Kamaliyyah, Kota Baharu, 1354
A.H.
In the last section of the Minhat al-Qarib i.e., on tasawwuf, it
begins with a chapter on repentance followed by an exposition on
the etiquette of companionship and social intercourse (adab
al-sahabah wa al-mu‘asharah; bersahabat dan sekedudukan).
61 Named for Ibrahim al-Matbuli (d. ca. 877/1472), the spiritual
leader of Sha‘rani’s Shaykh, ‘Ali al-Khawwas, and a prominent Sufi
Shaykh affiliated to the Ahmadiyyah tariqah who lived in Cairo in
the ninth century/fifteenth century. On al-Matbuli, see Michael
Winter, ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha‘rani, pp. 93-99. 62 Minhat al-Qarib,
pp. 2-5. 63 Ibid., pp. 5-7. 64 Ibid., pp. 7-84. 65 Ibid., pp.
91-224.
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Subsequently, he deals with the all-important subject of
avoiding vices or the evil qualities of the soul (al-ma‘asi
al-qalb; segala ma‘siyat hati) and its virtues or the good
qualities of the soul (al-ta‘ah al-batiniyyah; ta‘at yang
dibangsakan kepada batin). The book ends with an epilogue
(khatimah) that provides an exposition on the love of God and its
remembrance (mahabbah Allah ta‘ala; kasihkan Allah ta‘ala) and the
merits of the invocation (kelebihan berdhikir).66
According to renowned Malay scholar El-Muhammady, who first
introduced Tuan Tabal and his works to wider Malay readership, this
text presents the structure of the religious sciences in Islam from
the viewpoint of an ordinary member of Muslim society in its
consideration of the duties of human beings. Hence, this book is
directed to each member of the Muslim society.67Interpreting and
Transmitting al-Ghazzali’s Teachings
The Malay syarahs of al-Ghazzali’s works we have investigated
were written in various styles and forms that ranged from literal
translations to summaries and commentaries to adaptations which
included other authors’ works besides those of al-Ghazzali’s.
However, these Jawi works remain faithful to the teachings of the
original master and the additions from other scholars mostly lend
support to his basic teachings. The choice of later commentators
the Malay scholars refer to in their works all come from the same
tradition of normative Sufism and these commentators possess a deep
understanding of al-Ghazzali’s teachings as well as are familiar
with his writings.
The authors of these Malay syarahs focussed on works which are
classified as introductory or for the beginners and they laid out
the principles and their explications for the readers in a language
and vocabulary which are easily understood. They were aware of the
needs of the community to ground themselves in the Shari‘ah and
restrict the subject matter to what are considered fard ‘ayn in the
three important sciences of usul al-din, fiqh and tasawwuf.
Therefore, although the study of tasawwuf is the final aim they
believe, following al-Ghazzali, it must always be understood in
relation to the principles of faith and belief followed by the
requirements of the Divine Law before meaningful actions can be
performed. Judging from the syarahs, it is evident that these Malay
scholars embody all three branches of knowledge. Since the ultimate
aim of tasawwuf is knowledge of God, the Malay scholars must
necessarily include metaphysics in these works to provide a
complete framework of knowledge. They customarily translate the
Andalusian Sufi al-Shaykh al-Akbar, Ibn al-‘Arabi’s (d. 1165/1240)
expositions on this subject referring to their favorite
commentators. In this way, although the metaphysical explanation
comes from Ibn al-‘Arabi but the whole perspective of ethics and
spirituality is still characteristically al-Ghazzali’s and the
demands for orthodoxy remains intact.
Based on the examination of the Siyar al-salikin, a model of a
translation-cum-
commentary which showed al-Ghazzali’s influence most clearly and
fully in terms of his teachings and invited the most creative
response from its Malay commentator, it can be said that the Malays
were not merely passive translators but creative interpreters and
transmitters of al-
66 Ibid., pp. 224-328. 67 Muhammad ‘Uthman el-Muhammady,
“Perhubungan guru-murid dalam satu teks ajaran Islam dari Malaya
abad ke-xix,” in Peradaban dalam Islam, (Kota Bharu: Pustaka Aman
Press Sdn. Bhd., 1982), p. 133.
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Ghazzali’s teachings.68
‘Abd al-Samad, representing the Malay translators and
commentators, selected relevant principles derived from the
original text, interpreted and applied them to local contexts and
situations. For example, ‘Abd al-Samad attempted to solve the root
problems of knowledge and orthodoxy faced by the Malay-Muslim
community of his time by applying the principle of hierarchy
contained in the Qur’an and Hadith taught by all Sufi gnostics
(al-‘arifin) through the ages. In this way, they made the received
knowledge relevant and useful to the Malay-Muslim community.
Conclusion Al-Ghazzali’s presence continues to be felt in the
life and thought of Muslim communities in Southeast Asia with the
perpetual instruction and study of his works in the institutions of
religious learning such as the pondok, madrasah and pesantren. In
these places of learning especially in the Indonesian pesantrens,
his teachings on ethics and Sufism make up the core contents of the
instruction of the science of tasawwuf together with other works
categorized under the same orthodox school. Since his works are
taught within the parameters of Shafi‘i fiqh and Ash‘ari kalam, his
influence will remain significant for Muslims in Southeast Asia who
are overwhelmingly Sunnis. In addition, their historical reverence
for his spirituality and religiosity and respect for his knowledge
and scholarship will continue to make him a vital figure and his
teachings significant in the Islamic education system.69
In recent times, there is a strong wave of translation activity
of al-Ghazzali’s works into modern Malay and especially, Indonesian
language which began in the 1990’s. These translations comprise of
his works in various fields, not just in tasawwuf, as has been
traditionally the case. Many of these translations are directed
towards a more general rather than a specialized readership.70
68 For a detailed examination and account of the Siyar
al-salikin, see Megawati Moris, “The influence of al-Ghazzali,”
Chapter Four.
These translations are important channels for transmitting
his
69 Based on Martin van Bruinessen’s study of texts (kitab
kuning) used in Indonesian pesantren which he published as part of
his book cited earlier, Kitab Kuning. Here, we refer to his
findings written in an English article, “Kitab Kuning: Books in
Arabic Script Used in the Pesantren Milieu,” Bijdragen tot de
Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, vol. 146 (1990):27-28 via and a
related article, “Pesantren and kitab kuning: maintenance and
continuation of a tradition of religious learning” in Texts from
the islands. Oral and written traditions of Indonesia and the Malay
world, ed. Wolfgang Marschall, (Berne: University of Berne, 1994),
via , p. 4. 70 See for example, Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ilmu Laduni,
trans. from Arabic by Abdullah bin Mohammad (NAKULA), (Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1993); al-Imam al-Ghazali,
Majmu‘ah rasa’il al-Imam al-Ghazali, vol. 2-6, (Beirut: Dar
al-kutub al-‘ilmiyyah, 1994); Risalah-risalah al-Ghazali, trans.
from Arabic by Irwan Kurniawan, (Bandung: Pustaka Hidayah, 1997);
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, “al-Durr al-fakhirah,” “al-Ajwibah
al-Ghazaliyyah fi al-masa’il ukhrawiyyah” and “al-Madnun bihi ‘ala
ghayr ahlihi” from Majmu‘ah rasa’il al-Imam al-Ghazali, (Beirut:
DÉr al-fikr, 1996), Metafisika alam akhirat, trans. Wasmukan and
Mohammad Luqman Hakiem, (Surabaya: Risalah Gusti, 1997); Abu Hamid
al-Ghazali, “Mi‘raj al-salikin” and “al-Qistas al-mustaqim” in
Majmu‘ah rasa’il al-Imam al-Ghazali, (Beirut: Dar al-fikr, 1996),
Tangga ma‘rifatullah, trans. Wasmukan, (Surabaya: Risalah Gusti,
2000); al-Imam al-Ghazali, Taubat dan Liku-Likunya, trans. and
summary by Syed Ahmad Semait, (Singapore: Pustaka Islamiyah Pte.
Ltd. second edn. 2000); al-Ghazali, Mishkat al-anwar, (Beirut: Dar
al-Fikr, 1994), Tafsir ayat cahaya dan telaah kritis pakar, trans.
Drs. Hasan Abrori MA. and Drs. Mashur Abadi, (Surabaya: Pustaka
Progressif, second edn. 2002); and a series of translations in
Romanized modern Indonesian of his works published by Penerbit
Pustaka Sufi, Yogyakarta, 2003. These books are handy,
pocket-sized
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teachings in non-traditional fields for example,
philosophy,71
which were previously not made available to the Muslim
communities in their native tongue. In addition, they will provide
a greater awareness and better appreciation of the versatility of
his knowledge and contribution to the different sciences and
disciplines. Through these modern translations, his religious and
intellectual legacy will abide in the life and thought of Muslims
in Southeast Asia.
with attractive covers and quality printing. The series also
include translations of works on al-Ghazzali written in English by
Western scholars of Islam for example, Nicholas Heer, “Abu Hamid
al-Ghazali’s esoteric exegesis of the Koran,” and William Chittick
“The myth of Adam’s fall in Ahmad Sam‘ani’s Rawh al-arwah” in The
heritage of Sufism: Classical Persian Sufism from its origin to
Rumi (700-1300), One World Publications, 1999, Tafsir esoteris
Gazali dan Sam‘ani, trans. Ribut Wahyudi, (Yogyakarta: Penerbit
Pustaka Sufi, 2003). 71 Al-Ghazali, Tahafut al-falasifah: Kekacauan
para filsuf, trans. from the Indonesian by Kamariah Mohd. Ali,
(Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, first ed. 1989, 1993).
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