The Linguistic Architecture of the Quran

Centre for Islamic Studies at SOAS

The Linguistic Architecture of the Qur'an / المعمار اللغوي في القرآنAuthor(s): Hussein Abdul-Raof and عبد الرؤوف حسينReviewed work(s):Source: Journal of Qur'anic Studies, Vol. 2, No. 2 (2000), pp. 37-51Published by: Edinburgh University Press on behalf of the Centre for Islamic Studies at SOASStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25727997 .Accessed: 06/12/2011 04:55

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The Linguistic Architecture of the Qur'an

Hussein Abdul-Raof

UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS

1. Introduction

The present work is a linguistic analysis of Qur'anic structures which display the lin

guistic beauty that is prototypical of Qur'anic texts. Linguistic beauty shines out in

structures with a highly effective sublime style unique to Qur'anic discourse, its con

text of situation, and the linguistic environment. A change in the word order of such

linguistic structures may lead to a change in their semantic value, can disfigure their

stylistic effect, and can disturb the linguistic harmony of the macro-text in which such

constructions occur. Linguistic beauty, therefore, represents the 'marked' (less fre

quent) word order in Qur'anic discourse. Our notion of linguistic beauty is also

directly related to linguistic effects in which the components or features of the form

of a given construction give it its individual stamp and make it produce an effect upon the reader/listener. Rhythm is also an effective mechanism that contributes positively in the production of a sublime style and linguistic beauty. In Qur'anic discourse, mor

phology is employed to set up rhythms in order to heighten the impact of well-select

ed lexical items to upgrade their psychological impact. Our analysis attempts to

explain the architectural aspects of some linguistic structures whose unique construc

tion has been achieved by a number of intra- and extra-sentential linguistic and

paralinguistic elements. These elements play a significant role in the interior and

exterior linguistic decoration. The term 'linguistic beauty' used here refers to the most prominent architectural aspects of Qur'anic structures: these involve special word order, order of contrastive elements, simplex/complex structures, multi-layered constructions, structures with sound effects, colourful lexical decoration, left and

right dislocation (al-taqdlm wa'l-ta'khir), structures with linguistic and numerical

symmetry, use of couplets, etc. Constructions like these constitute a prototype of

architectural beauty. In this attempt to appreciate the secret of the linguistic architec ture of the Qur'an, we will 'seek help from Arabic rhetoric'1 in conducting an

analysis which employs the linguistic traditions of the classical grammarians. This

approach brings out the syntactico-rhetorical interfertilisation so characteristic of

Qur'anic discourse. Due to limitations of space, we will only deal with a limited num

ber of our proposed linguistic architectural features of Qur'anic discourse. For the same reason, the examples provided will be also limited. The purpose of the present

38 Journal of Qur'anic Studies

account is restricted to the salient linguistic and paralinguistic features of Qur'anic discourse.

2. Permutations of constituents

The impressive design of a given construction can be achieved through the special

arrangement, size and shape of its constituents as well as their contrasting features

which make a particular structure stand out. The permutation of constituents within a

linguistic structure is taken as a factor that contributes effectively in the overall

colourful linguistic decoration of a given Qur'anic construction. The permutation of

elements is accounted for according to the following linguistic aspects.

2.1 Word order

The display of lexical elements in a particular order has a decorative function and

contributes to the overall linguistic facade of the construction. An alternative word

order with the same prepositional content can cause structural damage to the linguis tic beauty of a given construction, as in Q.33:35:

(i) al-dhdkirin Allaha kathlran wa 'l-dhakirati

('men who remember Allah much and women who remember')

where different word orders like:

(ii) al-dhdkirina wa 'l-dhdkirdti Allaha kathlran or

(iii) al-dhdkirlna Allaha kathlran wa 'l-dhdkirdti Allaha kathlran

would not be able to deliver the same decorative linguistic effect where the repetition of the object Allah has become linguistically and rhetorically redundant. The original

Qur'anic structure has achieved its linguistic objective through the separation of the

two subjects in order to sandwich the direct object Allah while using the conjunctive

particle wa- as a linguistic bond between the plural masculine al-dhdkirln and the plu ral feminine subject al-dhdkirdt. Another decorative element of this structure is on the

rhetorical level where a head-initial, tail-final structure is achieved. The head is rep

resented by the first subject al-dhdkirln, while the tail is represented by the second

subject al-dhdkirdt. The occurrence of the word Allah in the centre of the sentence

suggests that Allah is 'cuddled' and 'hugged' by the pious who remember Him a lot.

This meaning is substantiated by the word kathlran. On an intertextual level, this

meaning is also supported by Q.3:191:

alladhina yadhkuriina Allaha qiydman wa-qucudan wa-?ald junubi him.

('...who remember God while standing, sitting and [lying] on their

sides.')

The Linguistic Architecture of the Qur'an 39

The alternative word orders (ii) and (iii), however, are the unmarked, i.e. the common

or ordinary orders which lack the above features. Thus, they do not enjoy an equiva lent stylistic effect or meaning. In the first alternative word order (ii), the pivotal word

Allah is marginalised and pushed to the end of the sentence. Architectural beauty can

therefore be traced to the specific intention of a given Qur'anic dya. The redundancy of elements and unnecessary repetition in the second alternative order (iii) has

impaired the stylistic impact on the reader/listener and led to a major loss in archi

tectural effect.

Rhythm in Q.33:35 plays a significant role. It is employed to match the macro-textual

rhythm of its linguistic environment where we encounter ten plural masculine

subjects followed by ten plural feminine subjects in the same structure. Also in

Q.3:3-4:

Wa-anzala 'l-tawrdta wa'l-injila min qablu hudan li'l-nds wa-anzala

'l-furqdna

('He revealed the Torah and the Gospel, aforetime, for guidance to

mankind; and revealed the Criterion [of right and wrong]')

an alternative order is possible:

Wa-anzala 'l-tawrdta wa'l-injlla wa'l-furqana min qablu hudan li'l-nds

but does not enjoy the same architectural effect. More importantly, the meaning would be impaired by the second word order. The alternative word order has led to a

semantic disturbance. This is because the pivotal word anzala has been taken out and

the sentence-final word al-furqdn, whose position has a crucial semantic value, has

been placed in the middle of the sentence. The repetition of the verb anzala and the

placing of the word al-furqdn at the end of the sentence are devices employed for

semantic purposes. The repetition of the verb anzala is to confirm the revelation of

the Criterion and that it is a divine Scripture while the occurrence of the word al

furqdn at the end of the sentence is to confirm that the Criterion is the final Scripture. cAta' refers to examples like these as 'the chemical composition of the Qur'an'2 by

which he means the delicate and balanced linguistic structures of Qur'anic discourse.3

2.2 The order of contrastive elements

Contrastive elements, i.e. antonyms, appear in a linear order just like using two bricks

of different colours next to each other in a wall; each word expresses a different con

cept, either positive or negative, as in Q.35:19-20:

Wa-md yastawi 'l-acmd wa'l-basiru wa-ld 'l-^ulumdtu wa-ld 'l-nuru

('The blind man is not equal with the seer, nor is darkness [tantamount

with] light')


where the first two contrasting elements are al-acmd/al-basir and the second two con

trasting elements are al-iulumdt/al-nur. In this order we have negative and positive notions. Contrastive units can also occur in two separate yet related units where each

is made up of two elements, such as Q.l 1:24:

mathalu 'l-fariqayni ka'l-acma wa'l-asammi wa'l-basiri wa'l-samVi

('the similitude of the two parties is as the blind and the deaf and the

seer and the hearer')

where we have two contrasting units, the first unit contains: acmd/asamm, followed

by the second unit basir/samic. The order of these contrasting elements in the two

units is symmetrical where the first element acmd in unit one contrasts with the first

element basir in unit two, and the second element samTc in unit one contrasts with the

second element asamm in unit two. In this particular order, we have [negative + neg

ative] contrasted with [positive + positive].

3. Simple structures without modifiers

These are paratactic constructions which are either verbal, i.e. begin with or

have a verb, or nominal, i.e. begin with a noun and with or without a verb, as in

Q.42:15:

Fa-li-dhalika fa-dcu wa-staqim ka-md umirta wa-la tattabi0

ahwd 'ahum wa-qul dmantu bi-md anzala Alldhu min kitdbin wa-umir

tu li-acdila baynakum Alldhu rabbund wa-rabbukum land acmdlund

wa-lakum acmdlukum la hujjata baynand wa-baynakum Alldhu

yajmacu baynand wa-ilayhi 'l-masir

('Unto this, then, summon [O Muhammad]. And be thou upright as

thou art commanded, and follow not their lusts, but say: I believe in

whatever scripture Allah hath sent down, and I am commanded to be

just among you. Allah is our Lord and your Lord. Unto us our works

and unto you your works, no argument between us and you. Allah will

bring us together, and unto Him is the journeying')

where the whole construction consists of verbal followed by nominal paratactic sim

ple structures. The verbal simple structures are:

fa-li-dhalika fa-dcu

wa-staqim ka-ma umirta

la tattabi0 ahwd'ahum

qui dmantu bi-md anzala Alldhu min kitdbin

umirtu li-acdila baynakum


These are followed by nominal simple structures:

Allahu rabbund wa-rabbukum

land a cmdluna

lakum acmdlukum

la hujjata baynand wa-baynakum Allahu yajmacu baynand

ilayhi 'l-masir

All these structures do not exhibit any form of modification, i.e. no modifiers have

been used to describe a given noun, unlike the complex structures below.

4. Complex structures with modifiers

These are highly decorative constructions which employ a chain of modifying units

to look like a chandelier with clusters of modifiers, as in Q.47:15:

Mathalu 'l-jannati 'llati wucida 'l-muttaqunafihd anhdrun min ma'in

ghayri dsinin wa-anhdrun min labanin lam yataghayyar ta ?muhu wa

anhdrun min khamrin ladhdhatin li'l-shdribina wa-anhdrun min

casalin musaffan wa-lahum fihd min kulli 'l-thamardti wa-maghfi ratun min rabbihim

('A similitude of the Garden which those who keep their duty [to

Allah] are promised: therein are rivers of water unpolluted and rivers

of milk whereof the flavour changeth not, and rivers of wine delicious

to the drinkers, and rivers of clear-run honey; therein for them is every kind of fruit, with pardon from their Lord')

What is more interesting is that the core work of each cluster displays numerical sym

metry, in the sense that each consists of the same number of letters: the first four clus

ters have four core words, each consisting of three letters only (ma'; laban; khamr;

casal) while the last two clusters have two core words, each consisting of five letters

(thamardt; maghfira).

Figure 1 (overleaf) shows the clusters of modifiers which accompany some complex Qur'anic structures.

The clusters of clauses in figure 1 are 'tighter bundles than paragraphs' and they have

'more "closure", i.e. it is easier to tell where one stops and another starts than is

the case with paragraphs'. They are ' "sentential expressions" of subject/object

slots'.4

Another interesting example of a decorative complex Qur'anic construction is

demonstrated in Q.5:54 in which the chain of the modifying units appears at the end


anhdrun min wa-anhdrun wa-anhdrun wa-anhdrun wa-lahum Wa- maghfi

md 'in ghayri min labanin min khamrin min casalin fihd min ratun min

dsinin lam ladhdhatin musaffan kulli 7- rabbihim

yataghayyar IVI- thamardti

ta?muhu shdribina

Figure 1: A chandelier construction with modifying clusters

of the construction. These modifying units are descriptive elements of a noun (phrase) in the main clause, jawdb al-shart, of a conditional sentence, jumla shartiyya, as

shown in figure 2:

Yd ayyuhd 'lladhina dmanu man yartadda minkum can dinihi

fa-^

yuhibbuhum adhillatin 0aid acizzatin cald yujdhidunafi wa-la

wa- yuhibbu- 'l-mu 'minina 'l-kdfirina sabil Alldhi yakhdfuna law

nahu mata la 'imin

Figure 2 Q.5:54


('0 ye who believe! If any from among you turn back from his faith, soon will God

produce a people whom He will love as they will love Him, lowly with the believers,

mighty against the rejectors, fighting in the way of God, and never afraid of the

reproaches of such as find fault.')

4.1 Complex structures containing relative pronouns The construction discussed in section 4 above is an example of the case where the rel

ative clause allatl wucida 'l-muttaqiin acts as an adjectival clause modifying the noun

al-janna introduced by the relative pronoun allatl. In other cases, we find a cluster of

relative adjectival clauses which all act as modifiers to the noun, as in Q.87:l-5:

Sabbihi sma rabbika 'l-acla 'lladhl khalaqa fa-sawwa wa-lladhl qad

darafa-hada wa-lladhl akhraja 'l-marca

(4Praise the name of thy Lord the Most High, who createth, then dis

poseth; who measureth, then guideth, who bringeth forth the pas

turage')

where we have a cluster of three relative clauses:

alladhl khalaqa fa-sawwa alladhl qaddara fa-hada alladhl akhr aja 'l-marca

each beginning with a relative noun alladhl and where all the three clauses modify the

same noun phrase (rabbika). The relative pronoun is needed here because the noun

being modified (rabb) is definite, since it is the first part of a genitive (idafd) con

struction.

4.2 Complex structures without relative pronouns More interestingly, we find Qur'anic structures in which the adjectival clause which

modifies the noun appears without a relative pronoun, as in Q.66:6:

qu anfusakum wa-ahllkum naran waquduha 'l-nasu wa 'l-hijaratu

('O ye who believe! Ward off from yourselves and your families a fire

whereof the fuel is men and stones')

where we have a relative clause, waquduha 'l-nasu wa'l-hijaratu, modifying the

noun, nar, without having a relative pronoun. Syntactically, a relative pronoun is not

needed here because the modified noun ndr is indefinite. The relativity is thus marked

by the pronoun ha.


5. Multi-tiered structures

This is a prototypical linguistic feature of Qur'anic discourse whereby some macro

constructions consist of a number of tiers each representing an independent layer. Each tier accommodates a number of structures that share the same prepositional con

tent, followed by a second tier which also consists of a number of structures with a

prepositional content different from but related to that of the first tier. This concludes

with a final tier which also exhibits a number of structures whose prepositional con

tent is different from but related to that of the first and second tiers, as in:

First Tier (Q.93:l-5):

Wa'l-duha. Wa'l-layli idha sajd. Ma waddacaka rabbuka wa-md qald. Wa-la'l-dkhiratu khayrun laka min al-uld. Wa-la sawfa yuctika rabbu

ka fa-tardd.

('By the morning hours, and by the night when it is stillest, thy Lord

hath not forsaken thee nor doth He hate thee. And verily the latter por tion will be better for thee than the former. And verily thy Lord wilt

give unto thee so that thou will be content.')

Second Tier (Q.93:6-8):

A-lam yajidka yatiman fa-awd. Wa-wajadaka ddlldn fa-hadd. Wa

wajadaka cd 'ilan fa-aghnd.

('Did He not find thee an orphan and protect [thee]? Did He not find

thee wandering and direct [thee]? Did He not find thee destitute and

enrich [thee]?')

Third Tier (Q.93:9-ll):

Fa-ammd 'l-yatima fa-la taqhar. Wa-ammd 'I-sd'ila fa-la tanhar. Wa

ammd bi-nicmati rabbika fa-haddith.

('Therefore, the orphan oppress not. Therefore, the beggar drive not

away. Therefore, of the bounty of thy Lord be thy discourse.')

The prepositional content of the first tier is advice and pledge to Muhammad, the sec

ond tier consists of three rhetorical questions directed to Muhammad, while the third

tier is made up of three instructions to the Prophet. This three-tier macro-construction

is illustrated by the following figure:


Wa'l-duha. Wa'l-layli idha saja. Ma waddacaka rabbuka wa-ma qala.

Wa-la'l-dkhiratu khayrun laka min al-ula.

^_Wa-la sawfa yuctika rabbuka

fa-tarda._^

; n A-lam yajidka yatiman fa-awa. Wa-wajadaka dallan fa-hada.

^_Wa-wajadaka ca'ilanfa-aghnd._^

Fa-amma 'l-yatima fa-la taqhar. Wa-ammd

'l-sa'ila fa-la tanhar. Wa amma bi-nicmati rabbika

fa-haddith.

V_J

Figure 3: A multi-tiered structure showing layers of interrelated

prepositional content

6. Lexical decoration

Qur'anic constructions display colourful lexical decoration employing a variety of

linguistic strategies.

6.1 Tail-head structures

Qur'anic structures exhibit the linguistic phenomenon of tail-head quite frequently. A

tail-head structure consists of two parts: the first part ends with a word which acts as

a tail, followed by the second part which starts with the same final word of the first

part and acts as a head. The linguistic purpose of the repetition of specific lexical

items intra-sententially is to achieve lexical cohesion.5 Also to right-dislocate a lexi

cal item is to bring it into focus and to the attention of the reader/listener.6 On the

other hand, it is stylistically more powerful to apply right-dislocation for a noun espe

cially when the predicate is negated,7 as in Q.62:5:

bi'sa mathalu 'l-qawmi 'lladhina kadhdhabu bi-dyati Alldhi wa

Alldhu la yahdi 'l-qawma 'l-^dlimina.

('Wretchedness is the likeness of folk who deny the revelations of

Allah. And Allah guideth not wrongdoing folk.')


and also Q.40:79:

Allahu 'lladhl jacala lakum al-ancama li-tarkabu minha wa-minha

ta 'kulun.

('Allah it is who hath appointed for you cattle, that ye may ride on

some of them, and eat of some.')

In the first tail-head structure, we have the first part ending with the element Allah

used as a tail, while the second part starts with the same element Allah used as a head.

Similarly, in the second structure, the first part of the structure ends with the element

minha used as a tail, while the second part starts with the same element minha used

as a head. There is a strongly-felt cohesion between the repeated lexical items.

6.2 Head-tail structures

This is when the same lexical item appears at the initial and final position of the same

construction acting as brackets to enclose other elements inside, as in Q.60:5:

Rabband la tajcalna fitnatan li'lladhlna kafaru wa-ghfir land rab

band.

('Our Lord! Make us not a prey for those who disbelieve, and forgive us, our Lord!')

Here the word rabband appears twice, initially as a head and finally as a tail, thus

framing and wrapping up the rest of the elements in the construction.

6.3 Symmetrical structures

Symmetry in linguistic patterns is a prototypical linguistic feature of a significant number of Qur'anic constructions. We find two more phrasal couplets of a given structure exhibiting both morphological and numerical parallelism, as in Q.88:15-16:

Wa-namdriqu masfufatun wa-zardbiyu mabthuthatun

('And cushions ranged. And silken carpets spread')

and Q.37:117-118:

Wa dtayndhumd 'l-kitdba 'l-mustabina. Wa-hadayndhumd 'l-sirdta

al-mustaqlma.

('And We gave them the clear Scripture. And showed them the right

path.')

Here the two parts of each structure are morphologically symmetrical and

numerically identical; the number of letters of each word in the two parts of the first

construction is {5:6} and {5:6}. Similarly, the number of letters of each word in the


two parts of the second construction is {8:6:8} and {8:6:8}. Constructions of this kind

exhibit paranomasia (i.e. root-pattern echo and repetition) which can produce bal

anced juxtapositions of sounds, words, phrases and sentences.8

Qur'anic constructions enjoy inter- and intra-lexical sound harmony, i.e. phonetic

cohesion where there is a delicate balance between lexical items, the overall seman

tic content, sound and surrounding words.9

6.4 'Multiple conjunction' structures

Some Qur'anic constructions display an excessive use, for rhetorical reasons (poly

syndeton), of various inter-sentential conjunctions like fa, amma, wa, repeated in suc

cessive structures, as in Q.93:9-ll:

Fa-amma 'l-yatima fa-la taqhar wa-ammd 'l-sa fila fa-la tanhar wa

ammd bi-nicmati rabbika fa-haddith.

('Therefore, the orphan oppress not. Therefore, the beggar drive not

away. Therefore, of the bounty of thy Lord be thy discourse.')

6.5 'Morphological relation' structures

This is the occurrence, inter-sententially, of two morphologically related lexical

items, as in Q.33:37:

Wa-takhshd 1-ndsa wa-Alldhu ahaqqu an takhshdhu

('And thou didst fear mankind whereas Allah had a better right that

thou should fear Him.')

where the first lexical item takhshd is morphologically related to the second lexical

item takhshdhu. Also in Q.2:195:

Wa-ahsinu inna Allaha yuhibbu 'l-muhsinin.

('And do good, for Allah loveth the beneficent.')

where the first lexical item ahsinu is morphologically related to the second lexical

item al-muhsinin.

This is also an instance of 'strong cohesion' when two identical or synonymous lex

ical items occur in the same structure in crucial positions.10 This type of lexical cohe

sion 'helps to determine the readability and teachability of texts'.11

7. Decorative features

These are paralinguistic features employed for interior and exterior decoration of lin

guistic constructions. They are of two types:


7.1 Prosodic features

These are the basic psycho-acoustic properties of sound which are the source

of the main linguistic effects; they include pitch and loudness.12 These features are

applied inter-sententially to provide interior decoration at the phonetic level through certain sounds. This can only be manifested when the construction is read aloud, i.e. when it is recited according to the ahkdm al-tajwid (rules of recitation) as in

Q.58:2:

alladhlna yu^dhiruna minkum min nisd 'ihim ma hunna ummahdtihim

('such of you as put away your wives [by saying they are as their

mothers], they are not their mothers')

where the final nasal sound [mim] in minkum assimilates with the initial nasal sound

[mim] of min; the final nasal sound [niin] in min assimilates with the initial nasal

sound [niin] of nisd'ihim; the final nasal sound [mim] in nisd'ihim assimilates with

the initial nasal sound [mim] of ma. Of note also is the lengthening of some sounds

through the occurrence of the letter [alif] which is pronounced as a long open front

unrounded vowel /aeae/ as in nisd'ihim. This lengthening takes place because of a fol

lowing [hamza]. Through assimilation and lengthening, the phonetic production achieves a decorative aesthetic value.

A linguistically-effective construction requires, at times, a value-added musical

effect. Qur'anic structures achieve this through a number of effective devices like

nunation (tanwin) and the use of the nasals [niin] and [mim] which enable us to pro vide nasalised musical effects (ghunna) for the construction, as well as the other

sound means such as lengthening-vowels, i.e. [alif], [wdw], [yd']. It is sound qualities like these that dominate the entire Qur'anic discourse which have led Pickthall to

believe that the Qur'an is an 'inimitable symphony'.13

7.2 Imagery Certain Qur'anic constructions provide images which can be visualised vividly as a

documentary or as a painting depicting various scenes. Imagery functions as an

impressive and highly effective exterior decoration for the construction as a whole, as

in Q.22:l-2:

Yd ayyuhd 'l-nasu ittaqu rabbakum inna zalzalata 'l-sdcati shay'un

cazxmun yawma tarawnahd tadhhalu kullu murdicatin cammd ardacat

wa-tadacu kullu dhdti hamlin hamlahd wa-tard 'l-ndsa sukdrd wa-md

hum bi-sukdrd wa-ldkinna cadhdba Alldhi shadidun.

('0 mankind Fear your Lord! For the convulsion of the hour (of judge

ment) will be a thing terrible! The day ye shall see it, every mother


giving suck shall forget her suckling-babe, and every pregnant female

shall drop her load (unformed): thou shalt see mankind as in a drunk

en riot, yet not drunk: but dreadful will be the wrath of God.')

The image the above Qur'anic structure portrays is that of the earthquake of the Hour

of Doom; one can visualise a terrifying and chaotic atmosphere where nursing moth

ers abandon their little babies, pregnant women deliver prematurely, and people walk

as though they were drunken; it is an atmosphere of sheer fear and horror.14 The

image depicted by the above two structures is that of intimidation, apprehension, fear

of God and resignation.15 The scene of resurrection is that of a violent and awesome

earthquake where people are at a complete loss, with no physical strength and stam

pede, everyone for himself. Imagery has, thus, been employed to convey the pivotal theme of the dya which is the fear of God.

Note also Q.20:108:

Wa-khashacat al-aswatu IV l-Rahmani fa-la tasmacu ilia hamsan.

('All sounds will be hushed before the most Gracious, and you will

hear nothing but a faint sough in the air.')

This structure depicts an atmosphere of submission, total silence and overwhelming stillness. God's glory dominates the scene, people can only whisper and their faces

are distressed. The phonetic features of certain sounds have a semantic value: they have helped in the production of an effective imagery of this aya. The phonetic fea

tures of the sibilant sounds [shin] and [sin] which are characterised by a high

frequency hiss in the words hamsan, tasma?u, khashacat, mirror the state of

solemnity, quietness, and abject awe which are the salient hallmarks of the day of judgement.

Other forms of Qur'anic imagery are decorated by linguistic and rhetorical features

which contribute to the production of an effecive psychological impact on the reader, as in Q.89:19-23:

Wa-ta'kuluna 'l-turdtha aklan lamman wa-tuhibbuna fl-mala hubban

jamman. Kalld idha dukkat al-ardu dakkan dakkan. Wa-jd'a rabbuka

wa'l-malaku sajfan sayf an. Wa-jVa yawma'idhin bi-jahannama yaw ma'idhin yatadhakkaru 'l-insdnu wa-annd lahu 'l-dhikrd.

('You devour the inheritance of others with devouring greed, and you love wealth and boundless love! Nay, but how will you fare on

Judgement Day when the earth is crushed with crushing upon crush

ing, and the majesty of your Sustainer stands revealed, as well as the

true nature of the angels, rank upon rank? And on that day Hell will be


brought within sight; on that day man will remember all that he did

and failed to do. But what will that remembrance avail him?')

In these Qur'anic structures, we find a rainbow of images depicted vividly: greediness and love of money, the flattening-out of earth, the appearance of God with rows upon rows of angels, and the projection of hell. Imagery is achieved here through the

employment of linguistic elements such as reiteration which is a form of lexical cohe

sion, as in [saffan-saffan], [dukkat-dakkan], [tuhibbuna-hubban], [ta'kuluna-aklan] which are morphologically related, and also through rhetorical means such as

epizeuxis (saffan-saffan) and polyptoton (yatadhakkaru-dhikrd). The cases of reiter

ation mentioned above can also be regarded as examples of polyptoton on the rhetor

ical level.

8. Conclusion

Qur'anic structures are characterised by prototypical linguistic and paralinguistic fea

tures unique to Qur'anic discourse. The architectural aspects of constructions are

realised by syntactic, semantic and prosodic effects. We can conclude that Qur'anic structures are in fact unique in the permutation of their constituent lexical items,

multi-tiered structures, complex structures with clusters of clauses, chandelier struc

tures with clusters of modifiers, and parallelistic structures. A major hallmark of the

linguistic architecture of Qur'anic constructions is saturated modification such as rel

ative pronouns or conjunctive elements. In Q.25:63-75, we encounter seven relative

pronouns. Examples of this unique case can be found at sura level as in Q.26 where

we encounter the use of the conjunctive element fa- sixty-two times, or at dya level

as in Q.40:67 where the use of the conjunctive element thumma is used five times.

Another major hallmark of Qur'anic linguistic architecture is the repetition of lexical

items which are morphologically related. This reflects the interfertilisation between

morphology and rhetoric; on the linguistic level, this type of repetition is employed as a cohesive vehicle to achieve a communicative purpose, while on the rhetorical

level it achieves polyptoton which is employed for stylistic effect. Moreover, we can

conclude that word order is not only well chosen but also semantically-oriented. An

interesting hallmark of some Qur'anic constructions is the interfertilisation between

sound effect and semantic value. However, this paralinguistic feature should not be

confused with onomatopoeia which refers to the symbolism of sounds and the ver

balisation of noises. The sound of some Qur'anic expressions carries a semantic

value. An example of this case is the word sakana ('to rest/dwell in tranquillity') which always accompanies words like layl, zawja, and al-janna. The soft voiceless

sounds [sin] and [kdf] suggest comfort and tranquillity, as in Q.40:61, Q.7:189 and

Q.2:35 respectively.


All the features we have attempted to explain have made the Qur'anic linguistic envi

ronment a magnificent landscape salient with unique linguistic architecture. These

linguistic architectural features make us confidently conclude that Qur'anic discourse

is a genre in its own right.

NOTES

I wish to express my gratitude to Ian Netton for his valuable coments on the draft of this article.

Any errors that may appear here are my own.

1 cAbd al-cAziz cAtTq, cIlm al-badic (Beirut: Dar al-Nahda al-cArabiyya, 1985), p. 9.

2 cAbd al-Qadir Ahmad cAta\ 'Wujuh icjaz al-Qur'an', in Mahmud ibn Hamza al-Karmanl

(ed.), Asrdr al-tikrdr fi 'l-Qur'an (Cairo: Dar al-Ptisam, 1977), p. 243-63.

3 See also al-Suyuti, Abu T-Fadl Jalal al-Din, MuHarak al-aqrdnfi icjdz al-Qur'dn (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-cIlmiyya, 1988), vol. 1, p. 128 ff.

4 Robert E. Longacre, 'Sentences as combinations of clauses' in Language, Typology and

Syntactic Description: Complex Constructions, ed. Timothy Shopen, (CUP, 1985), vol. 2, p. 235.

5 M. A. K. Halliday, An Introduction to Functional Grammar (London: Edward Arnold,

1985), p. 310.

6 Al-JurjanI, cAbd al-Qahir, Dala'il al-icjdz (Cairo: Maktabat al-KMnjl, 1984), p. 131.

7 Ibid., p. 138.

8 C. Holes, Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions and Varieties (London: Longman, 1995), p. 269.

9 cAta', 'Wujuh', pp. 245 ff.; al-Jurjam, Dala'il, pp. 57 ff.

10 D. Schneider, 'Lexical Cohesion in Texts of Various Functional Styles' in G. Graustein and

A. Neubert (eds), Trends in English Text Linguistics (Berlin: Zentralinstitut fur

Sprachwissenschaft, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, 1979), p. 110.

11 Ibid., p. 114.

12 David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: CUP, 1987), p. 169.

13 M. Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1969), p. vii.

14 Al-Qurtubi, Abu cAbdallah Muhammad, al-Jamic li-ahkam al-Qur'an (Beirut: Dar al

Kitab al-cArabi, 1997), vol. 12, pp. 7-8; al-Zamakhshari, Abu T-Qasim, al-Kashshdf (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-cIlmiyya, 1995), vol. 3, pp. 138-140.

15 Sayyid Qutb, Filial al-Qur'an (Beirut: Dar al-Shuruq, 1996), vol. 4, p. 2406.

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