Page1 The Law of State Responsibility -breach by international law subjects of its obligation = entails international responsibility -SR enunciates the consequences of a breach by international subjects as well as the permissible responses to such breaches -discuss on the element of SR and defences available to avoid liability (exclude responsibility) 1) Nature of State Responsibility -responsibility arises from breach of an international obligation. Eg : fails to honour a treaty, violates territorial responsibility of another state, damages the territory or other property of another state -development of the law of SR is influenced by the work of ILC on the SR in 1949 – submitted their Draft Article 2001 to GA of the UN (taking into account suggestions and recommendations from government of the member state) – GA adopted resolution to take note of the Commission’s Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Act 2001 2) The element of SR Article 2 of the Articles on Responsibility of States – there is an internationally wrongful act of a state when conduct consisting of an action or omission 1)is attributable to the State under international law 2)constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the State Kalau satisfy these two elements + provided that there are no defences available = state is responsible for any breach 2.1 Attribution of conduct to State -state can act only by and through its organ -state organ is considered as acting for the state and thus, the conduct is attributable to the State 2.1.1 Conduct of State Organ Article 4 – the conduct of a state organ shall be considered an act of that state under IL, whether the organ exercises legislative, executive, judicial or any other functions, whatever position it holds in the organisation of the state, and whatever its character as an organ of the central government / of a territorial unit of the state
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The Law of State Responsibility
-breach by international law subjects of its obligation = entails international responsibility
-SR enunciates the consequences of a breach by international subjects as well as the permissible
responses to such breaches
-discuss on the element of SR and defences available to avoid liability (exclude responsibility)
1) Nature of State Responsibility
-responsibility arises from breach of an international obligation.
Eg : fails to honour a treaty, violates territorial responsibility of another state, damages the territory
or other property of another state
-development of the law of SR is influenced by the work of ILC on the SR in 1949 – submitted their
Draft Article 2001 to GA of the UN (taking into account suggestions and recommendations from
government of the member state) – GA adopted resolution to take note of the Commission’s Articles
on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Act 2001
2) The element of SR
Article 2 of the Articles on Responsibility of States – there is an internationally wrongful act of a state
when conduct consisting of an action or omission
1)is attributable to the State under international law
2)constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the State
Kalau satisfy these two elements + provided that there are no defences available = state is
responsible for any breach
2.1 Attribution of conduct to State
-state can act only by and through its organ
-state organ is considered as acting for the state and thus, the conduct is attributable to the State
2.1.1 Conduct of State Organ
Article 4 – the conduct of a state organ shall be considered an act of that state under IL, whether the
organ exercises legislative, executive, judicial or any other functions, whatever position it holds in
the organisation of the state, and whatever its character as an organ of the central government / of
a territorial unit of the state
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-state organ = individual or collective entities making up the organisation of the state and acting o
behalf of it.
State is responsible for the conduct of its own organs and officials
Immunity from Legal Process
According to a well established rule of IL, the conduct of any organ of a state must be regarded as an
act of that State. This rule is of a customary character.
3 main organs of State
Executive organ (the government, ministries and government departments, police and forces, secret
agent)
Southern Pacific Properties (Middle East) Ltd v Arab Republic of Egypt
The Southern Pacific Properties entered into a contract with Egyptian Government to develop land
for tourism in Egypt. Due to intense public opposition, the Egyptian Government withdrew the
permission. It was held that the act in question were the act of the Egyptian authorities including the
highest executive authority of the government and that a state is responsible for wrongful act of its
organ.
Rainbow Warrior case (conduct of government secret agent)
Rainbow Warrior, a Greenpeace vessel when it was leaving to protest French nuclear test in the
Pacific, was blown up in Auckland Harbour by French Government secret service agent. The French
Government admitted its responsibility for the destruction of the vessel. New Zealand sought and
received an apology and compensation for the violation of its territorial sovereignty.
Judicial organ
Can be the cause of ST in the context of ‘denial of justice’ – example of a breach of international
obligation by the judicial organ of a state for which the state is responsible
-in respect of the application of a treaty, if the courts decline to give effect to the treaty or are
unable to do so because the necessary change has not been made = the judgment involve the state
in a breach of treaty
Legislative organ
State is responsible if the act of parliament are contrary to IL (yang dah incorporate dalam national
law)
Superior and subordinate organ
Article 4 – does not make a distinction between the act of superior and subordinate organ
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Conduct by lower level official – still attributable
Massey’s claim
US citizen was murdered in Mexico. The culprit was arrested but later escaped from the prison when
the assistant prison warder allowed him to leave. Tribunal rejected Mexico’s claim that it was not
responsible because of the low status of the official – Mexico responsible.
Organ of the central government or of a territorial unit of the State
The France/Mexico Claims Commission in the Pellat case
“the principle of the international responsibility of a federal state for all the act of its separate states
which gives rise to claims by foreign states”
2.1.2 in an official capacity
-State will be responsible only if that person or entity act “in an official capacity”
-kalau act of individual, no connection with the official function = state is not responsible
Mallen case
A Mexican consul had been violently attacked and beaten twice by an American police officer. As for
the first attack, the evidence indicated a motiveless of a private individual who happened to be an
official. On the second attack, the American police officer, showing hi badge to assert his “official
capacity” struck Mallen with his revolver and took him at gun point to the country jail. CH – US was
responsible for the second assault.
2.1.3 Persons or entities exercising element of governmental authority (Article 5)
Article 5 – attribution of conduct to a state which is not state organ in the sense of Article 4 but
authorized to exercise “elements of governmental authority”
-refer to a situation = in some countries where the law of the state empowers certain public
corporations and even private companies to exercise element of governmental authority”
Eg : airlines companies having the power in relation to immigration control
2.1.4 Responsibility for ultra vires act (Article 7)
Article 7 – the conduct of a state or person, entity empowered to exercise elements of the
government authority shall be considered an act of the state under IL if the organ, person, entity
acts in that capacity, even if it exceeds its authority or contravenes instruction
Caire claim
A French national was murdered by two Mexican military officers, who after failing to extort money,
took him to the military barracks and shot him. The tribunal held that, for the ultra vires acts of the
official to be attributable to the States “they should have acted as authorised officials or organs and
should have used powers or measures appropriate to their official character”
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Youmans claim
A mob gathered around a house in Mexico within which were three American nationals. The local
mayor ordered a lieutenant to proceed with troops to quell the riot and put an end to the attack
upon the Americans. The troops however, upon arriving at the scene, opened fired on the house and
resulted with the death of the Americans. The commission stated that the participation of the
soldiers in the murder could not be regarded as acts by private individual when it was clear that the
men were on duty under the immediate supervision and in the presence of a commanding officer.
Mexico was responsible.
2.1.5 Conduct of persons directed or controlled by a state (Article 8)
General rule – conduct of a person is not attributable to the state
Article 8 – the conduct of a person or group of persons shall be considered an act of a state under IL
if the person is
i)acting on the instruction of the state
state organ supplement their own action by recruiting private person/group who acts as “auxiliaries”
while remaining outside the official structure of a state (as volunteers)
eg : private person enlisted for a police search and cause injury to a foreign national – the act is
attributable to the state
Zafiro case
The US was held responsible for looting by the civilian crew of a merchant vessel, employed as a
supply vessel by American Naval forces during US war with Spain, under a command of a merchant
captain who was under the order of an American naval officer. The tribunal emphasised the failure
to proper control in the circumstances.
ii)acting under the direction or control of the state
-private person acts under the State’s direction or control
Nicaragua case
The question was whether the conduct of the contras, an insurrection movement against the
Nicaraguan Government was attributable to the US so as to hold US responsible for breaches of
international humanitarian law committed by the contras. This question was examined by the ICJ in
term of effective control. Even though US had provided heavy subsidies and other support, there is
no evidence that the US actually exercised such a degree of control. For US to be responsible, it
would in principle have to be proved that the State had effective control of the military and
paramilitary operations in the course of the violations being committed.
ILC in its commentary to Article 8 – “such conduct will be attributable to the state only if it is
directed / controlled the ‘specific operation’ and the conduct complained was the integral part of
that operation. It obviously adopts the ‘effective control’ test of the Nicaragua case.
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Conduct of an insurrectional / other movement
Divided into two
i)conduct of an insurrectional movement which becomes the new government of a state
Article 10 – the conduct of an insurrectional movement which becomes the new government of a
state shall be considered an act of that state under IL
Bolivar Railway Co claim
“the nation is responsible for the obligation of a successful revolution from its beginning”
-state is responsible not only for the wrongful act of the movement, but also for the wrongful act
committed by the former government
ILC commentary on Article 10 – The situation requires that acts committed during the struggle for
power by the apparatus of the insurrectional movement should be attributable to the state,
alongside acts of the then established government.
Short v Iran
An American citizen was employed by an American company in Iran. He alleged that he was
forcefully expelled from Iran three days before the Islamic Revolutionary Government took office
and claimed damages for his loss of employment benefits. The commission affirmed the principle
that where a revolution leads to the establishment of a new government, the state is held
responsible for the act of the overthrown government
Article 10 (3) – exceptional cases where the State was in a position to adopt measures of vigilance,
prevention of punishment in respect of the insurrectional movement but failed to do so – is clearly a
conduct attributable to the State
ii)unsuccessful or on going insurrectional movement
-not attributable to the state (treated on the same footing as that of persons or groups)
Home Missionary Society claim
CH – it is a well established principle of IL that no government can be held responsible for the act of
rebellious bodies of men committed in violation of its authority.
Conduct acknowledged and adopted by a state as its own
Article 11 – conduct which is not attributable to a state under the preceding articles shall be
considered an act of that state if the state acknowledges and adopts the conduct in question as its
own.
-this article refers to a situation where the conduct is not attributable to a state at the time of
commission but subsequently adopted and acknowledged by state as its own.
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United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran case (subsequent adoption by a state of a
particular conduct)
1979 – several hundred student—demonstrator occupied the US Embassy in Tehran by force and
held the embassy staff as hostage. The court divided the event into two phases
1st stage – the attack was carried out by militants who in no way could be regarded as agents or
organs of the Iranian State – so the conduct of the militant could not be attributable to the state
2nd stage – started after completion of the occupation of the embassy. At this stage, the Iranian
Government was legally bound to bring an end the unlawful occupation and pay reparation. Instead,
it approved and endorsed the occupation and even issued a decree stating that the American
Embassy was a centre of espionage and the staff did not enjoy diplomatic immunity. The decree
further on saying that the embassy and the hostage will remain until the US hand over the former
Shah for trial. CH – The approval given to the act of the militant translated into the act of the state.
Conduct of private persons or entities
Private persons/entities – not state organs, not exercising element of governmental authority, not
acting as agent of the state – not attributable to the state
Eg : violance against foreigners or destruction of foreign properties by private individuals – not
attributable to state.
States will only be responsible for its own omission or inaction
GR – State will not be responsible for the act of private individual, but the act may be accompanied
by some omission on the part of the state
-it is responsible only if its own conduct by omission may be proved – there is failure to act in
conformity with the international legal standard. The state is responsible for the conduct (omission,
inaction, failure) of its own organ
Two forms of omission on the part of the state
a)failure to exercise due diligence
-state is responsible under IL if it fails to exercise “due diligence” to prevent private persons from