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THE JUDICIAL APPLICATION OF
HUMAN RIGHTS LAW
National, Regional and International Jurisprudence
Since the proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
over 140 countries have incorporated human rights standards into their
legal systems: the resulting jurisprudence from diverse cultural tradi-
tions brings new dimensions to concepts first articulated in 1948. Nihal
Jayawickrama draws on all available sources to encapsulate the judicial
interpretation of human rights law in one ambitious, comprehensive
volume. Jayawickrama covers the case law of the superior courts of
eighty countries in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia, the Caribbean
and the Pacific, as well as jurisprudence of the UN Human Rights
monitoring bodies, the European Court of Human Rights, and of the
Inter-American system. He analyses the judicial application of human
rights law to demonstrate empirically the universality of contemporary
human rights norms. This definitive compendium will be essential for
legal practitioners, and government and non-governmental officials,
as well as academics and students of both constitutional law and the
international law of human rights law.
nihal jayawickrama was the Ariel F. Sallows Professor of Human
Rights at the University of Saskatchewan. He taught both constitutional
law and the international law of human rights at the University of Hong
Kong, and published on a range of contemporary legal, constitutional
and human rights issues. An advocate for a Bill of Rights in Hong Kong
prior to the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, he was involved in the
processes that led to its fruition. Executive Director of Transparency
International from 1997 to 2000, he is currently a consultant on gover-
nance and judicial reform. A member of the Sri Lanka Bar, he held the
offices of Attorney General and Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of
Justice, and served as a Representative to the United Nations General
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
The birds that fly in the air and the wild animals that dwell in
the jungles have the same rights as you, O great King, to live
wherever they wish or to roam wherever they will. The land
belongs to the people of the country and to all other beings that
inhabit it, while you are only its guardian.
Arahat Mahinda, the son of Emperor Asoka of the Mauryandynasty, to King Devanampiyatissa of Lanka, c. 250–210 bc,found on a rock inscription in Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka.
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
From 1978, I was associated with Professor Paul Sieghart, then chairmanof JUSTICE, the United Kingdom section of the International Com-mission of Jurists, and Professor James Fawcett, then president of theEuropean Commission of Human Rights, in a research project on theinternational law of human rights. My research on the jurisprudence ofthe Strasbourg institutions and of national courts was incorporated inPaul Sieghart’s pioneering work, The International Law of Human Rightswhich was published in 1983. The cut-off date for the law examined inthat book was 31 December 1981.
In the next two decades, the international human rights regime streng-thened considerably. Over 150 countries, spread over every continent,incorporated contemporary human rights standards into their legal sys-tems. Over 100 countries ratified the Optional Protocol to the Interna-tional Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, thereby enabling theirinhabitants to access the Human Rights Committee. Meanwhile, nearlyall the countries of South and Central America, Africa and Europe sub-scribed to regional human rights instruments with their ownmonitoringor enforcement mechanisms. The resulting jurisprudence, rich in con-tent and varied in flavour, from diverse cultural traditions, has added anew dimension to the concepts first articulated in the Universal Declara-tion of Human Rights. This book seeks to incorporate that jurisprudenceand, in that sense, complement the late Paul Sieghart’s invaluable work.
I have not set out to produce a scholarly work on human rights or oninternational law. There are already several analyses of the theoreticalfoundations and the politics of human rights, commentaries on thedifferent human rights instruments, academic studies of selected rights,and surveys of selected case law of the Strasbourg institutions and of theHuman Rights Committee. What is lacking is a volume that assembles allthe available jurisprudence on human rights from international, regional
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
and national sources; a book that presents the content of human rightslaw as interpreted by the courts. That is the need I have set out to meet.
In identifying the substantive content of the rights recognized in theInternational Bill of Human Rights, i.e. the Universal Declaration andthe two covenants, I have drawn on the following sources:
(a) the travaux preparatoires, particularly in respect of the InternationalCovenant on Civil and Political Rights;
(b) the texts of international instruments dealing with specific rightsand other standard setting resolutions of the United Nations GeneralAssembly, specialized agencies and subsidiary institutions;
(c) the general comments of the Human Rights Committee and theCommittee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the con-clusions of the Committee of Experts under the European SocialCharter;
(d) the judgments and advisory opinions of the International Court ofJustice and its predecessor, the Permanent Court of InternationalJustice;
(e) the decisions of the Human Rights Committee on individual com-munications received under the Optional Protocol, and of theCommittee against Torture;
(f) the judgments of the European Court of Human Rights and the re-ports and decisions of the European Commission of Human Rights;
(g) the decisions and advisory opinions of the Inter-American Court ofHuman Rights and the reports of the Inter-American Commissionof Human Rights;
(h) the judgments of superior courts in national jurisdictions interpret-ing and applying domestic Bills of Rights, wherever the specific rightsand freedoms have been formulated in terms identical or similar tothose enunciated in the two international human rights convenants;and
(i) the works of jurists.
The depth of discussion of a particular right is dependent on the avail-ability of case law. Accordingly, the chapters on economic, social andcultural rights are necessarily brief, while some on civil and politicalrights may appear inordinately long. Since I have been able to workonly in the English language, references to national jurisprudence fromthe European continent are often based on published summaries. The
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
cut-off date for the law incorporated in this book is, to the extent prac-ticable, 31 December 2001.
Any work of this kind involves considerable research. Much of theearly work was done in the libraries of the United Nations in New Yorkand Geneva, and of the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies in London.I am grateful to the former United Nations Centre for Human Rights inGeneva, the General Secretariat of the Organization of American Statesin Washington DC, and the Secretariat of the Council of Europe inStrasbourg for sending me regularly a wealth of information containedin their publications, documents and reports. Many friends, includingmy former colleagues in Hong Kong, have either sent me, or directedme to, material which I was unaware of or had overlooked, or providedme access to their personal collections.
Writing a book of this nature is difficult to combinewith regular teach-ing at a university, as I soon discovered after I commenced preliminarywork on it while teaching constitutional, administrative and humanrights law at the University of Hong Kong. I am most grateful, therefore,for the opportunity afforded me by the University of Saskatchewan in1992–3, to spend an academic year in Saskatoon, in the exhilarating cli-mate of the Canadian prairies. It was during that year, when I had theprivilege of occupying the Ariel F. Sallows Chair of Human Rights, thatI began writing this book. I could not have found a more conducive orstimulating environment, made even more agreeable by the warmth andkindness with which Dean Peter MacKinnon, QC, and his colleagues re-ceived my family and me. After leaving both Hong Kong and academia in1997, progress on this book was interrupted for a while as I commutedbetween London and Berlin (and a few other places as well) learningand exploring the new, but not entirely unrelated, area of corruption inpublic life and, more especially, in the judiciary.
This book would not, of course, have assumed the shape and formin which it appears today but for the help and co-operation which wasalways forthcoming from Professor James Crawford, Whewell Profes-sor of International Law at the University of Cambridge, Ms FinolaO’Sullivan, Commissioning Editor (Law), and Dr Jennie Rubio, LawDevelopment Editor, at Cambridge University Press. I am grateful fortheir recognition of the need for a definitive text on this subject, andtheir belief in my capacity to produce and deliver within the time con-straints that regulate most things in life. An effort spread over a decade
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
would not have been possible without the continuing tolerance and un-derstanding of my family. Indeed, it was their profound interest andencouragement that enabled this work to reach fruition. My deepestdebt, therefore, is owed to my wife, Sarojini, and to our two daughters,Nishana and Sharanya, all of whom, I am sure, looked forward on eachnew year’s day to life finally returning to normal in our home, whereverit might have been located.
The language of the chapters on the substantive rights that follow israrely mine. The real authors are the lawyers and judges, the men andwomen of many cultures who, individually and collectively, enhancedthe value of human life and extended the frontiers of human dignityby their courageous, imaginative and innovative approach to the inter-pretation and application of international and regional human rightsinstruments and national constitutions. I have attempted to assemble ina single volume as much of the material as I have been able to gatherin the hope that their endeavours will help and inspire others not onlyto follow but even to improve upon their achievements. Thereby, theevolving body of international human rights law will, in fact, becomethe universally accepted common standard by which the conduct of gov-ernments, public officials, private bodies, and individuals is measured. IfI have expressed a preference for a particular view, criticized a decision,or projected a dissent, I have done so because of my own perception thatin the protection of human rights, it is not possible to compromise; therecan be no half-way houses, no wayside halting places. Human rights arenot only fundamental; they are also inherent and inalienable.
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Asylum Case (Colombia v. Peru), ICJ Reports 1950, 266 6Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company Limited Case
(Belgium v. Spain), ICJ Reports 1970 6, 7, 38, 356Case Concerning Maritime Delimitation and Territorial
Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain)(Jurisdiction – First Phase), ICJ Reports 1994 5
Case concerning Maritime Delimitation in the Area betweenGreenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v. Norway), ICJReports 1993 7
Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Teheran Case (USA v. Iran),ICJ Reports 1980 6, 32, 40
Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence ofSouth Africa in Namibia (South West Africa)Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970),ICJ Reports 1971 23, 31, 33, 40, 161, 227, 235
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons,ICJ Reports 1996 243, 274
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against NicaraguaCase (Nicaragua v. USA), ICJ Reports 1986 6
North Sea Continental Shelf Case (Federal Republic ofGermany v. Denmark), ICJ Reports 1969 6
Nottebohm Case (second phase), ICJ Reports 1955, 23 40Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Case, ICJ Reports 1951 43South West Africa Case (second phase), ICJ Reports 1966 40Western Sahara Case, ICJ Reports 1975 222, 227
International Arbitral Tribunals
Alabama Claims Arbitration (1872) Moore 1 Int. Arb. 495 97
Human Rights Committee
A v. Australia, Communication No.560/1993, HRC 1997Report, Annex VI.L 377, 380, 381, 417, 420, 423
A Group of Associations for the Defence of the Rights of theDisabled and Handicapped Persons in Italy v. Italy,Communication No.163/1984, HRC 1984 Report, Annex XV 53
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
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Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
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Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
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Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
T v. Australia, Communication No.706/1996, HRC 1998Report, Annex VI.U 268
Tae Hoon Park v. Republic of Korea, CommunicationNo.628/1995, HRC 1999 Report, Annex XI.K 714
Taylor v. Jamaica, Communication No.707/1996, HRC 1997Report, Annex VI.W 289
Taylor and the Western Guard Party v. Canada,Communication No.104/1981, HRC 1983 Report,Annex XXIV 720
Thomas (Alrick) v. Jamaica, Communication No.272/1988,HRC 1992 Report, Annex IX.G 505, 553
Thomas (Maurice) v. Jamaica, Communication No.321/1988,HRC 1994 Report, Annex IX.A 431
Toonen v. Australia, Communication No.488/1992, HRC1994 Report, Annex IX.EE 198, 199, 604, 612, 832
Torres v. Finland, Communication No.291/1988,HRC 1990 Report, Annex IX.K 417, 422
Tshshimbi v. Zaire, Communication No.542/1993, HRC 1996Report, Annex VIII.Q 308, 376
Valenzuela v. Peru, Communication No.309/1988,14 July 1993 838
Van Alphen v. Netherlands, Communication No.305/1988,HRC 1990 Report, Annex IX.M 380, 411
Van Meurs v. Netherlands, Communication No.215/1986,HRC 1990 Report, Annex IX.F 500, 509
Venier and Nicholas v. France, CommunicationNos.690–1/1996, HRC 2000 Report, Annex IX.G 823
Vidal Martins v. Uruguay Human Rights Committee,Communication No.57/1979, Selected Decisions under theOptional Protocol (Second to Sixteenth Sessions), 122 453
Voituret v. Uruguay, Communication No.109/1981, HRC1984 Report, Annex X 430
Vuolanne v. Finland, Communication No.265/1987, HRC1989 Report, Annex X.J 302
Waldman v. Canada, Communication No.694/1996,HRC 2000 Report, Annex IX.H 661, 837, 850, 861
Waksman v. Uruguay, Communication No.31/1978, HRC1980 Report, Annex VII 453
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Tala v. Sweden, Communication No.43/1996,15 November 1996 304, 328
International Labour Organization
Case No.1034 (Brazil) 754Case No.1066 (Romania) 754Hong Kong Union of Post Office Employees v. United
Kingdom/Hong Kong, 277th Report of the Committee onFreedom of Association 1991 751
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions v. China,Case No.1500, 270th Report of the Committee on Freedomof Association 1989 748, 754
Regional
European Court of Human Rights
A v. Denmark (1996) 22 EHRR 458 513A v. United Kingdom (1998) 27 EHRR 611 350Abdulaziz, Cabales and Balkandali v. United Kingdom (1985)
7 EHRR 471 621Acquaviva v. France 21 November 1995 498Adolf v. Austria (1982) 4 EHRR 313 497Aerts v. Belgium (1998) 29 EHRR 50 417, 500Ahmed v. Austria (1996) 24 EHRR 278 329Ahmut v. Netherlands (1966) 24 EHRR 62 622Ait-Mouhoub v. France (1998) 30 EHRR 382 484Air Canada v. United Kingdom (1995) 20 EHRR 150 498, 915Airey v. Ireland (1979) 2 EHRR 305 488, 507Aksoy v. Turkey (1996) 23 EHRR 553 307, 315Albert and Le Compte v. Belgium (1983) 5 EHRR 533 313, 499, 746Alimena v. Italy 19 February 1991 566Allenet de Ribemont v. France (1995) 20 EHRR 557 550, 682Allgemeine Gold-Und Silberscheideanstalt v. United
Kingdom (1986) 9 EHRR 1 914Amann v. Switzerland (2000) 30 EHRR 843 606Amuur v. France (1992) 22 EHRR 533 382, 385
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Andersson v. Sweden (1991) 15 EHRR 218 509Andersson v. Sweden (1992) 14 EHRR 615 623, 624Andronicou and Constantinou v. Cyprus (1997)
25 EHRR 491 278, 488AP, MP and TP v. Switzerland (1997) 26 EHRR 541 495, 550Artico v. Italy (1980) 3 EHRR 1 501, 568Asch v. Austria (1991) 15 EHRR 597 571Ashingdane v. United Kingdom (1985) 7 EHRR 528 393, 482Autronic AG v. Switzerland (1990) 12 EHRR 485 187, 670, 683Averill v. United Kingdom (2000) 31 EHRR 839 581Axen v. Germany (1983) 6 EHRR 195 499, 525Aydin v. Turkey (1997) 25 EHRR 251 299, 306, 316B v. Austria (1990) 13 EHRR 20 413B v. France (1992) 16 EHRR 1 618, 774Balani v. Spain 9 December 1994 504Baraona v. Portugal (1987) 13 EHRR 329 513Barbera, Messegue and Jabardo v. Spain (1988)
11 EHRR 360 501, 548Barfod v. Denmark (1989) 13 EHRR 493 693Barthold v. Germany (1985) 7 EHRR 383 191, 681, 694Baskaya and Okcuogh v. Turkey (1999) 31 EHRR 292 691Beaumartin v. France (1994) 19 EHRR 485 499, 516Beldjoudi v. France (1992) 14 EHRR 801 621Belgian Linguistic Case (No.2) (1968) 1 EHRR 252 177, 895, 896Belziuk v. Poland (1988) 30 EHRR 614 563Benham v. United Kingdom (1996) 22 EHRR 293 380, 495, 568Bentham v. Netherlands (1984) 6 EHRR 283 498Benthem v. Netherlands (1985) 8 EHRR 1 524Berrehab v. Netherlands (1988) 11 EHRR 332 623, 766Bladet Tromso and Stensaas v. Norway (1999) 29 EHRR 215 699Bock v. Germany (1989) 12 EHRR 247 499Bolkenbockhoff v. Germany (1987) 10 EHRR 163 549Borgers v. Belgium (1991) 15 EHRR 92 503Botta v. Italy (1998) 26 EHRR 241 614Bouamar v. Belgium (1987) 11 EHRR 1 392, 421Boyle v. United Kingdom (1994) 19 EHRR 179 621Boyle and Rice v. United Kingdom (1988) 10 EHRR 425 634Bozano v. France (1986) 9 EHRR 297 396
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Brandstetter v. Austria (1991) 15 EHRR 378 503Brincat v. Italy (1992) 16 EHRR 591 409British-American Tobacco Co Ltd v.Netherlands 20 November
1995 499Brogan v. United Kingdom (1988) 11 EHRR 117 390, 407, 416Brozicek v. Italy (1989) 12 EHRR 371 552Bryan v. United Kingdom (1995) 21 EHRR 342 499, 515Buchholz v. Germany (1981) 3 EHRR 597 498Bulut v. Austria 22 February 1996 523Burghartz v. Switzerland (1994) 18 EHRR 101 616Buscarini v. San Marino (1999) 30 EHRR 208 645Case Relating to Certain Aspects of the Laws on the Use of
Languages in Education in Belgium (Belgian LinguisticCase) (No.2) (1968) 1 EHRR 252 175
Campbell v. United Kingdom (1992) 15 EHRR 137 634Campbell and Cosans v. United Kingdom (1982) 4 EHRR 293
311, 334, 348, 900, 901Campbell and Fell v. United Kingdom (1984) 7 EHRR 165 495, 512,
524, 525, 565Canea Catholic Church v. Greece (1997) 27 EHRR 521 487Capuano v. Italy (1987) 13 EHRR 271 513Casado Coca v. Spain (1994) 18 EHRR 1 677, 681Castells v. Spain (1992) 14 EHRR 445 187, 672, 691, 695Castillo Algar v. Spain (1998) 30 EHRR 827 521Ceylan v. Turkey (1999) 30 EHRR 73 691Chahal v. United Kingdom (1996) 23 EHRR 413 298, 307, 327,
329, 395, 416, 422Chappell v. United Kingdom (1989) 12 EHRR 1 190, 628Chassagnou v. France (1999) 29 EHRR 615 186, 188, 189, 742,
745, 746, 756, 913Ciulla v. Italy (1989) 13 EHRR 346 389Clooth v. Belgium (1991) 14 EHRR 717 413Condron v. United Kingdom (2000) 31 EHRR 1 581Corigliano v. Italy (1982) 5 EHRR 334 559Cossey v. United Kingdom (1990) 13 EHRR 622 618, 772Coyne v. United Kingdom 24 September 1997 522Costello-Roberts v. United Kingdom (1993) 19 EHRR 12 47, 349CR v. United Kingdom (1995) 21 EHRR 363 533, 588
Cambridge University Press052178042X - The Judicial Application of Human Rights Law: National, Regional andInternational JurisprudenceNihal JayawickramaFrontmatterMore information
Cremieux v. France (1993) 16 EHRR 357 627Croissant v. Germany (1992) 16 EHRR 135 569Cruz Varas v. Sweden (1991) 14 EHRR 1 329D v. United Kingdom (1997) 24 EHRR 423 332De Cubber v. Belgium (1984) 7 EHRR 236 522De Haan v. Netherlands (1997) 26 EHRR 417 522De Haes and Gijsels v. Belgium (1997) 25 EHRR 1 503De Jong, Baljet and Van den Brink v. Netherlands (1984)
8 EHRR 20 408, 409, 422De Moor v. Belgium 23 June 1994 499, 508, 525De Wilde, Ooms and Versyp v. Netherlands (No.1) (1971)
1 EHRR 373 366, 420, 634Delcourt v. Belgium (1970) 1 EHRR 355 557Delta v. France (1990) 16 EHRR 574 570Demicoli v.Malta (1991) 14 EHRR 47 495, 496Deumeland v. Germany (1984) 7 EHRR 409 498De Weer v. Belgium (1980) 2 EHRR 439 489, 497, 501Diennet v. France (1995) 21 EHRR 554 499, 508, 513Djeroud v. France (1991) 14 EHRR 68 623Dombo Beheer BV v. Netherlands (1993) 18 EHRR 213 507Domenichini v. Italy 15 November 1996 630Doorson v. Netherlands (1996) 22 EHRR 330 571Dudgeon v. United Kingdom (1981) 4 EHRR 149 187, 198, 612Duinhof and Duijf v. Netherlands (1984) 13 EHRR 478 409E v. Norway (1990) 17 EHRR 30 418, 422Eckle v. Germany (1982) 5 EHRR 1 497, 557, 559Edwards v. United Kingdom (1992) 15 EHRR 417 505Ekbatari v. Sweden (1988) 13 EHRR 504 504Engel et al. v Netherlands (1976) 1 EHRR 647 375, 381, 383, 495, 512Eriksen v. Norway (1997) 29 EHRR 328 386, 387, 391Eriksson v. Sweden (1989) 12 EHRR 183 624, 775Erkner and Hofauer v. Austria (1987) 9 EHRR 464 499, 920Ettl v. Austria (1987) 10 EHRR 255 499Ezelin v. France (1991) 14 EHRR 362 189, 728, 730F v. Switzerland (1987) 10 EHRR 411 770Fayed v. United Kingdom (1994) 18 EHRR 393 482, 636Fejde v. Sweden 29 October 1991 509Feldbrugge v. Netherlands (1986) 8 EHRR 425 498
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