The influence of shift work and occupational stress on job ... CHARLES .C.… · nnadiukwu, charles .c pg/m.sc/03/34001 the influence of shift work and occupational stress on job

NNADIUKWU, CHARLES .C PG/M.SC/03/34001

THE INFLUENCE OF SHIFT WORK AND OCCUPATIONAL

STRESS ON JOB SATISFACTION AMONG POLICE

Psychology

A RESEARCH PROJECT PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF M.Sc. IN INDUSTRIAL /

ORGANIZATION PSYCHOLOGY

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2009

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

THE INFLUENCE OF SHIFT WORK AND OCCUPATIONAL

STRESS ON JOB SATISFACTION AMONG POLICE

A RESEARCH PROJECT PRESENTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD

OF M.Sc. IN INDUSTRIAL / ORGANIZATION PSYCHOLOGY

BY

NNADIUKWU, CHARLES .C

PG/M.SC/03/34001

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

SUPERVISOR: PROF. E. OKPARA mni

OCTOBER, 2009

CERTIFICATION

Mr. Nnadiukwu, Charles Chukwuma is a post graduate student

of the Department of Psychology with Registration No.

PG/M.Sc./03/34001. He has satisfactorily completed the

requirements for the course and research work for the degree of

science in Industrial and Organizational Psychology.

The work embodied in this project is original, as it has not been

submitted either in part or in full for any other diploma or degree

from any other University.

Dr. L.I. Ugwu Prof. E. Okpara mni Head of Department Supervisor

External Examiner

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my ever caring wife, Mrs. Beatrice,

Obeta Nnadiukwu; for her untiring efforts in taking care of the

children during my absence while carrying out this research

work.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am greatly indebted to the following lecturers in Psychology

Department, who in one way or the other contributed in guiding

me through my academic pursuit. They are as follows: Professors

E. Okpara mni who is my supervisor, J.O.C Ozioko whose

tireless efforts had and still do keep the flame of psychology

aglow in this University, B.N Ezeilo and I.E. Eyo.

My appreciation equally goes to Rev. Fr. Dr. Mike Ifeagwazi, Dr.

I.E. Onyishi, Rev. Sr. Dr. Nwoke, Rev. Sr. Enukore. Others are

Messrs I.O Amazue, Mefo, J. Eze, O. Esseien for their wonderful

criticism and guidance.

However, I am solely responsible for any short coming and/or

mistake(s) in this research work.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE - - - - - - - i

CERTIFICATION - - - - - - - ii

DEDICATION - - - - - - - - iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - - - - - - iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - - - v - vi

LIST OF TABLE - - - - - - - vii

ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION - - - - 1–13

Statement of the Problems - - - - - 13-14

Purpose of the study - - - - - - 14

Operational Definitions of Terms - - - - 15

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW - - - 16

Theoretical review - - - - - - - 16-31

Empirical review - - - - - - - 31-44

Hypotheses - - - - - - - - 44

CHAPTER THREE: METHOD - - - - - 45

Participants - - - - - - - - 45-46

Instruments - - - - - - - - 46-47

Procedure - - - - - - - - 48

Design / Statistics - - - - - - - 49

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS: - - - - - 50-52

CHAPTER FIVE: - - - - - - - 53

Discussion of Results - - - - - - 53-54

Practical implications of the Results - - - - 56-57

Recommendation - - - - - - - 58-59

Summary & conclusion - - - - - - 59-60

REFERENCES - - - - - - - 61-71

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the influence of work and occupational stress on employee‟s job satisfaction. Two hundred and fifty (250) participants were used for the study. Two hypotheses involving shift and non-shift work, high and low occupational stress were tested. Two instruments were used to measure the variables of interest. A 2 x 2 factorial design was adopted resulting in the use of 2-way ANOVA for data analysis. The result shows a statistically significant influence of shift work on job satisfaction [F(1, 196) = 114.29, P<.01)]. For the second factor, the result was also significant. Occupational stress exerted a significant influence on job satisfaction [F(1, 196) = 22.02, P<.01).] There was also an interaction influence of shift work and occupational stress on job satisfaction [F(1, 196) = 10.24, P<.01).] The results were discussed and suggestions made for further studies.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

In today‟s technological and moving business world, significant and growing percentage of the population work in formal organizations (Heller and Hindle, 1988). People work under a broad array of conditions. While many of these people work indoors, others work outside. Some of these jobs require exposure to intense heat, cold and/ or noise. Hence, while some of these jobs involve high risk injury or illness, others carry low risks. The average working time in the civil service, public and/or private sector encompasses a major part of the individual‟s life span and occupies a period when physical and mental capacities are fully utilized. Organizations are constantly evolving and the nature of the services provided necessitates differential work schedules. Here in Nigeria, not all the employees in different

organizations do perform the usual 8am to 4pm – five days – a

week. Police officers, military personnel, fire fighters, prison

warder, nurses, telephone operators among others, do provide

24-hours – a - day service. Muchinsky (1997), posits that in

industrial manufacturing companies, some

technologies/machine require constant monitoring and

operation. Hence, it becomes rational and practical to run these

machines continually by having different shift work systems

round the clock. He notes further that there are no uniform shift

hours, as various companies adopt different shifts.

Usually for nurses, a 24-hour-a-day is broken into three 8-

hour- work shifts as follows:

i. 7am to 2pm (day shift):

ii. 2pm to 10pm (swing or afternoon shift)‟ and

iii. 10pm to 7am (night shift).

Muchinsky finally observes that some companies have employees

run only one shift, more so, as workers generally do not like the

afternoon and night shift. Consequently, many firms and

organizations do rotate the shift on weekly basis so as to carry all

the workers along.

Psychologists in industrial settings (Muchinsky, 1988), did and

still do investigate the degree to which workers‟ job satisfactions

are affected by the shift work, and their abilities to cope with

these changes in work schedules.

Since it is the functions of the Nigeria Police Force to maintain

internal security here in Nigeria, enforce the laws and orders of

the law abiding citizens, arrest, investigate and charge/or

prosecute all the offenders in law courts; the police had since

adopted three shift work schedules covering from Sunday to

Saturday of every week. In order to cover all these duties and

police the country effectively, Udonsy 91976), outlines the shift

work schedules in this organization as follows:

(a) Morning shift, from 0600 hrs to 1400 hours;

(b) Afternoon shift, 1400 to 2200 hours; and

(c) Night shift. 2200 hours to 0600 hours.

It should be noted at this juncture that the first workers to

be initiated to this routine were not policemen, or even firemen,

but bakers. Industrialization and global warfare brought shift

work into the mainstream (Aveni, 1999). In other words,

estimates are that more than 25% of all workers in the U.S. and

Europe are now shift workers.

This proposal tends to investigate whether the police

personnel actually do have job satisfactions on their job; and/or

experience stress in their day to day hassles while working these

shifts. Aschoff (1978), in his work posits that shift workers

experience many problems ranging from physiological to social

adjustments; stressing that most physiological problems are

associated with interruptions of the circadian rhythm or internal

biological clock; that is to say, our bodies are “programmed” for a

certain time cycle. Hence, shift works have been observed to

interrupt the cycles of eating, sleeping and working hours; and

workers on these shift therefore, tend to experience physiological

problems.

In actual fact, the police personnel on these shift works are

mostly those on the lower ranks in this force. These are the

Inspectors of police, and the Rank and files (made up of

Sergeants, corporals and constables); who constitute the life wire

of this force. These rank brackets are those mostly running the

shift work systems; and are equally seen on the field from time to

time. These are the same group of police officers seen by the

general public either in their course of being arrested,

investigated, and/or probably, while being charged to or

prosecuted in law courts. In the course of their enforcing all

these laws of the Federation, states and local councils, these

officers tend to engage the riotous and unlawfully assembled

members of public in physical combat. Not only these, the

officers equally do engage the armed robbers in gun battles

during their tour of duties. This study therefore, tends to

investigate whether these police officers while enforcing all these

laws and more, will actually experience stress. Although,

researchers have come to agree that stress is found in every

organization, industries and in every day‟s live of all human

existence; many factors have been advanced by theorists to affect

individual‟s job satisfaction. Paramount amongst them is

occupational stress. Organizational changes coupled with

economic melt down and depression have produced its casualties

at both organizational and individual level resulting in stress and

conflict. According to cooper (2005), high incidence of stress

throughout organizations irrespective of job satisfaction and

involvement stress is individually analyzed and every employee

has a range of satisfaction which they can feel steady and safe.

For MCkenna (1999), stress entails any situation that is seen as

burdensome, threatening ambiguous or boring and is likely to

affect free flow of performance and satisfaction. A satisfied

employee who is committed and involved in his or her job should

not encounter stressful circumstances, but Mullins (1999)

argued that one potential source of work stress arises from role

incongruence and positional role conflict that are not compatible

with individual training and experience. Mbieli (2007), noted that

occupational stress could act to activate people into action with

possible positive behavioural consequences, stressing that the

physiological impact upon the person could come in inform of

headache, Muscular tensions, fatigue and hypertension. As a

complex psychological concept, occupational stress is

intrinsically tied into an individual employee‟s perceptual system

and as such is seen as subjective phenomenon which influence

job satisfaction (Mullins, 1999).

In organization and service delivery as posited by Berkowitz,

Cochran and Fraser (1998), employee‟s job satisfaction is the

attainment of value outcome that function to promote

involvement and the simplest level people would respond fairly

and positively to occupational stress in work environment that is

pleasant. Job stress phenomenon involves complicated

interactions between person and environment. There are two

central features of stress at work (1) dimension or characteristics

of the person and (2) the potential sources of stress at work

environment. The interactions of these two features of stress at

work, determine either coping or maladaptive behaviour and

stress related diseases (Copper and Marshal, 1996). Job stress

represents a complex assemblage of variables cognitions (beliefs

or knowledge), emotions (feelings and sentiments, or evolutions)

and behavoural tendencies, i.e absenteeism tardiness, tension,

fatigue and withdrawal since occupational stress is an unseen,

unobservable variable which can only be inferred from

behavioural responses it affects individual job involvement

resulting in job dissatisfaction. Research works have co me to

show that potential stressors these officers are likely to

encounter include: the occupation or job itself, environmental or

organizational stressors, as well as stressors external to the job

that may influence their effectiveness at work.

Muchinsky (1998) notes that exposure to conditions of

intense heat, cold and noise affect humans in various ways

leading to stress.

In industrial setting, Beehr and Newman (1998) posit that

there are wide individual differences associated with perception

of stress.

In life generally, a worker may feel stressed by a hectic work

schedule, while another may accept this as a challenge. Hence,

any stimulus (e.g work pace, noise, role pressure) that elicits a

stress response is a stressor. Stress occurs when the magnitude

of the stressor exceeds the individual‟s capacity to resist. For

instance, workload is stressor or something that caused a person

to feel stressed when he thinks that he is unable to cope with the

large workload. Six sources of stress or occupational stressors,

were categorized in the occupational stress indicator (OSI) thus:

factors intrinsic to the job, management role, relationships with

others, career and achievement, organizational structure and

climate, and home/work interface. Cooper and Cartwright (1996)

reiterated that these are main sources of stress at work, arguing

that they are applicable to different occupations.

Warr (1987) categorized those concepts such as job

satisfaction, organizational commitment, job – related tension,

job related depression, job related burnout, and morale as job-

related well – being. The variables measuring well-being in the

present study include job satisfaction, physical and mental well –

being. Some studies using the OSI have demonstrated that

stressors at work are negatively related to workers‟ job

satisfaction and well-being in western and Chinese societies

(Fotinatos-Ventouratos and Cooper 1998; Lu, Shiau, & Cooper,

1997; Bogg & Cooper, 1995; Robertson, Cooper & Williams,

1990, Siu, Cooper & Donald, 1997; Yu, Sparks & Cooper, 1998).

Doe instance, Fotinatos-Ventouratos and cooper (1998)

demonstrated that “organizational structure and climate” was a

significant predictor of job satisfaction among workers of different

social classes.

For people working in group and shifts like the police,

stressors need not exist in isolation. If they exist jointly, a worker

must contend with their additive or interactive effects. For police

work that involves constant exposure to heat, cold, danger and

working at difficult terrain, the employer in this millennium

2006, should see the urgent need to provide adequate and

special protective equipment like rain coats, sweaters, bullet

proof vests; to curb the potential hazards associated with the

work. Hence, police and other paramilitary organizations most

often, are exposed to situations that tasked their psychological

well-being and persistence daily work experience (Heady &

Wearing, 1992). Work conditions that required constant exposure

to dangers, according to Borg (1990) are stressful. Thus, it is

generally believed that policing is inherently stressful because of

the dangerous and unsavory tasks that are part of everyday

police work (Singler & Wilson, 1998) Thus, dealing with such

incidents as road transma, violent offenders, armed robbers,

vehicle snatchers, mobile set snatchers, uncompromising public,

poor public image, poor working conditions and distressed

victims might be stressful to police officers (Hart, 1994). Hart,

Wearing and Conn (1995) showed that the organizational context

in which the police operate is more distressing than the actual

job itself. This adverse work experiences result in psychological

distress and thus an absence of well-being; a view that is

typically adopted in the occupational literature (Quick, Murphy

and Hurrell, 1992). Again, the idea that psychological distress

and well- being lie on the same continuum which in the words of

Hart (1994) does not account for the fact that a person‟s

psychological response to his work environment has affected

positively (morale) and negatively (depression, anxiety and

psychosomatic systems) dimensions.

Most reports and researches into police stress relied heavily

on single response and are not linked to other factors. This

researcher finds it necessary to integrate shift work and stress,

ad their impact on job performance amongst police officers. More

especially as most police shift workers develop „sleep debt‟.

Hence, studies in the United State of America and Europe for

instance, indicate that shift workers get seven hours or less sleep

per week than their day-working counterparts. Further studies

also show that those working rotating shifts average only 5.5.

hours of sleep when work night hours. The aggregate loss is

sometimes, particularly recouped only on off-days. Thus, until

this compensation occurs, if it does at all, the mood and

performance of the shift workers is routinely affected.

Hence, Aveni (1999) states that sleep deprivation amongst

police shift workers must be considered a serious component of

another potential killer-job stress‟. The cumulative effect of sleep

deprivation upon the shift-working policeman appears to

aggravate job stress, and/or, his ability to cope with it. Thus,

even more troubling is the prospect that the synergy of job stress

and chronic sleep indebtedness contribute mightily to a

diminished life expectancy of 73 years. While policemen on the

other hand, are said to have a life expectancy of 53-66 years,

depending on which research one decides to embrace. According

to National institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

in America, from studies of 22,000 workers across over 100

occupational groups; labourers, secretaries, lab, technicians,

first-line managers, waiters/waitresses and machine operators

belong to the most stressful occupations. In support of this

claim, Dipboye, smith and Howell (1994), posit that the helping

professions are also considered to be stressful, especially the job

of police officers, nurses and social workers. Hence, in a study of

more 2000 worker across 23 occupations French, Caplan, and

Harrison (1982), found occupational differences not only in the

amount of stress, but also in the type of stress experienced by

workers.

In Nigerian environment however, most workers (police

officers inclusive) are observed to experience one from of stressor

or the other, in their places of work. Hence, stress is seen here,

as a sign of active life which is absent, makes life become a

passive journey to boredom. Thus without stress, the

accompanying motivation and striving to accomplish life

ambition and conquer the environment become illusive (Nweze,

1995). Furthermore, there is mental and emotional homoeostasis

attained through the process of adaptation which the individual

applies to the external environment including such contexts as …

work, friendship through the manipulation of the environment or

the use of ego defense mechanisms (Ezeilo, 1995). Hence, the

conditions of stress that we experience often depend on the

outcome of the appraisals we make in our transactions with the

environment. Stress is however, a normal component of life,

which if in mild or moderate degrees; may be helpful as a

constructive force, which mobilizes our resources to achieve

effectiveness and well-being. According to Ifeagwazi (1995), stress

appears a prevalent clinical problem and a concomitant of all

clinical pathologies. Hence, chronic emotional stress can lead to

such psycho-physiological illnesses as ulcer, asthma, cancer,

hypertension (the forerunner of stroke) and heart diseases.

Consequently, the cost of stress in terms of human suffering

social and occupational impairment and illness are enormous.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Great number of variables may interact to affect workers‟

job satisfaction in Nigeria Police Force. Bohle and Tilley‟s (1998)

found that shift workers‟ attitudes were significant predicator,

affecting satisfaction; because of rigidity of sleeping habits and

vigour – as the ability to overcome drowsiness. Negative attitudes

to shift work have also been linked to elevated physical and

psychological symptoms.

Certain factors therefore, cause organizations and

industries to adopts shift work schedules for their personnel.

Reasons mostly adduced in such circumstances, are mainly to

cover the operational costs, which should result from shutting

down the machines in these industries. This is usually estimated

to cost millions, if not billions of naira before these engines are

started once again. In the same vein, the cost of running only one

shift work in Nigeria Police Force shall be enormous, considering

the fact that the police station houses all the detained suspects

at any given time, the police arms and ammunitions, all the vital

exhibits in connection with cases under investigations, and all

other vital documents/property belonging to the government.

Based on this, the welfare and job satisfaction of the police

may be affected by this unusual work schedule.

Thus, these research problems will addressed in this study:

1. Does shift work affect the job satisfaction of police

officers?

2. Does stress associated with the work affect the job

satisfaction of police officers?

PURPOSE OF STUDY

It is a common knowledge that here in Nigerian Civil/Public

service, workers tend to be dissatisfied with all variables

contributing to job satisfaction. The purpose of this study is

therefore, to:

1. Examine the influence of shit work on job satisfaction of

police.

2. Examine the influence of on job satisfaction among

police.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Shift Work: Means the rotatory deployment of officers on

weekly basis to:

a. morning duty – from 0600 hours to 1400 hours;

b. afternoon duty – from 1400 hours to 2200 hours: and

c. night shift – from 2200 hours to 0600 hours – from Sunday

through Saturday.

Stress: Means pressure from an adverse environment that

imposes unusual demands on officers while on shift work.

Job satisfaction: Refers to officers attitudes or orientations

toward their job. Job dissatisfaction on the other hand, is the

negative attitudes of officers towards their jobs.

Police officers: Here means the Inspectors, and rank and file

members of Nigeria Police Force.

Inspectors, Rank and File Members of the Force: are the non-

commissioned officers in this force.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section is to review all the relevant literature related to

the problem under investigation. The review however, will be

done in two parts thus:

a. Theoretical; and

b. Empirical.

THEORETICAL REVIEW

TWO-FACTOR THEORY – HERZERG (1966)

Among the various theories relating directly to job satisfaction,

those posited by Herzberg (1966) and Herberg, Mausner and

Snyderman (1959) generated lots of attention in recent years.

This theory is generally referred to as “Herzberg‟s two-factor

theory” of job satisfaction, or “the motivator-Hygiene theory”.

This theory assumes that every living human being has two types

of needs – motivator and-Hygiene needs. According to Herzberg et

al, motivator needs include intrinsic factors such as

achievement, recognition, the work itself, possibility of growth or

advancement, and responsibility, the presence which will lead to

job satisfaction. While the hygiene factors incorporate such

extrinsic factors as company policies, job surety, pay supervision,

and work environment, which fulfillment needs for not produce a

state of satisfaction, but rather a state of neutrality.

In any case, Herzberg‟s two-factors had generated a lot of

controversy over the years. Hence, Herzberg (1966) holds the

view that the opposite of job satisfaction is not job

dissatisfaction, but rather, no job satisfaction; and that opposite

of job dissatisfaction is not satisfaction, but no job

dissatisfaction. That is to say, the motivator and hygiene factors

are said to be related to both satisfying and dissatisfying

situations (Dunnette, Campbell, Hakel, 1967), House and

Wigdor, 1967).

In relating this classical theory to the Nigerian work ethic,

Okpara (2005) states that even though Herzberg believed that

satisfiers are related to success in the job, recognition of that

success, responsibility, among others, he queries whether we are

actually doing the work they are trained to do, or in which they

have the skills. Hence, we often observe someone with less

potential for success and with poor performance record being

promoted up and above a hard and conscious worker just

because the latter has no „god father‟ it would therefore, appear

that „god fatherism‟ is more in tune with Nigeria‟s value

orientation.

Furthermore, it was Herzberg‟s postulation that salary

increase can be a demotivator if the increase is not tied to

success or improved performance. On this, Okpara notes that

ours is a reverse of this logic. Hence, salaries here in Nigeria are

routinely increased, and a worker gets his increases as long as

he completes certain number of years in such an organization-

more especially in the public owned organizations. However,

some other times salaries are increased after protracted national

strikes by labour unions or staff unions (Okpara, 2005).

A major criticism of this theory is centred on the manner of

data gathering. Hence, Herzberg used a data collection procedure

called „critical incidents‟: in which he asked workers to recall

especially good and bad job-related incidents. Naturally, people

will prefer to present themselves in a favourable light, and as

such, they may attribute good incidents to themselves or their

efforts (example – recognition, achievement) and –bad incidents

to other factors in the work environment (example-supervision,

working condition).

Vroom’s expectancy theory – vroom (1964)

Vroom (1964), proposed this theory which though originated

from an earlier theory of work motivation called path-goal theory

(Georgopolos, Mahoney, and Jones, 1957). Toleman (1932).

Lewin (1935) variously presented a cognitively oriented theory of

behaviour that contained terms such as “Valence” and “Force”.

Modern expectancy theory is however, closely associated with the

work of vroom (1964); as later elaborated by Lawler (1973),

Hackman and Porter (1968).

It is the postulates of expectancy theory that individuals are

thinking rational beings, who have beliefs and anticipations

about future events in their lives. An understanding of how such

individuals can be motivated should therefore, include a

knowledge of what they want from their organization and how

they believe their needs can be met. Vroom in this theory,

postulates that they behaviour of an individual is contingent on

the interactive effects of his personal characteristics (example-

attitudes, aptitudes, needs) and his perceived environment

(example – work requirements and/or, leadership climate).

In reviewing Vroom‟s theory, Okpara (2001) posits that the

motivation of a person to perform a certain act or choose a

particular occupation is thus how much he values it, compared

to the alternatives he may have and his expectation that he can

attain the particular goal as compared to the alternatives. Hence,

our judgments of the value of alternative and the probability of

their outcomes – (as humans), are influenced by our motives and

personally.

Okpara (2005) therefore, asserts that Vroom‟s model holds

great promise for predicting behaviour in organizations. He

however, raised some unanswered questions thus: we do not

know all the goals that have positive valence in work situation.

Neither do we know how much of a difference in a force is

necessary before one kind of outcome is chosen over the other.

Nor do we know what combination of measures yields the

best prediction in a given situation.

It is therefore his conclusion that Vroom‟s model should be

tested in non-industrialized countries of Africa (Nigeria inclusive),

to establish it potency for predicting organizational behaviour in

these countries.

Adam’s Equity Theory – Adam (1964,1965)

Adam‟s equity theory combines the notions of cognitive

dissonance (festinger, 1959) with those of social exchange to

address the issue of the effects of money or pay on work

behaviour. The foundation for this process is hinged on the fact

that people make investments (example – inputs, typically work

of some sort) for which they expect specific rewards (example,

outcomes, often money). People typically have predetermined

expectations about how much and what type of inputs are

required for certain outcomes. They, therefore, evaluate the

fairness or equity of their inputs and outcomes through

interactions with relevant others in which direct comparisons

between self and relevant others determine whether the exchange

is favourable or not.

Even though, a motivation theory as well, it has some

important things to say about job satisfaction/dissatisfaction.

Equity theory, therefore, postulates that an employee compares

his pay and other job outcomes to those of other employees in

different organizations. Hence, satisfaction results when

perceived equity exists; while dissatisfaction sets in when

perceived inequity is experienced.

Social Comparison Theory – Salancik and Pfeffer (1977)

The basis for social comparison theory, Salancik and

Pfeffer (1977) is the belief that people compare themselves with

others in assessing their conditions and feelings of job

satisfaction. Rather than intraperson or within comparison

(based n values and need) comparisons are made within a social

system, interpersonally. The theory posits that an individual

compares himself to other people, their work conditions, work

schedules, goal attainment, and opportunity for social identity,

and infers how satisfied he/she is. Hence, Lawler (1973)

incorporates the concept of attained versus desired needs in his

model of facet satisfaction. Lawler‟s facets satisfaction is

regarded as such because satisfaction with various components

or facets of the job such as supervision, pay, or the work itself.

Lawler‟s model therefore, specifies that workers compare what

their jobs should provide in terms of job facets, such as

promotion and pay, to what they currently receive from their

jobs.

In an industrial or organizational setting, the employee

compares and then derives feelings of either satisfied or

dissatisfied though based on how such a job impacts on his/her

needs. Hence, this theory has a great implication for individual

needs for social affiliation as outlined in Maslow‟s (1954)

hierarchy of needs. Social needs are salient human needs for:

friendship, comradeship, affection and acceptance by peers, and

are very significant aspects of organizational behaviour. Thus,

Bohle and Tilley (1998) concluded that since shift work entails

working at night and resting in the day, there is dissatisfaction

for social activities, spouse relationships and activities with

children. Night shift specifically presents an atmosphere of

socially isolating personnel. Hence, this is characterized by being

tired, having drowsy moments, being unsettled for family life and

his/her level of job satisfaction in Nigeria Police Force for

instance, an officer may consider that he/she brings in M.

Sc./M.BA and ten years of experience to this responsible

organization. A co-worker, who is his/her/ referent other, has

only a bachelor degree and eight years experience. This co-

worker‟s job is also a managerial position, but with less

responsibility and a slightly higher salary. Consequently, the

work, after weighing the various inputs, outcomes, and amounts

received, feels dissatisfied with his/her pay. Locke (1976)

however, posits a value theory of job satisfaction, which is based

upon the premise that people will always be satisfied with their

jobs, if these jobs provide them with what they desire or value.

He therefore, emphasized the value or importance of certain

aspects of job in determining job satisfaction.

Opponent Process Theory – Landy (978)

In another development, Landy (1978) proposed a unique

theory of job satisfaction, which he labeled opponent process

theory. In this theory, Landy hypothesizes that job attitudes

emanate from a person‟s physiological state. Hence, this

perspective is consistent with schachter and Singer‟s (1962)

theory of emotions, which assumes that certain events in the

environment produce general physiological arousal. This arousal

is identical regardless of the stimulus provoking it. However,

depending on the nature of the environmental event, the person

will label this arousal as, for example, either anger or elation.

Opponent process theory therefore, assumes that when a person

experience an extreme emotional state, his central nervous

system mechanisms attempt to bring him back to a state of

emotional equilibrium or neutrality. In returning to neutrality

therefore, this emotional state may even surpass equilibrium and

then process to the opposite emotional state.

An example can clarify this opponent process theory very

well. Hence, a police officer after obtaining his first salary

increase and/or, a coveted promotion, feels highly elated. This

positive emotional state however, decreases over time to a neutral

state or perhaps to a slightly depressed or unhappy state.

According to this theory, the magnitude of the opponent process

changes over time, increasing each time it is activated.

Consequently, upon receiving future salary increases or

promotions, his eventual opponent process reaction will be

considerably more negative than prior reactions.

On the whole, this theory presents an intriguing

explanation on why job attitudes change over time, and more

especially why workers may become bored with jobs they once

found satisfying (Dipboye et al, 1994). Its criticism is howver,

based on the fact that it does not explain, why some works are

continually either very satisfied or dissatisfied with their jobs.

Dynamic Equilibrium Theory – hart, wearing and heady

(1993)

This is a contemporary theory that investigates the

relationship between personal and occupational characteristics,

which determine individual‟s psychological responses to their

work. The theory proposed by Hart, Wearing and Headey (1993),

stressed that the level of psychotically well-being of any

individual worker will compare with the level of other

occupational and community factors to determine work‟s level of

stress response. This theory further posits that works (example,

police officers‟) personality characteristics, coping strategies and

work experiences operate to determine their psychological well-

being.

Headey and Wearing (1992) give a detailed explanation of

the Dynamic Equilibrium Theory and how it applies to the

perceived quality of work life. Linking up with occupational stress

among police officers, Hart et al (1993) in support of Lazarus and

Folkman (1984, provided a transactional model of stress, in order

to provide a theoretical matrix for investigating occupational

stress among police officers. Thus, the theory predicts a scenario

where enduring personality characteristics, such as neuroticism

and extraversion, will determine to great extent police officer‟s

pattern of daily shift work experiences. Using levels of coping

strategies and levels of psychological well being as determinants

of work satisfaction, Headey and Wearing (1990) proposed a

modal. These scholars posit that in consonant to psychological

outcomes, which determine largely job satisfaction and

personality characteristics, continual interplay between coping

strategies and daily work experiences are important predictors

and will make additional contribution here.

In his particular study therefore, Dynamic Equilibrium

theory is relevant. Hence, it offers theoretical framework to

understanding the extent to which police work is stressful and

also offers insight into those aspects of police work, which are

most distressing and/or, rewarding. Dynamic equilibrium theory

is criticized as relying upon single response based measures of

stress, which are seldom related to a single system variable

(Carpenter, 1992).

Social Identify Theory – Turner (1999)

Social identity theory as propounded by Turner (1999),

portrays a willingness to exert oneself on behalf of a group. Social

identity approach posits that when a person‟s sense of self is

defined by a particular group membership, a social identity

becomes salient (that is, psychologically imperative). A salient

social identity leads to the depersonalization of self. Rather than

individuals or workers seeing themselves as group members,

they see themselves more similar to other in-group members and

more different from out-group members. The impact of night shift

on workers have been found to be perceived negatively as it

denies such workers the opportunity for social interaction. The

weakened attachment between day shift and night shift is

thought to be responsible for negative outcome that make shift

workers to classify themselves among out-group in in-group

setting. Night shift, according to Bohle and Tilley (1998), in

collaboration with social identity theory, was rated negatively

than afternoon shift in relation to leisure time and „wasting the

day‟. Also, Knauth (1987), posits that shift work infringes most

heavily on highly valued time for domestic, social and leisure

activities. In consonant with social identity theory, which

explores the extent to which individuals belong to group or

groups and exert influence on it, and the extent to which group

members impact an influence on the individual leading to

individual‟s psychological attachment to the group and deriving

satisfaction from the group affiliation. The concept of night

schedule may debar individuals from such social needs. The

“unusual” youths of the present population may possibly find the

shift arrangement conflicting with their social needs. Late-night

social activities like parties, nightclubs and other social

engagement, which directly conflict with night shift, may have

been more frequent and important for student nurses than for

older workers who more often have permanent partners and

dependent children.

In analyzing predictors of dissatisfaction with stress

generated by shift schedules and social identity, Bohle et al

(1998) stressed that stability at the group level and conflicts with

individual‟s need for social support, are likely to affect job

satisfaction. The effects on social life which form a work‟s need

for social affiliation is therefore, threatened. Satisfaction with

time for social, family, solitary and child care activities on the

whole, lead to job satisfaction.

Furthermore, Veenstra, Haslam and Reynold (2004), argued

that individuals who are members of a given group, use their

membership in such organizational groups to construct a social

identity. It follows that their anticipation of on-going contact with

a group should lead to a sense of inclusion or belonging,

important to the construction and maintenance of this identity.

Indeed, Tyler (1999), pointed out that a lack of opportunity for

inclusion or a lack of a sense of belonging, is a common sense of

dissatisfaction among shift workers.

Moreover, the report by Tyler (1999) showed that the extent

to which an individual is included on the group connotes respect,

and that it is this that determines the livelihood of organizational

citizenship behaviour and organizational satisfaction.

PREFERENCE THEORY-HAKIM (2000)

Several attempts have been made to investigate the decision

to operate different work schedules. Hakim (2000), offers

theoretical account of organizational structures and cultures that

propriet the practice. Preference theory posits that individuals

are not homogeneous in their preferences and priorities. That

women for example, have genuine choices about how they wish

to live and work, hence there are no major constraint limiting or

forcing their choices. Thus, the life style choices of women are

now more important than the rigidity associated with single work

schedule.

On the basis of work preference that favoured women,

Hakim classified these women into three groups: home-centred

women-for whom children and family life are the main priorities

throughout life, adaptive-non-career oriented individuals who

wish to combine work and family or who have unplanned career;

and work-centred individual for whom career remains priority in

life.

This theory further stressed that work-centred women or

individuals are frequently childless, but may also have children

as men do, just as an expression of normality as well as a

weekend hobby. Such people are classified as adaptive

individuals. These adaptive individuals are highly diverse group

and include those who may not marry at all or only marry late in

life. Although, such women may work full-time throughout their

lives and achieve high-level career success, their adaptive ness

comes from a lack of commitment to a career from the start. To

this group of people therefore, shift work does not affect their

physiological and psychological well-being and satisfaction.

Preference theory thus, postulates that women mostly have

choices of work schedule. Freedom to choose results in a marked

heterogeneity among such women employees in both preference

and life styles.

B. EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Many organizational studies have examined attitudes to

shift work and assessed the relationships between related

schedule and job satisfaction.

Bohle and Tilley (1998), attempted to assess the

relationship between shift work and job satisfaction. For their

study, one hundred and thirty (N130) female nurses were studied

during their first 15 months of shift work. Forty-eight

participants worked on a two-shift roaster throughout, while

eighty-two others transferred to a three-shift roaster after 6

months. Attitudes were assessed after 6 months (stage 2) and 15

months (stage 3). Analysis of variance revealed a significant rise

in dissatisfaction score from stage 2 to state 3, but no shift group

or interaction effects. Multiple regression analysis indicated that

greater work/non-work conflict; greater vigour and lower social

support from family were associated with dissatisfaction at stage

3. Nineteen characteristics significantly discriminated between

night shift and either day shift and/or, afternoon shift. Night

shift rated most negatively on circadian/sleep disturbance and

work/non-work conflict effects. Consistent with dynamic

equilibrium, worker will compare with the level of psychological

well-being of any individual worker will compare with the level of

other occupational and other variables to determine level of

worker‟s response to stress.

In another experiment, Genesh quoted in Muchinsky,

(1998) examined individual and group productivity of weavers

who altered between day and swing shifts in an Indian textile

mill. Half of the weavers worked in 13 days on the shift followed

by 12 days of swing shift; the sequence was reversed for the

other half of the sample. The results revealed that, for the group,

productivity was superior during the day shift. However, there

were differences in performance of individual weavers over the

two shifts. Hence, some produced more during the day shift,

while for others; there was no difference over the two shifts.

In an examination of attitude change as a result of shift

work schedule, Cozzeto and Hartman (2004) pointed out that

night shift in some organization may not present an excellent

opportunity for employees to be resourceful and innovative. Since

the motive of some employee is social affiliation and need for

belongingness, night shift may deny shift workers these as

colleagues may be sleeping while he/she is working. Individuals

in need of social affiliation are continuously interacting and

transacting, it seems useful to conclude that exposure to night

shift work may block this need. The employees may experience

feelings of frustration because the avenue for self fulfillment is

absence.

In another study by Marx (1996), he observed that the concept of alienation at work is associated originally with frustration which is occasioned by stress. He saw shift work as a denial of the worker‟s need for self expression. He equated shift work especially night shift, with isolation. Adding that with night work, the employee is not belonging to an integrated work group or to the social work organization, and not being guided by work

group norms of behaviour. Marx explored the empowerment of shift workers and concluded that a shift worker is both psychologically and socially self estranged. That is, there is a failure to see work as an end in itself or as a central life issue. Workers on shift experience a depersonalized detachment and work is seen solely as a means to an end. This situation does not promote job satisfaction. There appears little doubt that one of the major adverse

influences on job satisfaction, work performance is the incidence

of stress at work. Stress is a complex and dynamic concept. It is

a source of tension and frustration, and can arise through a

number of interrelated influences on behaviour. Mckenna (1994)

in a correlational analysis of stress and job satisfaction found

that in human terms, any situation that is seen as burdensome,

threatening, ambiguous or boring is likely to induce stress. This

is the type of situation that would strike the individual as

deserving immediate attention or concern and is viewed as

unfortunate or annoying. There tends to be the feeling that the

situation should not exist, but because of it the person feels

disappointed or annoyed and eventually is prone to anxiety,

depression, anger, hostility, inadequacy, and low frustration

tolerance, all leading to absent of job satisfaction. Furthermore,

findings reported by Wedderburn (1967), are representative of

other such studies. Shift workers, as indicated in these findings,

experienced many problems in physiological and social

adjustments. Most physiological problems are associated with

interruption of the circadian rhythm and/or, the biological clock;

hence, our bodies are programmed for a certain time cycle.

Because shift work interrupts the cycles of eating, sleeping, and

working hours, workers often experience physiological problems.

They generally complain of lack of sleep, fatigue, constipation,

irritability and appetite loss. The respondents also complained

about social problems, which caused them dissatisfaction.

Difficulties with children, marital relationships, and relation are

often experienced. The report added that shift workers experience

less need fulfillment, are more likely to quit their jobs, and

participate in fewer voluntary organizations. Jamal (1989),

reported similar findings that workers on fixed work schedules

are better off than workers on rotating schedules in terms of

mental health, job satisfaction and social participation.

Does stress actually affect worker‟s job satisfaction?

Motowidlo, Manning and Packard (1985), conducted two studies

of occupational stress and its relation with antecedent variables

and job satisfaction. The first study in which 104 nurses

participated in group discussion and 96 nurses completed

questionnaires, identifies 45 stressful events to nurses. In the

second study, 171 nurses who completed another questionnaire

were also rated by a supervisor and/or a co-worker. Ratings of

interpersonal aspects of job performance (such as sensitivity,

warmth, consideration, and tolerance) and cognitive/motivational

aspects (such as concentration, composure, perseverance, and

adaptability) correlated significantly with self-reported

perceptions of stressful events, subjective stress, depression, and

hostility. Models developed through path analysis suggest that

the frequency and subjective intensity of the 45 events identified

in the study, caused decrement in interpersonal and cognitive

aspect of job satisfaction.

Organizational research from a social affiliation needs has

shown that people expend efforts on a work unit, which they

expect to contribute to their social identity. Again, it has been

suggested that identification is enhanced to the group extent that

group members anticipate future interaction with one another.

Worchel‟s (1998) study, examined those ideas in relation to the

work schedules and workplace casualization. Looking at whether

assigning individual to different employment roles and work

schedules impacts on their job satisfaction and intention to

contribute effectively to the functioning of an organization in

typical and non-typical ways. In a scenario-based study, public

sector employees (N = 138) indicated their willingness to

contribute positively to the organization after being assigned

different work schedules. Consistent with the social identity

approach, results indicated that assignment to shift work

increased and enhanced willingness to contribute to the

organization and that was mediated by social identification that

promotes job satisfaction.

The identification of factors which promote stressful life

events for police officers and their well-being, has stimulated a

number of studies. One of such studies conducted by Hart,

Wearing and Headey (1995) explored the general related factors,

which contributed to a police officer‟s psychological well-being.

The responses were based on a perceived Quality of life (PQOL)

framework that integrates personality coping processes and a

police officer‟s positive (harmful to well-being) work experience.

Structural equation analyses were conducted on

questionnaire data obtained from 527 police officers during two

related studies. Two structural equation models showed that

positive and negative work experiences independently

contributed to an officer‟s PQOL and that organizational rather

than operational experience were more important. A third model

supported these findings, but showed that the personality

dimension of neuroticism and extraversion were the strongest

predictors of an officer‟s PQOL. It was also shown that problem-

focused coping contributed to negative work experiences.

Collectively, these results indicate that policing is not highly

stressful, even with the unsteady work schedule. It also

demonstrates the need for a systemic view in order to understand

police officers‟ psychological responses to their shift work pattern

to enhance their job satisfaction.

In another study by Howard, Rechnitzer and Commighan

(1986), a group of managers classified as Type A or Type B

individuals, was studied to examine the effects of job satisfaction

as a moderator between a common job stressor (role ambiguity)

and a number of coronary risk indicators. For type A individuals,

the results support the hypothesis that changes in ambiguity are

associated with changes in blood pressure, and that intrinsic job

satisfaction appears to have both a direct and moderating effect

on these changes. Few similar effects were found for extrinsic job

satisfaction. For type B individuals, the effects of systolic blood

pressure were opposite to those for Type As and it is suggested

that either Type As and Type Bs differ in autonomic and

cardiovascular response or that ambiguity as a stressor may

have differential effects for Type As and Types Bs suggesting that

their „fit‟ with ambiguous environments may opposite and this

significantly affects job satisfaction (Hart, Wearing and Headey,

1995).

It should be pointed out at this juncture, that almost all of

these studies were done in Western developed societies. This is,

however, contrary to what obtains in our underdeveloped and/or,

developing third world-Nigeria. Here in Nigeria, some studies

have been carried out with a view to identifying what really gives

job satisfaction to Nigerian worker-police officer-inclusive. Hence,

Oloko (1997), discovered that many Nigerian workers do not

perceive any satisfaction-relationship between their efforts and

their organization‟s reward for these efforts. This he explains with

reference to market prices of all consumer goods, which prices

are always on the increase; and most of the times are too

exorbitant for the workers‟ wages. The recent hikes in prices of

petroleum products by the present civilian administration, have

been observed to force the prices of goods like building materials

transport fares, hospital bills, education‟s fees for the workers‟

children among others, beyond their reach.

In the words of Anikpo (1984), since his image of social

reality has been badly distorted by money, (more especially when

viewed with the observed behaviours of the political class and

references to their being bribed with „Ghana Must Go‟ full of

bundles of Naira), the Nigerian worker-among whom is a police

officer-sees money as a primary need. This is against all the odds

or inability of his wages to come to terms with the current market

prices of most goods and services. He therefore, concludes that

as long as the socio-economic system remains capitalistic, what

the Nigeria worker needs and might continue to need will be high

wages, recognition for the job he performs, pension and gratuity

rights, a house or houses of his own to ensure a comfortable life

not just while in active service, but rather long after the service

years.

Asobie (2005), here queries…. what aspect of university life

conforms to or is directed towards right. If a university lecturer‟s

take home pay can no longer take him home, is not enough to

meet his legitimate social, and family obligations, is it right that

he should use what he has control over to supplement his official

income? If he does not, is it a „good‟ thing that he should stay

alive and watch his children denied of high quality education, the

cost of which is steadily rising beyond the income of lower middle

class?…… To put it differently can university (Police Department

inclusive) that cannot pay its staff a comfortable living wage

while they are in service, and which cannot pay them their

pension and gratuity, on retirement effectively serve as a moral

force? Does a government that is unwilling, and unable, to

provide universities (Police organization inclusive), with adequate

financial resources to meet their legitimate obligations to their

staff and students deserve the loyalty and respect of that group

of citizens?

Ugwu and Onyeneje (2002), while reviewing Herzberg‟s two-

factor-theory noted that in Nigerian context, this theory appears

defenseless, since may Nigerians believe that pay increases

worker‟s motivation to perform.

Furthermore, Obi-Keguna (2004) in his work, conducted a

survey aimed at finding reasons for the reportedly low morale

and productivity among Nigerian workers. From the responses he

received; the twelve most frequently occurring factors are as

follows:

a) Family linkages that is, existence of “God-fatherism and

tribal cliques”.

b) Employment practices, where they exist at all, are

haphazard and biased.

c) Lack of a good selection and placement procedure

d) The inferiority complex of the average Nigerian worker

regarding his counterpart when compared to an “Oyibo” –

that is white – man.

e) The prevalent attitude of “Olu - Oyibo” (that is, white

man‟s work); consequently there is no commitment.

f) Poor leadership – laissez-faire in most cases.

g) The “Naira Mania” – that is, the tendency to get rich

quick by all means. This results in many dishonest

practices, pilfering, or outright stealing and/or

embezzlement of government funds, and in most cases

those people go unpunished.

h) Widespread unemployment which force people to just

hold on to any job they have, irrespective of their

aptitudes and interests.

i) Inadequate organization and physical infrastructures.

j) Poor working conditions: poor pay and delays in salary

payments, poor housing, poor public transportation

systems.

k) Absence of vocational guidance and counseling

l) Widespread of corruption and indiscipline in our society.

m) Certificate – oriented society, resulting in poor

relationship between the old and the new “Peacoky”

graduates.

Okpara (2005), in relating classical theories of motivation to

Nigerian workers, once again, notes that these originated from

the developed countries of the world and bear their value labels.

Hence, it would appear that the cultural origins of the classical

theories are totally different from ours and would, therefore, not

fit. Nigerian‟s value orientation appears to place serious note on

the path-orientation because, the jobs are taken as representing

somebody else‟s job. Thus, we could not care less about setting

goals and working towards achieving those goals.

Furthermore, the Europeans who introduced new

innovations into Nigeria, also brought new values of which their

greatest appeal are material. Hence, here in Nigerian today,

money and power often tend to become ends in themselves; the

car, the new house, television to even the latest Western product-

mobile handsets – have become status symbols. In the work

setting therefore, there is a lack of a sense of personal

responsibility. Employers are observed to affront the dignity of

their employees and have no understanding of their problems.

Not only these, climatic conditions, health factors, lack of

incentives and involvement, inadequate training and customs –

all tend to affect the job satisfaction of the police personnel.

HYPOTHESES From the foregoing, the following hypotheses will be tested:

1. There will be a statistically significant difference in job

satisfaction between workers in shift work and those in

non-shift work schedules.

2. There will be a statistically significant difference in job

satisfaction between workers with high job stress and

those with low job stress.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODS

PARTICIPANTS.

Two hundred and fifty (250) participants drawn from a

population of one thousand two hundred (1,200) of inspectors

and rank and file from 3 different police Divisional

Headquarters. The participants were 85 police personnel from

Nsukka Urban Police Division; 95 from State Headquarters

Enugu, and 70 from central police station, CPS, Enugu. These

groups of police personnel were chosen because they represent

the actual or core personnel that perform police general duties

and/or shift work. They are also exposed to occupational

stress and life – threatening situations in the performance of

their duties. The age of the participants ranges from 19 to 58

years with a mean (X) age of 39 years.

The method of selection was stratified sampling technique as a

result of differences in police inspectors; rank and file

characteristics. According to Obasi (2002), a stratified

sampling technique is the one that recognizes the comparisons

between groups of different characteristics and rank, and

takes appropriate measures to include them in the sample.

The police personnel will be dichotomized into high and low

occupational stress strata and shift and non – shift personnel.

INSTRUMENTS Two instruments used in carrying out the research were the

adapted 20 – items Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire

(MSQ) developed by Weisis, Dawis, England and lofquist

(1967), and job – related Tension (JTS) developed by Khan,

Wolfe, Quinn, and Snoek (1964).

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) was constructed

by Weiss et al (1967), and adopted by Mogaji (1997), in Nigeria

to measure job satisfaction. The instrument has 20 items

which is the short version of the 100 – items inventory earlier

developed by the authors. According to the authors, MSQ was

designed to assess Job satisfaction which is the fulfillment a

worker derives from his/her input into the job environment

and job satisfaction which is the fulfillment the job

environment provides a worker. Three components of the

fulfillment that may be obtained with the inventory are;

(a) Intrinsic satisfaction (I)

(b) Extrinsic satisfaction (E)

(c) General satisfaction (G)

Weiss et al (1967), reported a one week interval test – retest

reliability coefficient of .89, a one – year interval coefficient of .70

Mogaji (1997), reported a one year interval coefficient of .70. A 72

– day interval test – retest reliability coefficient provided for

Nigerian samples. By correlating this general satisfaction scale of

MSQ with the overall score on Job Description Index (JDI) by

Smith et all (1969), the concurrent validity coefficients obtained

by Wanous (1974) for American samples was 0.71 and Mogaji

(1997) for Nigerian samples was 0.50.

The second instrument was job related tension (JTS). It is a

15 – item inventory developed by Kahn et al (1964), to assess the

nature, causes and consequences of occupational stress.

The items are scored directly by adding together the values

of the numbers shaded. For examples, if in items 7,8,9,10,11,12

the numbers shaded are 3,2,4,5,1,2 respectively, the score for

the six items is 3+2+4+5+1 = 17. The coefficient of alpha reported

by Sheridan et al (1978), and Oseghare (1988), are .87 and .39

respectively.

VALIDITY A concurrent validity of .01 was obtained by correlating JTS with

rated performance while Oseghare (1988), obtained a coefficient

of .46 when he correlated JT equivalent with check list symptoms

stress by Kyriacu & Sutcliffe (1978). Thus, scores higher than the

norms indicate high levels of job tension and stress: while scores

lower than the norms indicate the absence of occupational

stress.

PROCEDURE The instruments were administered by the researcher and a

research assistant. But before the administration of the

instruments, the researcher first took permission from the D.P.O

of the station and explained the nature and purpose of the study.

The instruments were distributed among the selected police

personnel at the Divisional headquarters. A total of two hundred

and fifty (250) questionnaires were distributed in which 227 were

collected back, representing 91% return rate. The researcher

discarded twenty seven (27) copies of the questionnaires which

were wrongly filled and the blank ones. Thus the researcher was

left with two hundred (200) questionnaires for data analysis.

DESIGN/STATISTICS A 2X3 factorial design was employed. The independent variables

are shift work and occupational stress. Shift – work involved shift

and non-shift participants, occupational stress involved high and

low occupational stress participants. Since the data collected

qualified for interval scaling, a 2 – way Analysis of variance,

ANOVA for unequal sample sizes was used for data analyses.

Finally, F-test statistics was used to test for the significant effect.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

Analysis was performed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Table I: Table of means (x) and standard deviation for shift work

and occupational stress on job satisfaction.

Shift – work (A)

Shift Non – shift Sum

High N = 67

X = 66.88

SD = 13.12

N = 34

X = 49.65

SD = 6.26

58.27

Low N = 32

X = 57.09

SD = 11.72

N = 67

X = 47.80

SD = 5.84

52.45

Sum 61.9948.73 48.73 110.72

The table above revealed that participants with shift work

obtained a higher mean (x) score, while participants with non –

shift had a lower mean (x) score (61.99 vs 48.73).

Similarly, participants with high occupational stress had a higher

mean (x) score than the participants with low occupational stress

who obtained a lower mean (x) score (58.27 vs 52.45).

Table II: Summary Table of a2 – way ANOVA on the effect of shift

work and occupational stress on job satisfaction.

SS Df MS F-test P

(Shift work) 8791 1 8791 114.29 <.01

(Occupational

stress)

1693.5 1 1693.5 22.02 <.01

Interaction

shift

work/occup.

Stress

788 1 788 10.24 <.01

AB Error 15076.27 196 76.92

Total 26348.77 196

The result as shown in the table II indicated a statistically

significant – effect of shift work on job satisfaction (F(1,196) =

114.29, P<.01). Since the calculated frequency is higher than the

table value, the researcher thus accepted the hypothesis which

states that there will be a statistically significant effect of shift

work on job satisfaction.

Results also showed a significant effect of occupational

stress on job satisfaction (F(1,196) = 22.02, P< .01) the

researcher thus, accepted the hypothesis which predicted a

relation between occupational stress and job satisfaction. The

interaction effect of shift work and occupational stress was also

significant (F (1,196) = 10.24. P.< .01). This indicates that shift

work varies with the level of occupational stress to determine the

job satisfaction level of individual.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION

The first finding shows that shift work exerted a statistically significant influence on job satisfaction (F (1,196) = 114.29, P<.01). This implies that the hypothesis which stated that there will be statistically significant different in job satisfaction between workers on shift work and those on non-shift work schedule, is accepted. Those on shift work schedule tended to be more job satisfied than those in non-shift schedule. This finding is not in consonance with the work of Bohle

and Tilley (1998), who found that those on night shift rated most

negatively on circadian/sleep disturbance and work/non-work

conflict effect. Also, greater percentage of respondents

discriminated significantly between night shift either day shift

and/or afternoon shift. Also, other researches which is in

support of this finding include, Jamal (1989) who reported that

workers on fixed work schedules are better off than workers on

rotatory schedules in terms of mental health, Job satisfaction

and social participation.

Again, the result finding supports Frost (1999), who found

significant relationship between shift and social responsibilities.

The research explores work responses to work scheduling, in

terms of the compatibility between the hours which individuals

work and the hours available to them for non-work (leisure)

activities. Workers‟ responses to a given schedule of hours may

be associated with the closeness of fit between these hours of

work and the constraints and opportunities which exist for

leisure or voluntary activities in the accompanying non-work

hours. A close fit, that is, high compatibility of hours was found

to be also associated with more positive attitudes and behaviours

both in work and in non-work setting than if the compatibility of

hours is poor. The study result is in consonant with Mckenna

(1994), who found they thought workers in shift setting may

differ in the preferences for the timing of hours worked, leisure –

related “normal” community activities, opportunities and

services, particularly those who are formally organized, tend to

favour the day workers.

Again, the study results indicate that workers on day shift

compared to workers on other shift would indicate more formal

social or community involvement, in the form of participation in

voluntary organizations and would report greater overall

adjustment as reflected in self – reports of psychological and

emotional well-being. Such individual difference variables as age,

gender, marital status, organizational status (blue vs white –

collar worker) and tenure were also assessed in the study.

The second finding, shows that job stress exerted a

statistically significant influence on job satisfaction (F (1,196) =

22.02, P < .01). This shows that the hypothesis which stated that

there will be a statistically significant influence of occupational

stress on job satisfaction is accepted.

This finding supports Mckenna (1994), who found that in

human terms, any situation that is seen as burdensome,

threatening, ambiguous or boring is likely to affect individual‟s

satisfaction. The individual wishes the situation did not exist, but

because an employee feels disappointed or annoyed due to

occupational stressor, is eventually prone to anxiety, depression,

anger, hostility etc, leading to non – satisfaction in the

performance of job. This study finding is in agreement with

Howard, Rechnitzer and Commighan‟s (1986), finding which

showed that changes in ambiguity are associated with blood

pressure and that intrinsic job satisfaction appears to have both

a direct and moderating effect on these changes.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS The results of this research has practical implications for

the employers of labour, human resource experts/professionals,

federal ministry of labour and productivity, etc. In a highly

competitive industrial environment like Nigeria, the managers

need to command impressive and be proactive in dealing with

employees to attain maximum productivity. A satisfied worker‟s

survey suggests, remained amazingly consistent and happy over

time and this reflects his/her involvement and commitment in

job facts.

One of the most powerful tools managers have in their

record tool kit, is the opportunity to offer employees a fulfilling

long term career with the organization. This is the key reason

many employees are at the organization in the first place. The

ongoing research finding shows that although shift work factor

into why people experience non-satisfaction, employees are

deeply concerned about their opportunities for personal

development and growth.

The employees know that their future depend on their

continually improving their skills. If employees are not expanding

their capabilities and career advancement opportunities, if their

exposure to stressful job situations, the risk of compromising

their employability arise.

The employers should realize that the extent to which low

task control is a stressor, increases with the burden of

responsibility the employee must carry. Stress can be fairly

minimal if the employees‟ level of responsibility is also low.

Repeated and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal

comments actions, or gestures that affect an employees‟ dignity

or physical and psychological integrity and that, result in a

harmful work environment for the employees should be taken

into consideration.

RECOMMENDATIONS It is suggested that a good strategy for increasing employees‟ job

satisfaction is to permanently or temporarily remove employees

from the stressor. Permanent withdrawal occurs when employees

are transferred to jobs that better fit their competencies and

values. Temporarily withdrawing from stressors involving

distancing oneself for a short time (perhaps a few minutes or

weeks) from the stressor.

Control stress consequences – this involves improving

employees physiological capability to withstand the effects of

stress receive social support. This involves psychological and

informational support from friends, co-workers, managers, and

others.

Remove the stressors – removing the source of stress from

the work environment or moving employee to jobs with a better

fit.

Reassign employees; maximize noise, unsafe conditions,

harassment. Noise and safety risks are stressful.

So improving these conditions would also go a long way to

maximize stress in the work place.

Managers, head of units or unit commanders must find

ways to give their officers better work life balance, which involves

maximizing conflict between work and non work demands.

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY There were some limitations encountered during the

research period. The nature of the research and the population

sample posed a little problem. The participants were initially

reluctant to respond, leading to the inhibition of some

information. The researcher had to assure them of confidentiality

and that the information is purely for academic purpose and for

data analysis, before they come out of their shells.

Financial constraint was another great impediment. Thus,

the sample size was too small for this kind of research.

The researcher then recommends that future researcher

should use large number of participants by increasing sample

size. This will enable the researcher make proper generalization

of the research findings.

Also, future researchers should be interested in other

variables which may influence job satisfaction. Such variables to

be considered include: - Age, Gender, educational attainment,

personality profile, years of services, rewards system, etc.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSION The study investigated the influence of shift work and

occupational stress on job satisfaction among the police. Two

hypotheses involving shift work and occupational stress were

tested and they are: (1) There will be a statistically significant

difference in job satisfaction between workers in shift work and

those in non-shift work schedules; (2) There will be a statistically

significant difference in job satisfaction between workers with

high job stress and those with low job stress.

Two hundred and fifty (250) participants drawn from a

population of one thousand, two hundred policemen in Enugu

and Nsukka were used. Two instruments were used in carrying

out the research and they are: Minnesota Satisfaction

Questionnaire (MSQ) and job – related tension scale (JTS.) A 2 x

2 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for unequal sample sizes was

used for data analyses. The results showed a statistically

significant influence of shift work on job satisfaction (F (1,196) =

114.27, P<.01.) Thus, the first hypothesis was accepted. Also,

there was a statistically significant influence of occupational

stress on job satisfaction (F (1,196) = 22.02, P<. 01.). The 2nd

hypothesis was also accepted. The interaction effect of shift work

and occupational stress on job satisfaction was also significant (F

(1,196) = 10. 24, P<. 01.).

Based on this result, it is pertinent to state that employees

require an appropriate work schedule in order to attain job

satisfaction. A positive emotional experience results both directly

and naturally when employees work on appropriate schedule.

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