The Importance of Qualitative Research in Mixed Methods: Part II John W. Creswell, Ph.D., Tim Guetterman, M.A. University of Nebraska-Lincoln Presentation to the University of the Western Cape, South Africa April 17, 2014
Feb 25, 2016
The Importance of Qualitative Research in Mixed Methods:
Part II
John W. Creswell, Ph.D., Tim Guetterman, M.A.University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Presentation to the University of the Western Cape, South Africa
April 17, 2014
Topics for this session
• Five approaches to qualitative research• Data collection, field issues, ethics• A software program (MAXQDA)
Five Approaches to Qualitative Research
SAGE book, 2013, 3rd edition, “Qualitative inquiry: Choosing among five approaches”
• Why I wrote the book• How I chose the five approaches• Defining characteristics of each of the five
approaches
Why I wrote the book• Saw Harry Wolcott’s tree diagram (1992)• Saw Reneta Tesch’s flowchart (1990)• Saw Jacob’s types in Review of Educational Research (1987)• Interested in providing rigorous methods for students• Saw that the procedures differed – wanted to make
comparisons (hence final chapter)• Recognized that most professors taught out of their own
background and training
Wolcott’s Tree
Choices of Approaches (types)
• Narrative (literature)• Phenomenology (psychology)• Ethnography (anthropology)• Grounded theory (sociology)• Case studies (evaluation, political science, law)
Illustrative journal articles• Narrative – Chan’s study of a Chinese
immigrant student in Canada• Phenomenology – Anderson & Spencer’s
study of how persons living with AIDS image their disease
• Grounded theory – Harley et al.’s study of physical activity for African-American women
• Ethnography – Haenfler’s study of the straight edge punk subculture of the 1980’s
• Case study – Asmussen and Creswells gunman incident on a college campus
Primary Texts• Narrative
– (Clandinin & Connelly; Riessman)
• Phenomenology – (Moustakas; van Manen)
• Ethnography – (Wolcott; Fetterman)
• Grounded theory – (Strauss & Corbin, Charmaz)
• Case studies – (Stake, Yin)
What is the research intent of your qualitative study?
Describing/analyzing a bounded system
Individual, program,
event, process
Case Study
Culture-sharing group
Ethnography
Generating a Theory
Process, action, or interaction
Grounded Theory
Reporting individual experiences
Collective experience
s
Phenomenology
Individual experience
s
Narrative
Research
Autobiography
Biography
Life story
Features of Narrative Studies• Researchers collect stories from individuals• These stories tell individual experiences• Stories are gathered through different forms of
data• The stories are often shaped into a chronology• The stories are analyzed often for themes• The narrative told often contains turning points• The narratives are placed within specific places
or situations
Steps in Conducting a Narrative Study
• Identify one or more persons• Draft a problem that documents the need to study this
individual• Write broad research questions to explore events in this
individual’s life• Collect data from individual and around (context)
individual• Target significant events, epiphany, turning point• Include your relationship to this person (reflexivity)• Tell an interesting literary story
Features of Phenomenology
• Focus is on a single phenomenon • Data are collected from individuals who have
experienced this phenomenon (often interviews)• Philosophy may be advanced as a rationale for
using phenomenology• Researchers may bracket themselves out• Data analysis leads to a description of the
essence of the experience
Steps in Conducting Phenomenology
• Identify and label a phenomenon that some people are experiencing (e.g., grief)
• Pose a central question such as: What is (the experience) for X individuals?
• Collect data from a small number of people who have experienced the phenomenon
• Use phenomenological steps in analyzing the data• Generate the “essence” of the experience—what all of the
people have in common• Generate the situations in which they have experienced the
phenomenon.
Features of Grounded Theory• Researcher seeks to explain a process (or action,
interaction)• This process is presented as a theory• Throughout the process the researcher memos• Typically researchers collect interview data• Data analysis helps to present the theory, often
as a visual model that explains the process
Steps in Conducting a Grounded Theory Study
• Identify a theory (explanation) that needs to be developed• Have this theory relate to a process or a specific action• Write a research question beginning, “What theory explains…this
process…?”• Collect data (e.g., interviews) from a number of individuals that
can help you develop the theory (who have experienced the process)
• Systematically analyze the data for elements of the theory• Present the theory (diagram, hypotheses, discussion)• Discuss how it explains the “process” better than existing theories
because it is “grounded” in the views of the participants
Features of Ethnography
• Focus is on describing the culture of a culture-sharing group
• This group has been together for some time and has shared patterns of behavior, ideas, beliefs, rituals
• What is learned about the group is often focused on cultural concepts (e.g., communication patterns)
• Data are collected through observations and interviews
• The ethnography presented indicates an understanding as to how the group works
Steps in an Ethnography• Locate a group of people who share the same culture and who
have experienced it together for some time• Determine a cultural theme to explore with this group• Pose a question such as, “How does this group work (in terms
of language, rituals, behavior, etc)?• Collect observational and interview data and spend time in
the field collecting data• Write a description of how the group works• Write themes about how the group works• Conclude by advancing how you have gained unique insight
into the group through your ethnography
Characteristics of Case Studies
• Researcher begins by defining a case• Within this case, the researcher explores an issue• The researchers collects many sources of data• The analysis focuses on a description of the case
and some themes• Sometimes multiple cases are investigated, the
discussion shaped into a chronology, or assessments across multiple cases
• The report presents an in depth picture of the case(s) and the issues explored
Steps in a Case Study• Identify an issue that needs to be studied• Identify cases that will help to understand the issue (case bounded
by time/place)• Pose a central question about “How an in depth analysis of X cases
will provide insight into an (issue)”• Gather extensive, multiple forms of data to build a detailed picture
of the case• Describe the case• Present themes about the case• End with an assertion about how the cases have informed your
issue• Use detailed vignettes throughout
Criteria for Selecting a Qualitative Approach
• What are you attempting to learn? – The endpoint of the approaches differ
• Personal preference– More formal vs more literary
• Audiences in your field• Past experiences
Data Collection, Field Issues, Ethics
Types of Data Collection in African Studies
• Interviews, observations, audio-visual material, participatory approaches
• Appreciative Inquiry• Photovoice
Appreciative Inquiry
• Look for what works and appreciate it• Seeks the positive core of a living system• Findings are grounded in real experience and
history• Interviews to gather stories• Participants then conduct more interviews
Photovoice data collection
• Photo elicitation techniques—photo elicits critical thinking and discussion
• Participatory approach– Participants take photos– Examine photos and then discuss contents with
the researcher• Participatory needs assessment or evaluation(Wang & Burris, 1994)
Field Issues
Interviews Observations Documents Audio-visual material
• Can be draining to conduct
• Recording equipment and reliability of audio
• Dealing with sensitive issues
• The process of questioning and listening
• Transcribing
• Role of the researcher-participant or non
• Taking field notes, recording quotes
• Maintaining role at the site
• Locating materials
• Obtaining permission to use material
• Working with archives
• How to set up camera shots
• Quality of audio• Placement of
audio and video equipment
Ethical Issues in Data Collection
Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue• Respect the site and disrupt
as little as possible• Avoid deceiving participants• Respect potential power
imbalances and exploitation of participants (e.g., interviewing, observing)
• Do not “use” participants by gathering data and leaving site without giving feedback.
• Build trust, convey extent of anticipated disruption in gaining access
• Discuss purpose of the study and how data will be used
• Avoid leading questions; withhold sharing personal impressions; avoid disclosing sensitive information
• Provide rewards for participating
A Software Program (MAXQDA)
Software Tools for Analysis
• MAXQDA• NVivo• Atlas.ti• HyperRESEARCH
Software Tools for Data Collection
• Photo• Video• Fieldnotes• Field surveys• Apps
– KoBoForm, KoBoCollect– MAXApp– Atlas.ti Mobile
Why use qualitative software?• Storing and organizing data• Locating text• Assisting with coding and organizing codes
efficiently• Writing and storing memos• Working in qualitative research teams, such as
multiple coders• Retrieving data easily and comparing codes• Developing visual displays for interpretation
and reporting
MAXApp
MAXApp Project
Storing Qualitative Data
Coding; Organizing Codes and Themes
Retrieval of Coded Text
Limit to specific codes or
documents
Matrix of Codes by Variable
Reporting and Visual Tools
Code Relations Browser
Co-occurrence of codes within interviews
Exploring relationships
Recommendations for Software
• Determine whether you should use qualitative software
• Select the program you are comfortable using that meets the features you need
• Store and manage your data in a software program
• Organize your analysis (codes and themes) • Create visual displays of your findings
Summary of Topics
• Five approaches to qualitative research• Data collection, field issues, ethics• A software program (MAXQDA)
The Importance of Qualitative Research in Mixed Methods:
Part II
John W. Creswell, Ph.D., Tim Guetterman, M.A.University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Presentation to the University of the Western Cape, South Africa
April 17, 2014