California Test 522 STATE OF CALIFORNIA—BUSINESS, TRANSPORTATION AND HOUSING AGENCY February 2014 DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION DIVISION OF ENGINEERING SERVICES Transportation Laboratory 5900 Folsom Blvd. Sacramento, California 95819-4612 METHOD OF TEST FOR CHORD MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE (Compressometer Method) A. SCOPE This test method describes the procedure used in determining the modulus of elasticity of concrete by means of a compressometer is described in this test method. Alternate methods using a dial gauge capable of reading to 0.0001 in. or an electronic recorder for plotting a stress- strain curve are described. B. REFERENCES ASTM E 4 - Force Verification of Testing Machines ASTM C 39/C 39M - Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens ASTM C 192/C 192M - Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory California Test 540 - Making, Handling, and Storing Concrete Compressive Test Specimens in the Field C. APPARATUS The apparatus shall consist of the following: 1. Testing Machine: Any type of testing machine capable of imposing a load at a constant rate of 35 psi ± 5 psi per second if hydraulically operated. If a screw-type machine is used, the moving head shall travel at a rate of 0.05 in./min, when the machine is running idle. The machine shall conform to Section 15 of ASTM E 4. The spherical head and bearing blocks shall conform to Sections 2 and 5 of ASTM C 39/C 39M. 2. Compressometer: The compressometer shall be capable of reading deformations to 0.0001 in. by means of a dial gauge, or by use of a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) directly connected to a plotting recorder, or to a computer for graphics program processing and file storage. D. TEST RECORD FORM Record the concrete test data and the deformation readings from a dial compressometer on a suitable form. If either an LVDT and chart recorder are used, or a computer for graphics generation, then attach the plots to a form containing the concrete test data for the files. E. TEST SPECIMENS Mold and cap the test cylinders in accordance with the requirements for compression test specimens in ASTM C 192/C 192M, or in accordance with California Test 540. Subject the test cylinders to a specified curing condition and test at the age for which the elastic deformation
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The future of wind power
Helge Aagaard Madsen DTU Wind Energy The Technical University of Denmark Campus Risø Denmark [email protected]
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Risø DTU test field for large wind turbines
Risø 1979
Høvsøre 2007
2 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Outline
• Global wind energy market status • Technology status • Research and Technology trends • Global wind energy market perspectives
3 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Risø 179
Høvsøre 2007
4 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
Global wind energy market status
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
GLOBAL STATUS • 41.7 GW installed in 2011 • 241 GW installed in total • ~1.7% offshore • 2.3 % of global electricity in 2012 • Wind power growing 22.7% per year
(over 5 years) • Only 6% in 2011 • Cumulative installed power growing
26.5% per year (over 5 years) • 28% wind power in Denmark in 2011 • 50% wind power in Denmark in 2020
World market for wind energy - 2011
5 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
0
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45,000
1983 1990 1995 2000 2005 2011
Cu
mu
lati
ve M
W
MW
per year
Year
Source: BTM Consult - A Part of Navigant - March 2012
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
World market status 2011
17.6 GW (nearly 42%) of World market in China Global average installed size is 1.68 MW Direct drive account for 21.2 % of production Seven Chinese manufacturers among top 15
6 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
Source: BTM Consult - A Part of Navigant - March 2012
Global Wind Power Status Cumulative MW by end of 2005, 2008 & 2011
World market status 2011
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
VESTAS (DK) 12.9%
GOLDWIND (PRC) 9.4%
GE WIND (US) 8.8%GAMESA (S) 8.2% ENERCON (GE)
7.9%
SUZLON GROUP (IND) 7.7%
SINOVEL (PRC) 7.3%
UNITED POWER (PRC) 7.1%
SIEMENS (DK) 6.3%
MINGYANG (PRC) 2.9%Others 21.5%
Source: BTM Consult - A Part of Navigant - March 2012
Top-10 Suppliers (Global) in 2011 % of the total market 40,358MW
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Industry trends and costs
• WT technology developed by small companies in Europe and USA in close corporation with research organisations.
• Taken over by multi-national energy companies (GE, Siemens) or merged (Vestas)
• Asian development based un licensed technology from Europe
• Learning rates up to 2005 of 0.09-0.17. • By 2005 increasing costs, focus on
increasing production capacity and improving reliability
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Using experience curves to forecast wind energy economics up to 2015. The costs shown are for an average 2 MW turbine with a present-day production cost of euro ¢6.1/kWh in a medium wind regime (from [Lemming & Morthorst])
The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
From Megavind’s Strategy for Offshore Wind Research, Development and Demonstration 2010
10 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
Vestas Wind Systems A/S • Siemens Wind Power A/S • DONG Energy • Grontmij I Carl Bro • The Technical University of Denmark • Risø DTU - National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy • Aalborg University • Energinet.dk (observer) • Danish Energy Agency (observer)
Megavind
Target to be met by: improved optimized design (larger rotors), optimizing operation of the farm and exploring potentials within delivery of system benefits “operation and maintenance” is expected to contribute to the 50% reduction of CoE
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Risø 179
Høvsøre 2007
11 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
Technology status
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Risø 179
Høvsøre 2007
12 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
Industrial design process
advanced design tools used by industry
2D and 3D CFD codes for rotor and blade design
3D CFD codes for terrain simulations
integrated aero/servo/hydro simulation tools
integrated design process
tailored airfoil designs
aeroacostics taken into account in the design
close contact with universities and labs
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Typical wind turbine 2012
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Wind turbine 2012 Three bladed upwind Pitch-controlled Variable speed Grid connected 18 % with direct drive Average size 1.7 MW 7-10 MW being developed The future of wind power; Chalmers
Energy Conference, March 28 2012
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
A material-efficient machine
10 m/s: •80 tons/sec: Mass of air throug rotor disc.
•Extracts energy from mass of air corresponding to it’s own total weight in 5 seconds.
14 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Upscaling has been main driver
Upscaling: ”Square-cube law” Power increases as diameter squared
Mass increases as diameter cubed
Limit in size ?
15 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Lightweight blades
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Blade mass increases only close to the diameter squared (exponent 2.2-2.3) due to optimised and thick airfoils and due to optimized structural design
Lift enhancing devises to compensate for bad aerodynamic characteristics of thick airfoils
The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Risø 179
Høvsøre 2007
17 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
Research and technology trends
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Risø 179
Høvsøre 2007
18 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
Research areas related to future technology
distributed control with flaps along the blades (e.g. 100 m long) to alleviate loads
optimized aeroelastic coupling effects for passive load alleviation simulating real inflow with turbulence and shear to the turbine in the CFD rotor codes
detailed monitoring of inflow to the turbine for control
integrated design process considering the turbine as a component of a wind power plant
upscaling effects
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Individual pitch and smart trailing edge control
20-40% reduction in blade- and tower fatigue loads
”Smart” material variable trailing edge flap
19 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
Elastomeric controllable flap activated by pressure in voids
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
Lidar technology
20 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
Measuring inflow for pitch or flap control
Inflow measured with four five hole pitot tubes
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
21 The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012
Upscaling effects - Filtering of turbulence by the rotor increases with size
0.000
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0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
roto
r thr
ust f
orce
at h
ub/D
^2
[N/m
^2]
wind speed [m/s]
5MW
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Results from simplified aerodynamic model with turbulent inflow
Results based on full aeroelastic model
Vasilis et al.: paper to be presented at EWEA 2012
DTU Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark
New concepts offshore
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Combined wind and wave energy converters
Floating turbines
Wind turbine
Sub-structure
Grid
O&M Wind turbine
Sub-structure
Grid
O&M
Life cycle costs offshore
The future of wind power; Chalmers Energy Conference, March 28 2012