The Final Paper for James

8/3/2019 The Final Paper for James

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Emphasis on the

EgoThe problematic relation

The University of Texas at El Paso

Joseph Bernal

5/12/2008Working DRAFT


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Truth as understood both in the pragmatic concept of William James and by the

intellectualist James refers to, is an agreement between our ideas and reality

(McDermott, 1977, p.429). What this agreement actually entails is what has caused the

most misunderstandings of the pragmatist conception of truth. The pragmatic notion of

truth has been greatly misunderstood as relativistic, largely due to the inclusion of

dynamic and contextual elements. In this regard, truth has been misconstrued as

something subjective which could be dictated by anyone who felt compelled to claim

they knew the truth. This misconception of the pragmatic notion of truth is due in large

part to the commonly held concept of truth; which is as James states, Essentially an inert

static relation. This view implies finality or objectivity to a proposed truth. William

James anticipated the rationalist position concerning truth; the truth of the matter would

be irrelevant to whether we experience it or not. It absolutely obtains, being a unique

relation that does not wait upon any process, but shoots straight over the head of

experience. This misconception of the pragmatic truth is due largely to how this concept

of truth is understood and reached. Truth, for a pragmatist like William James, is as he

states, simply a collective name for verification-processes (p.436). The conception of

truth for the pragmatist, is verified though the pragmatic method.

The pragmatic method is a dynamic exploration used to determine the

effectiveness of a course of action in a given problematic situation of interest. The truth

value of a particular action will be determined by its effectiveness. This is done so by

examining the consequences of those actions and evaluating the effectiveness of those

consequences. This process includes examining the relations between the object and its

corresponding idea and whether or not they are in agreement with each other. If they


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agree, the relation established is most likely to be a proper representation of reality. In

order for the object to agree with the idea the relation that is developed between the two

must be able to be experienced and if it can be than it cannot be ignored according to

Jamess radical empiricism (p.195). For instance, James pen example demonstrates just

how this relation would take place.

Before a pen can be considered as a precept of the pen or the physical pen it has to

demonstrate a function. And the only way it develops a function is if the pen develops

relations to other objects in its proximity in the process (p.227). In order to meet the set

criteria, the pen would first have to be able to develop relations with what is already set.

For example, the ability to write would be determined by having some thingto write on,

namely, a paper. Additionally, other people can also create a relation with the pen due to

its appearance. Others have to be able to verify it is a pen and acknowledge it as such. So

in the end the question becomes, can others develop relations with the pen in question;

either the precept of the pen or its actual physical condition (p.311)?

The truth of the relation is dependant on whether it fills the following criteria. Can

it work with what is already established? Can it be shown to obtain soundness by others?

Can it be supported by others? Can others compare and confirm the same conclusion?

Basically, we are asking whether or not the truth of the relation is within the realm of

experience. (McDermott, 1977, p.311) This method is applicable for the evaluation of the

truth or usefulness of many situations. A problem well identified by Buddhism which is

caused by three main factors; reliance on ego, bad habits, and lack of self-analysis can be

considered pragmatically to develop a possible solution.


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For example, in Mahayana Buddhist practice a problem that is regularly addressed

is the blind attachment to the ego which is best articulated by Sogyal Rinpoche in his

bookThe Tibetan Book of Living and Dying Now ego poses as the righteous arbiter

of all conduct; the shrewdest position of all from which to undermine your faith, and

erode whatever devotion and commitment to spiritual change you have . (Rinpoche,

2002, p.123) Ego according to Tibetan Buddhism is the concept of I, an individualist

conception of self devoid of any other relations. With a singular focus on the ego the

individual fosters a complete belief in and attachment to this particular relation which

results in actions devoid of any self analysis. This view of relations is the reaction most

likely to lean ones future analysis toward a direction which will result in erroneous

behavior and beliefs. (McDermott, 1977, p.431) This will compromise ones own

development and ability to adjust ones perception to consider all relevant relations.

In essence, this problem in Buddhism is brought about by a total focus on the

problematic conception of the individual or I. This concept is problematic because only

certain relations are emphasized. Excluding some relations will then tend to lead to

situations in which beliefs do not fit into reality; or in other words, ideas do not agree

with objects. Neither can they be validated by others nor be further corroborated nor

verified. If the concept of I and the individual are found not to be in agreement, then the

ego does not give a realistic representation of the individual in a dynamic environment.

This results in an idea which can not be represented in reality and therefore exists out of

the realm of experience. This situation is a result of pure reliance on the relationship

between the ego and the individual. The ego works as a reassuring mechanism of


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validity, constantly reassuring us that we are correct and devoid of error despite this

ideas inability to meet the previously stated criteria.

This particular trait of the ego is represented in modern psychology as the self-

serving attribution bias, in which people exhibit a strong behavioral habit of attributing

positive results and behaviors internally rather than externally. In effect, the ego is

constantly reassured by itself. In a 2004 meta-analytic review by Mezulis and colleagues

266 articles were examined with a total of 41,538 participants involving the self-serving

attribution bias factoring in age, culture, race, psychopathology and sex. (Mezulis et al,

2004, p.711-747) Although results showed there was no significant difference among

factors of gender, race and psychopathology, significant differences between culture and

age were found. Western cultural samples including samples from the US were found to

be the most susceptible to this behavior whereas the least susceptible were Asian cultural

samples. Within factors of age adolescents and adults were found to be less susceptible as

opposed to children and older adults who were more susceptible (p.713-717).

This study demonstrates that this particular trait of the ego is specifically

sensitive to age and culture. This is interesting to note when considering the Tibetan

tradition of Buddhism. Tibetan culture is deeply and organically intertwined with the

Buddhist practice, they have been inseparable since the very beginning of Tibetan

culture. In the 8th century, the ruler of Tibet asked famed Indian scholar Padmasambhava

to bring the Buddhas teaching to Tibet. Instead of denouncing the traditions and the local

deities of the traditional religion of Bon, Padmasambhava introduced Tantric Buddhism

by incorporating them into his teachings. He taught Buddhism in Tibet by representing

Buddhist principles as manifestations of Bon. This is just one example of the well


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established practice within Buddhism of gradually redirecting already placed habits.

Incorporating these new ideas within the culture guaranteed that those principles and

teachings would be introduced from a young age. James also emphasizes the importance

of the early development of habits in children. Concerning habits, James gives a

description of the plasticity of the mind and its ability to redirect habits. He specified

even though those formations of mental structure could be redirected the process would

have to take time and be a gradual change (McDermott, 1977, p.10). As James says

Could the young but realize how soon they will become mere walking bundles of habits,

they would give more heed to their conduct while in the plastic state.(p.20)

Over time, this kind of reliance on the ego creates habits of self reassurances. As a

result, any flaws in ones analysis go unnoticed. These habits are not productive in any

way. Relations, in which the ego and the individual do not agree, develop into what we

can term as unproductive habits. These unproductive habits do not establish any form of

truth because they do not follow the previously noted criteria. Further more, since they

are not in agreement with reality, the consequences of these habits do not lead the

individual into a situation in which they could anticipate future events and so do not

create the opportunity for further positive development(p.431) These unproductive habits

do not provide proper understanding since they are not proximal to the understanding of

reality.

An example of how the ego creates habits of self-reassurance that do not agree

with the criteria for reality as previously stated, was demonstrated by Emily Pronin &

colleagues in a 2004 review of a large number of studies involving Divergent

perceptions of Bias in self vs. others. (Pronin et al, 2004, p.781-799). In that review


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they examined a number of studies regarding bias. Those studies demonstrated that not

only do people perceive themselves better in acknowledging bias than their peers, but

also that people believe that their peers are more likely to be guilty of bias than

themselves. This phenomenon was designated by Ross & Ward in 1995, 1996 as Nave

Realism (p. 781-782).

Nave realism is the phenomenon in which people believe that they themselves

tend to view the world objectively. They assume that they are working from a bottom-top

mental processing rather than a top-bottom processing. The bottom-top processing is

when a person is working from external information and cognizing that with internal

information rather than using internal information and cognizing that into an explanation

with external information. The theory of nave realism states that the individual attributes

the former processing direction to their own mental process. In turn, the person uses the

latter direction for explanations of the behavior of others. As a result of this, when

someone other than ourselves responds to the same reality in a way we perceive as

divergent from what we propose to be a correct response or our response, then we

attribute the response of the others as either being uniformed, biased, or guided by

idiosyncratic traits (p.794).

Furthermore, this helps to facilitate skepticism about the other beings ability to

remain unbiased. It seems the fact that others give responses which are perceived as

diverging from our own, leads us to think that the other is more likely to be guilty of

bias than we are. Also, in the examined studies they did demonstrate that people are

aware and admit that they may have bias. However, those admittances of susceptibility

are not taken into account by the individual in recent introspections. This is exemplified


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in what is known as the blind spot bias, in which participants in studies tend to believe

that they are less susceptible to bias than others. Within this bias its important to note

that if an individual designates any affiliations with a group, the individual tends to

believe that those affiliations do not affect their decisions as much as others. They instead

believe that they are more critical than others overall. As a result, they tend to believe that

introspection would be more effective than judgments made by peers (p.785,788).

Based on a number of studies, Nave Realism demonstrates that individuals and

their conception of self or the I create habits in which biased beliefs about the self

provide more clout upon analysis than does peer analysis. This provides a prime example

of the unproductive habit of emphasis and reliance on the I that Buddhism addresses.

The emphasis on the I and biases that it fosters leads the individual into those habits

which do not consider a pluralistic reality. Instead, the emphasis on this singular relation

creates a situation in which the individual is bewildered by events or opinions that they

did not and probably could not anticipate since their view is so weighed down by biases

and blindness to other relations.

Productive habits should allow one to anticipate actual consequences within some

proximal vicinity. If certain acts and ideas agree with reality as a result of the verification

and validation process James describes, they should lead us into other transitions. Upon

reflection of these transitions, we find those original ideas are still in agreement with any

new avenues taken from them; so those transitions will be smooth and effortless (p.430-

431). As a result, it seems then that the actual consequences of unproductive habits,

which are fostered by focus on a singular relation between the individual and ego, would

be completely unpredictable and surprising.


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This analysis of habits is very similar within Buddhism which calls for an

emphasis on mindfulness. The Buddhist concept of mindfulness is the constant process of

attention to ones own intentions and the actions that are the manifestations of those

intentions. These actions or manifestations result in consequences that with time develop

into habits or karmic pathways of action. As James would put it, starting from a false

career would most likely lead you astray (p.11). This reliance on the ego which is

developed by habits over time may be best described by what is now known as the

debriefing paradigm. The debriefing paradigm was first demonstrated in the now famous

study by Ross et al in 1975 in which participants received positive feedback on social

perceptiveness after evaluating and distinguishing real suicide notes from fake

although in actuality, none of the notes were real. (McFarland et al, 2007, p.233-240)

Even after being told none of the notes were real, hence discrediting the given feedback,

subjects still held the belief that they were more socially perceptive based on the false

feedback given. This study demonstrated the perseverance effect in which individuals

maintain beliefs about themselves or their world despite having those beliefs discredited.

The findings were recently replicated in a study by McFarland and colleagues

with one important difference; the introduction of a 4 th group, the revised outcome group.

The revised outcome group in the McFarland and collogues study was informed that the

results of their performance were pre-assigned, but also that the test itself was fabricated.

In the 2007 study, the researchers asked participants to review 15 suicide notes. The

participants results were randomly assigned to success (14/15), failure (4/15), and

average (9/15) ratings. After the assessment of the notes, they received performance


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feedback according to their pre established group. They were randomly debriefed

according to four pre determined debriefing groups (p.235-236).

The outcome debriefing condition group was debriefed about the real intention of

the study and that the feedback performance was fabricated. Theprocess debriefing

condition group received the same information as the outcome group in addition to also

receiving information about the perseverance effect and a warning to avoid it. The

revisedoutcome debriefing group which was not included in the 1975 study received the

same information as the outcome group, in addition to the information that the test itself

was also fabricated. Finally, the last group received no such debriefing. Each group was

asked to answer a questionnaire to self assess both current and predicted performance on

specific tasks. Even after the outcome group was informed that the performance feedback

given was pre-assigned and in essence fabricated, those participants reported much more

positive self assessments than participants who received poor performance level

evaluations. Unlike the other three groups, the revised outcome debriefing group

demonstrated a significant drop in perseverance effect. Even the process group which

was warned about the perseverance effect did not show such a decline in it (p.236-239).

The McFarland study demonstrates that the reliance on the relation between the

individual and the ego devoid of self analysis fosters unrealistic attributions concerning

the self. The outcome group in the study simply relied on self evaluation feedback even

though they were debriefed about the invalidity of the feedback. When participants

received positive feedback responses which reaffirmed positive preconceptions of

themselves, they showed self-affirmations that the test still demonstrated some sort of

evidence for their abilities even though they were told that those results were fabricated.


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They demonstrated a lax attention to self-evaluation which relied on preconceived

notions of themselves. These results are in stark contrast to the revised outcome group

which was informed that the feedback and test were both invalid. They did not have the

same ability to use the feedback response to reaffirm their conception of themselves since

they were mindful and acknowledged such information though increased self analysis. As

McFarland and colleagues state, the additional information received by the revised group

preempts the ruminative processing that normally serves to solidify Feedback-based

self-perceptions. (p.239)

A more precise example could be used here. If a particular scholar and

intellectual became too comfortable in a position of respect he might be led astray in his

academic work. This respected position may have been developed by initial hard work

and analysis which earned him praise. So much praise that he might eventually develop a

level of comfort with the validation by others and a lax attitude with regard to his own

evaluations of himself. As a result, over time, habits are established which foster a strong

relation to the concept of self devoid of other relations- in short, the ego. These habits

may become so strong in fact, that they eclipse any other relevant relations and cultivate a

lack of self analysis within his process towards truth.

For this particular individual, analysis of the only apparent relation (the ego) leads

to the conclusion that the there is an agreement between his ideas and reality regardless

of what his ideas may be. Believing that relation to be true even if it is absent of all the

criteria that William James designated would be required to demonstrate truth, allows

him to assert anything he wants and call it truth because, after all, it is coming from a

highly respected scholar. This individual might fail to provide evidence which could be


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assimilated, validated, corroborated or verified. With regards to the scholar and providing

adequate evidence for a proclamation of truth; any proposition designated as true by the

scholar himself would have to go through the peer review process. In which any

proclamation of truth would have to be published, and accepted by the larger community.

Then the larger community would have to be able to reproduce any findings and claims

and upon further consideration, reach a consensus about the proclamation. The scholar in

the context of the community of peers could not rest any legitimate claims on mere

academic or social status.

When scrutinized by others through a peer review process, the scholars claims

would fail to be validated (McDermott, 1977, p.311-312). Worse still is what might

happen if and when he was finally invalidated by others. The scholar would probably be

unable to anticipate any sort of criticism and so be completely surprised by it. This

individual would be a prime example of the potential problem that could manifest from

not considering all relevant relations. Emphasis on only the relation between the

individual and the ego could be devastating to the individual. The tragedy of ego is that

because of this strong singular relation, the individual may choose to ignore such

surprising consequences and simply write them off as insignificant and continue on with

his unproductive habits ushering him into ever more erroneous conclusions.

In order to avoid this situation the consequences of which would produce

erroneous conclusions, self analysis or what Buddhism refers to as mindfulness would be

required. In essence, the practice of mindfulness would require constantly paying

attention to ones habits because only upon honest self analysis can it be determined how

productive these developed habits are. If these habits were productive they would lead in


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much the same way as determining a pragmatic truth. So avoiding a false career and

partaking in honest self-analysis would require an examination of the possible

consequences that would result in accepting a particular habitual behavior. Also an

examination of what kind of relations a particular behavior would foster.

Although this reliance on the ego would result in surprise by any sort of criticism

or explanation of why his beliefs do not cohabitate with reality, the mind has plasticity to

it which allows reconfiguration. (p. 10) As James points out, the mind could be weaned

to a new direction and would take time. (p.11) Habits can not be suddenly exterminated

altogether because it would be disruptive to the brain. For James the brain and its neural

network displays a plasticity that only though a slow redirect can take a new form and

develop new habits. As James describes the neural structure as a sort of plaster mold that

can only take on a new structure with time. For if it is forced into a new structure

immediately it may compromise the structure. Largely due to the material consistency of

the plaster or in case of the brain its delicate neural network (pp.10-11). Much like

karma, habits can only be redirected with time. According to Buddhism, the individuals

strong attachment to their ego can be repaired through the acknowledgement of other

relations, as well as an analysis of the foundation on which these habits were built. In

other words, one must be sure one is not starting from as James puts it, a false career.

(p.11)

From a Buddhist perspective, analysis of the preliminary intentions implies asking

whether or not they are pure intentions. Pure intentions are those which are unselfish and

consider relations other than the ego. Pure intentions for Buddhism are intentions that are

properly based on a pluralistic view. For James in distinguish the difference between a


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pluralism and monism. Demonstrates what would be considered pre intentions. Since

those are the intentions that consider a larger context than the individuals wants and

desires. In a monistic account according to James events would take on a particular

deterministic quality (p.267-268). This deterministic quality in monism helps to facilitate

a situation in which there seems to be no need for an ethics or even a conception of

responsibility. Where as in a pluralistic existence the consideration of others and a

understanding of a shared responsibility to each other would help to facilitate endeavors

that would be self critical toward intentions that would be refined with time and lead to

organic transitions that would help to redirect and maintain habits that are productive.

In our intellectual scholars situation, he would have to ask himself, What are my

intentions in this process? If the answer to this question is, To find the truth of the

matter, then consideration of other relations would be necessary. A question that would

naturally follow from an examination of intentions would be, What kind of intention

would lead me to the truth of the matter? This is where distinguishing between

productive and unproductive intentions and habits become relevant. Productive intentions

in Buddhism or what James may refer to as beliefs would also be examined using self

analysis (p.337). This analysis requires considerations of the consequences and relations

that are developed in the process and would follow a similar form to the analysis of

habits.

For the scholar, the examination of habits would require that he be attentive to the

analysis of potential problems in the process. Certain questions can help determine

whether or not habits are productive. Can they be experienced? Do they help anticipate

future events? What would the consequences of this particular course of action be?


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Finally, do they help lead to situations that would involve any of the former criteria. The

scholar would have to do some serious exploration of those courses of action which with

time will develop into habits (p.311). Unfortunately the scholar will not always be able to

account for all possible variables at all times. Even if the scholar were to give a

significant degree of attention to other processes, the consequences of some of those

intentions may have already passed. In these cases, analysis would only come after the

fact. That is why it would be beneficial to develop productive habits early on as the

Mezulis study shows regarding the greater susceptibility in younger ages in order to

avoid such situations. In the end, this route establishes a more fruitful leading of habits

which are constantly in the midst of psychological streams of thought (p.34). The

Scholars actions grow from his intentions, and those intentions would in turn, be the

results of consequences from previously established habits. In Buddhism this cycle is

commonly referred to as effects of karma.

The Buddhist concept of Karma or what James would call pathways carved out of

experience are the focus of self analysis; you are looking at the pathways your experience

has created (p.10-11). In Buddhism, karma rests on a foundation of consciousness. The

consciousness as understood by the Buddhist tradition is the structure in which karmatic

habits develop or and what transcends from lifetime to lifetime though reincarnation.

This concept of consciousness is similar to James concept of the stream of

consciousness, a teeming multiplicity of objects and relations (p.21) which is best

thought of not as a collection of individual pieces, but as a stream of thought that flows

through time. Consciousness can be exhibited by crests and troughs of experience, this

concept of flow is similar to the Buddhist notion of the Bardo or transitional states. Birth,


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death, and rebirth are all transitional states which mark experience. Eachone flows into

the other in a similar fashion to the plane figure sections in James diagram of the

manifold of the stream of thought. In the diagram, plane figure sections are represented

and their crests represent the object most prominent in consciousness as they shift along

the objective content. If all these plane figures could be assembled they would represent

the stream of thought on which time is exhibited (McDermott, 1977, p.66-69). This

notion of the stream of consciousness is quite similar to the Buddhist notion of

consciousness which is like this stream of thought in which habits are manifested by

experience. Experience implies a dynamic situation in which events are always

changing. The problem with experience is that we may not like all the relations

developed from them, but we must as James points out still treat them consistently

(p.434). We may not necessarily pay attention to all of these relations as demonstrated by

the Pronin study regarding nave realism.

While there are some relations we consciously choose to recognize or ignore,

some of these choices may be automatic, largely made for us by unconscious habits as

demonstrated by the debriefing paradigm. The relations we ignore tend to be those which

would contradict our current path or our desired conclusion. Over time we develop

unconscious habits which tend to favor self-affirmation as the Mezulis and McFarland

studies demonstrated. Through these habits we learn to pay less and less attention to the

relations that are inconvenient to our plans. Eventually, these habits have carved a

pathway largely devoid of self-analysis. These unconscious habits develop into concepts

of absolutes which are habitually rested upon which maybe the consciousness that is

foundational structure that transcends lifetimes or simply the neural structure of the brain.


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The scholar in question may grow comfortable in these concepts of absolutes, which with

time; tend to develop in to unconscious habits. As James stated, the absolutists take a

moral holiday (p. 313).

The technique most commonly used within Buddhism to help facilitate this self-

analysis or mindfulness is meditation. Meditation techniques may very from active

engagements to passive ones. The active technique of developing and practicing a sense

of compassion or respect through unselfish actions that emphasizes the well being of

others, is an indirect self analytic technique which in giving that focus and attention to

others may result in one becoming more aware and acknowledging those relevant

relations between the self and others. For example, Padmasambavas teaching techniques

were active, he was showing others how to maintain mindfulness about those principles

through familiar ritualistic symbolic representations. Also simple techniques like

breathing mediation are more passive but can still help build habits or karmatic pathways

of behavior. The purpose of breathing meditation is to gain a better control of attention

towards particular subjects and develop an ability to reach some clarity. Through time

and practice, those habitual pathways would develop into an ability to focus and give full

attention to a given subject which would result in attaining clarity of the relevant

relations. Another passive technique is the practice of Tonglen. Tonglen is the practice of

developing compassion or respect through visualization. An individual may give their full

attention to any pain and suffering others may feel and visualize being able to dissolve

the pain and suffering the other may be experiencing. Through time, this technique would

develop into a habitual self analytic pluralistic account of relevant relations concerning

the self and others.


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So the scholar would then have to consider not only this particular relation

between himself and the ego, but would also have to others and the relevant relations in

the process. Specifically, he would have to be open to examine and question all relevant

relations within the process of an investigation for truth. It is of great importance that

upon deeper investigation, he can acknowledge and point out unproductive habits as they

become apparent. As James says on page 434 They coerce us; we must treat them

consistently, whether or not we like the results. The rules of addition apply to our debts as

rigorously as to our assets. (McDermott, 1977). So in retrospect this academic

investigation of truth would require a solid admittance of unproductive leanings which

can not be corroborated and are due to a singular emphasis on the relation between the

individual and the ego.

In Buddhism, the Sangha is traditionally known as the community of other

Buddhist practitioners who provide perspective and guidance, but the Sangha also can be

the larger community on various levels. Family, friends, and even perceived enemies in

actuality any and all figures with whom a relation is made with provide perspective and

guidance. This communal network offers guidance to other practitioners in order to help

define and redirect each practitioners process toward truth, this way, no one practitioner

is left to his own devices. This kind of communal analysis would also benefit the scholar.

A network of relations could provide multiple analyses on the process. This way, if the

scholar were working from unproductive habits which hid other relations from him, a

communal analysis would provide a view of other relations within the process, giving a

more complete account of the process overall.


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As stated before in the techniques of meditation, in order to facilitate mindfulness,

we must develop a sense of responsibility and ethics upon realization and recognition of

those other relations apart from the ego. This would give the scholar the ability to

properly acknowledge unproductive habits. A communal analysis would put him in a

position to redirect his process toward truth in more productive and ultimately fruitful

ways (p.433). If the scholar were willing to accept other relations besides the ego he

would be able to better define his academic process towards truth. This involves the

ethical component of respect and acknowledgment of the other upon assessment of the

truth and a moral responsibility in an acknowledged pluralistic reality. This would

actually provide more validity to his conclusions since the individual and communal

analyses would better define the truth of the matter in a dynamic and constantly changing

existence. The scholar would not be able to approach the situation pluralistically without

considering the other.

Apart from the help of the communal network or the Sangha, the scholar would

still have to deal with his own habits which are selective and ignore particular relations

due to a development in evolution. Through the evolutionary process the brain developed

a system by which to simplify incoming stimulus to a manageable amount of material.

This evolutionary process of simplifying incoming stimulus creates evolutionary habits

that ignore some relations in an effort to function. James gave a critique of the view held

by evolutionary empiricists of his day. These evolutionary empiricists wanted to explain

individual instinctual reactions as habits developed by their ancestors and not by the

individual. (p. 75) That version of evolutionary empiricism is not necessarily the same

as current ideas about ancestral knowledge.


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Stimulus simplification is an innate tendency developed over a span of time

across generations but whether James would take this as a hindrance or an asset to the

scholar would largely depend on the context of the situation. In the context of direct

analysis of all relevant relations, stimulus simplification would seem to be a hindrance

since the simplification of all incoming stimulus appears to leave out potentially relevant

relations, which would of course limit the extent of analysis, However, within a broader

context such as survival of the species, it is of great benefit to specify and to bring full

attention to what is of immediate interest to day-to-day survival. So we can see that the

scholar would have to contend with habits of simplification for survival purposes in order

to make relevant relations in the context of direct analysis. What is important for the

scholar then is to be aware of those evolutionary and physiological and psychological

contextual limitations and habits.

James would understand how these physiological and psychological structures

could be redirected and manipulated. This is a concept he previously referred to in his

discussion of the plasticity of the minds neural structure and its ability to overcome

tendencies previously perceived as unchangeable. Within the Buddhist practice,

examination of the limitations of a particular situation in a larger context allows the

ability to transcend such perceived limitations. James account of will brings us into the

realm of the metaphysical and the ethical because it implies that the knowledge of our

habits allow for redirection and change (p.713-717). These historically inherited

evolutionary tendencies are a form of karma or habits developed by previous experience.

They represent a collective karma that is exhibited by the habits of the species, in this

sense; it is a heritable biological form of reincarnation represented by the death and


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rebirth of individuals in the species. Therefore, it is subject to redirection and change in a

much larger biological-evolutionary context

Even if the scholar did redirect simplification for survival purposes in order to

focus on direct analysis of all relevant relations, that process works in a contextual

dynamic environment of reality and would demand constant attention and analysis.

Which unfortunately James acknowledges is not possible with a finite existence (p.438-

439). The scholar would never reach perfection with attention and analysis but instead

would understand truth he was searching for in his process within a higher proximity.

Within this limited time of existence a proximity to truth with communal verification

would be the best level of understanding.

Within Buddhism however, the scholar is not limited as such, this is where

Buddhism and Jamess method differ greatly. The Buddhist tradition accounts for the

transitional Bardos of consciousness through reincarnation over multiple lifetimes.

Through multiple lifetimes the possibility of reaching perfection is attainable through a

precise and constant refinement of the intellectual process towards truth. Death in the

Buddhist practice is not to be feared or avoided but understood only as a transitional

Bardo in the process of refinement. Buddhism allows the scholar to redirect all habits

toward productive ends by understanding all relevant relations at all times, due in part by

holding a pluralistic approach which demands consideration of the other. Beings,

whether they could be considered inanimate or animate, are still acknowledged as being

in the realm of experience and having the possibility of being part of a relevant relation.

This is a respect that is understood though a pluralistic view and an understanding and

acknowledgment of relations besides the self, but not completely devoid of the self. A


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complete lack of consideration of the self is as destructive to understanding a contextual

situation in pluralistic reality as ignoring any other relation.

Of course, this allowance in Buddhism which James could not consider would not

necessarily be less difficult. In this Buddhist context the scholar would have to also deal

with all habitual pathways carved though all previous lifetimes. These pathways would

manifest into particular habitually related actions within particular contextual situations,

or as Buddhism puts it, the way karma comes into fruition depends on the proper

contextual conditions. For James to consider this allowance in Buddhism he would have

to consider a larger context of existence. With habitual actions reaching further back than

the particular crest and trough of the present experience of the present life. In actually it

would be a larger manifold of experience in which greater waves of experience are

engulfed by smaller one that we recognized as a persons life. The scholar would then be

taking on a far more difficult endeavor but the cash value consequences would also be far

greater. The highest level of precision would give the scholar the possibility to consider

all relevant relations and in the process automatically avoid any misleading conclusions

since all relations are considered. The process would be examined with an understanding

of a dualistic nature of reality which would simultaneously consider various frames of

context with all relevant relations due to a acknowledgment and respect of the other in a

constant dynamic process; this would result in a complete understanding of the process of

truth.

In Mahayana Buddhism, the 2 wings of enlightenment are the comprehensions of

Compassion and Wisdom. Just as a bird can not fly with only one wing, no one can reach

enlightenment if they do not have the understanding of both compassion and wisdom.


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Wisdom means understanding the concept of emptiness which is the understanding that

nothing exist inherently, but is actually defined by its relations and context. Compassion

means understanding these relations and contexts and developing a respect for the other

or as James puts it, the pluralistic nature of reality. Upon understanding the pluralistic

nature of reality and avoiding an overemphasis of the relations between the individual

and the ego, the scholar would understand that he is a mere constituent part of the

whole of experience. However, instead of to completely diminishing his individual

relevance, realizing he is part of a larger reality empowers him to act in the most

productive way in this pluralistic dynamic reality.


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References

McDermott, J. (Ed.). (1977). The writings of william james: A comprehensive edition.

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

McFarland, C, Cheam, A, & Buehler, R (2007). The perseverance effect in the debriefing paradigm:

Replication and extension.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology . 43, 233-240.

Mezulis, A.H., Abramson, L.Y., Hyde, J.S., & Hankin, B.L. (2004). Is there a universal positivity bias in

attributions? A meta-analytic review of individual, developmental, and cultural differences in the

self-serving attribution bias.Psychological Bulletin, 130, 711-747.

Pronin, E, Gilovich, T, & Ross, L (2004). Objectivity in the eye of the beholder: Divergent perceptions of

bias in self versus others.Psychological Review . 111, 781-799.

Rinpoche, S. (2002). The tibetan book of living and dying. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco.

The Final Paper for James

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