The Experiments of Gregor Mendel Genetics – the study of heredity Mendel – studied ordinary pea plants The Role of Fertilization Pea plants – self-pollinating.

Chapter 11Introduction to Genetics

11.1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

The Experiments of Gregor MendelGenetics – the study of heredityMendel – studied ordinary pea plantsThe Role of Fertilization

Pea plants – self-pollinating – sperm cells fertilize egg cell within same flower

Fertilization – production of a new cellMendel’s pea plants were “true-breeding” – self-pollinating and

each successive generation would be the same. Trait – a specific characteristic, such as seed color or plant height, of an

individual.Mendel crossed “true-breeding” plants – caused one plant to

reproduce with another plant.Hybrid – the offspring of crosses between parents with different

traits.

Genes and AllelesGenes – an individual’s characteristics are determined

by factors, called genes, that are passed from one parental generation to the next.

Alleles – different forms of a gene Plant height – Tall plant, short plant

Dominant and Recessive Alleles Principle of Dominance – some alleles are dominant and

others are recessive.Dominant – genes that keep other genes from showing

their traits Ex: DD

Recessive – do not show their traits when dominant genes are present Ex: dd

a

F1 Generation – hybrids had traits of only one parentWhere did the recessive alleles go? Did they

disappear?Mendel allowed seven F1 hybrids to self-pollinate

F2 Generation – ¼ of F2 plant showed recessive allele

At some point allele for tallness separated from allele for shortness - segregation

Gametes – sex cellsDuring gamete formation, the alleles for each gene

segregate from each other, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

11.2 Applying Mendel's Principles

Probability and Punnett SquaresProbability – likelihood that a particular event

will happen.Flipping a coin

Homozygous – organisms that have two identical alleles for a gene – TT or tt

Heterozygous – organisms that have two different alleles for the same gene – Tt

Genotype – genetic makeup – TTPhenotype – physical traits – Tall plant

The Punnett SquareA way to show which genes can combine

when egg and sperm join

Independent AssortmentGenes for different traits can segregate

independently during the formation of gametes.

First with Third, First with Fourth!Second with Third, Second with Fourth!R r Y y x R r Y y

• Always keep the same letters together! RrYy

• Keep Offspring in same letter format as Parents!

Always keep the same letter first in dihybrid crosses, even if it is recessive!!

R’s then Y’s

RrYy

RRYY

Whatever the

genotype!!!!!

11.3 Other Patterns of Inheritance

Beyond Dominant and Recessive Alleles

Incomplete Dominance – one allele is not completely dominant over another.

Codominance – the phenotypes produced by both alleles are clearly expressedHusky eyes

Multiple Alleles – many genes exist in several forms and therefore are said to have multiple allelesRabbit coat, Human blood types

Polygenic Traits – Many traits produced by interaction of several genesPolygenic – “many genes”Human skin color – more than four different genes

Genes and the EnvironmentEnvironmental conditions can affect gene

expression and influence genetically determined traits.

11.4 Meiosis

Chromosome NumberDiploid Cells – most adult organisms contain

two complete sets of inherited chromosomes and two complete sets of genesHumans = 2N = 46

Haploid – the gametes of sexually reproducing organisms are haploid.Human sex cells = N = 23Human sex cells HAVE to be haploid because

you get half from your mom’s egg (23) and half from your dad’s sperm (23) = 46 chromosomes in your body cells!

Phases of Meiosis

Prophase I – replicated chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosomes.Tetrad – pairing which contains four

chromatids.Crossing over – homologous chromosomes

cross over, alleles exchanged. Chromatids of the homologous chromosomes cross

over one another. Then, the crossed sections of the chromatids – which contain alleles – are exchanged.

Produces new combinations of alleles in the cell.

Metaphase I – paired homologous chromosomes line up across center of cell.

Anaphase I – spindle fibers pull each homologous chromosome pair toward opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase I – Nuclear membrane forms around each cluster of chromosomes.Cytokinesis – forming two new cellsMetaphase I results in two cells, called

daughter cells

Prophase II – chromosomes, consisting of two chromatids, condense and become visible.Do not form tetrads, because homologous pairs were

already separated during meiosis I.Metaphase II – chromosomes line up down center

of each cell.Anaphase II – Paired chromatids separate.Telophase II and Cytokinesis – four daughter cells

contain a haploid number.

Haploid cells produced by meiosis II are the gametes that are so important to heredity.Male – spermFemale - egg

Zygote – egg after it is fertilized.Undergoes cell division by mitosis and forms

new organism.

Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

Comparing Mitosis and MeiosisReplication and Separation of Genetic Material

Mitosis – when two sets of genetic material separate, each daughter cell receives one complete set of chromosomes.

Meiosis – homologous chromosomes line up and then move to separate daughter cells. Two alleles for each gene are segregated, and end up in different cells.

Changes in Chromosome NumberMitosis does not normally change the chromosome number of

the original cell.Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half.

Number of Cell DivisionsMitosis results in the production of two genetically identical

diploid cells, whereas meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells.

Gene Linkage and Gene MapsGene Linkage – Alleles of different genes tend to be inherited together

from one generation to the next when those genes are located on the same chromosome. Thomas Hunt Morgan – 1910 – identified 50 Drosophila genes that

appeared to be “linked” together in ways that seemed to violate the principle of independent assortment.

Reddish-orange eyes and miniature wings were almost always inherited together. Morgan’s Findings led to two conclusions:

1. Each chromosome is actually a group of linked genes2. Mendel’s principle of independent assortment still holds true. It is chromosomes,

however, that assort independently, not individual genes.

Gene Mapping – Alfred Sturtevant wondered if the frequency of crossing-over between genes during meiosis might be a clue to the genes’ locations.

Further apart – more likely crossing-over Closer together – crossovers should be rare By this reason, he could use the frequency of crossing-over between

genes to determine the distances from each other.