The Ethics of Translation and Translator 1 ( My Book)

7/29/2019 The Ethics of Translation and Translator 1 ( My Book)

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LECTURE 1. ETHICS AND TRANSLATION

Plan

1. Ethics as a Science2. Ethics in Translation

2.1. Who are Translators?

2.2. Reliability and Speed in Translation

2.3. Moral Issues in Translation Business

1. Ethics as a Science

Ethics is the philosophical science that studies morality as a

form of social consciousnessas a major aspect of human activity

and a specific sociohistorical phenomenon. Ethics illuminates therole of morality in the context of other types of social relations; it

analyzes the nature and internal structure of morality, studies its

origin and historical development, and provides theoretical

justification for one or another moral system. It is concerned with

the nature of ultimate value and the standards by which human

actions can be judged right or wrong. The term is also applied toany system or theory of moral values or principles. Ethics is

traditionally subdivided into normative ethics, metaethics, and

applied ethics.

Normative ethics seeks to establish norms or standards ofconduct; a crucial question in this field is whether actions are to be

judged right or wrong based on their consequences or based on

their conformity to some moral rule, such as Do not tell a lie.Metaethics is concerned with the nature of ethical judgments

and theories. Since the beginning of the 20th century much work

in metaethics has focused on the logical and semantic aspects of

moral language. Some major metaethical theories are naturalism,

intuitionism, emotivism, andprescriptivism.

Applied ethics, as the name implies, consists of the application

of normative ethical theories to practical moral problems . Among

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the major fields of applied ethics are bioethics, business ethics,

legal ethics, and medical ethics.

In Eastern and classical thought, ethics was initially combined

with philosophy and law; it had the primarily practical function of

moral instruction directed toward physical and mental health. Inthe form of aphorisms, such moral instruction can be traced back

to oral tradition, through which late clan society had already

firmly laid down how individual conduct in practice was to benefit

the social whole (that is, the community or tribe).

Ethics was made into a separate discipline by Aristotle; it was

Aristotle, in fact, who introduced the term by using it in the titles

of his Nicomachean Ethics, Eudemian Ethics, and the workgenerally known as Magna Moralia. He placed ethics between the

doctrine of the soul, or psychology, and the doctrine of the state,or politics; ethics, based on the former, serves the latter, inasmuch

as its goal is to mold virtuous citizens of the state. Although the

central issue in Aristotles ethics was the doctrine of virtues,

which he viewed as moral faculties of the individual, his system

already incorporated many of the eternal questions of ethicsfor example, the nature and source of morality, freedom of the

will, the foundations of the moral act, justice, and the meaning of

life and of the highest good.

The traditional division of philosophy into three branches

logic, physics (including metaphysics), and ethicsis derivedfrom the Stoics. This division, continuing through the Middle

Ages, was adopted by Renaissance and 17th-century philosophy.It was also adopted by I. Kant, who used it merely as a basis to

differentiate between the studies of method, of nature, and of

freedom (or morality). Until modern times, however, ethics was

frequently understood as the science of mans nature and of the

causes and goals of his actions in general; that is, it coincided with

philosophical anthropology or even merged with natural

philosophy. This kind of expansion of the subject matter of ethics

resulted from the interpretation of its goals; ethics was called on to

instruct man in right living on the basis of his own nature (natural

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or divine). As a consequence, ethics combined the theory of mans

being, the study of the passions and affects of the psyche (or soul),

and, at the same time, the doctrine of the ways to attain the good

life (that is, the general welfare, happiness, or salvation).

The principal problem in ethics has always been the question ofthe nature and origin of morality; in the history of ethical

doctrines, however, this was usually posed as a question of the

basic notions on which moral awareness of duty is foundeda

question of the criteria of moral judgments. Depending on what a

given doctrine regards as the basis of morality, every ethical

doctrine in history may be assigned to one of two categories. The

first includes the theories which moral injunctions are derivedfrom the immediate reality of human existence, or mans

naturethe natural needs or strivings of people, their inbornfeelings, or the facts of their lives, considered as the self-evident

and extrahistorical basis of morality. Such theories usually tend

toward biologic-anthropological determinism; they contain

elements of materialism but frequently their predominant

tendency is toward subjective idealism.The second category consists of theories in which the basis of

morality is a certain unconditional and extrahistorical principle

that exists outside of man. This principle may be interpreted either

naturalistically or idealistically. A special category in the history

of ethics must be reserved for the authoritarian conceptions ofmorality, according to which moral injunctions are solely based on

some type of authorityeither personal or divine.The question of the nature of morality has often been

formulated in the history of ethics in terms of the very nature of

moral activity and its relationship to all other types of everyday

human activity. The problem that arises here is that of the

relationship between freedom and necessity. The correct

definition of the general foundation of morality still does not

signify that from such a foundation one can simply derive specific

moral norms and principles or that the individual will

spontaneously follow the historical tendency. Moral activity

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includes not only the implementation of norms and principles but

also the creation of new ones and the search for ideals that are best

suited to the times as well as ways in which such ideals can be

realized.

The choice between carrying out an external obligation andfulfilling an internal demand must always depend on the solution

of a different problemnamely, the problem of finding the most

appropriate ways, in each particular instance, to combine social

and personal interests so that the historical prospect of achieving

their ultimate union may be made apparent.

The category of moral activity includes the following elements:

the structure of an individual act and its component factors(motive, inducement, intent, choice, decision, action, ends, means,

and consequences), the general course of the individuals conduct(including moral customs, habits, inclinations, convictions, and

feelings), and the norms of behaviour and social norms that in

their aggregate constitute the moral way of life of society as a

whole.

By analyzing the structure of moral relationships and moralconsciousness, one can establish the connections between such

categories as moral requirement, obligation, duty, responsibility,

dignity, and consciencewhich reflect the various forms of the

relationship between the individual and societyas well as the

interrelationship of such categories as norm, moral quality,evaluation, moral principle, social and moral ideals, good and evil,

justice, the meaning of life, mans purpose, and human happinesswhich make up the logical framework of any system of morality

and whose content is constantly changing.

2. Ethics in Translation

2.1. Who are translators?

The work of a translator or interpreter is a very hard one.Translators and (especially) interpreters do all have something of

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the actor in them, the mimic, the impersonator, and they do

develop remarkable recall skills that will enable them to remember

a word (often in a foreign language) that they have heard only

once. Translators and interpreters are voracious and omnivorous

readers, people who are typically in the middle of four books atonce, in several languages, fiction and nonfiction, technical and

humanistic subjects, anything and everything. They are hungry for

real-world experience as well, through travel, living abroad for

extended periods, learning foreign languages and cultures, and

above all paying attention to how people use language all around

them: the plumber, the kids' teachers, the convenience store clerk,

the doctor, the bartender, friends and colleagues from this or thatregion or social class, and so on. Translation is often called a

profession of second choice: many translators were firstprofessionals in other fields, sometimes several other fields in

succession, and only after that turned to translation. The primary

characteristics of a good translator are similar to the expectations

translation users have for the ideal translation: a good translator is

reliable and fast, and will work for the going rate. From an internalpoint of view, however, the expectations for translation are rather

different than they look from the outside. For the translator,

reliability is important mainly as a source of professional pride,

which also includes elements that are of little or no significance to

translation users; speed is important mainly as a source ofincreased income, which can be enhanced through other channels

as well; and it is extremely important, perhaps even mostimportant of all, that the translator enjoys the work, a factor that is

of little significance to outsiders. From the user's point of view, it

is essential to be able to rely on translation not only on the text,

but on the translator as well and generally on the entire translation

process. Because this is important to the people who pay the bills,

it will be important to the translator as well; the pragmatic

considerations of keeping your job (for in-house people) or

continuing to get offered jobs (for freelancers) will mandate a

willingness to satisfy an employer's or client's needs.

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But for the translator or interpreter a higher consideration than

money or continued employability is professional pride,

professional integrity, professional self-esteem. We all want to

feel that the job we are doing is important, that we do it well, and

that the people we do it for appreciate our work. Most people, infact, would rather take professional pride in a job that pays less

than get rich doing things they don't believe in. Despite the high

value placed on making a lot of money a high salary gives little

pleasure without pride in the work.

A translator converts written material such as newspaper

material, books , articles from one language into another. An

interpreter converts spoken material such as speeches,presentations and the like from one language into another.

Although there is some vague connection between abilitiesinvolved in translation and interpretation, it is not necessary for

the translator to interpret and for interpreters to translate.

Moreover, the best translators are not good interpreters and truly

great interpreters are not good translators. And while many

professional training programs require interpreters to developsome skill in translation, professionally trained translators often

have no exposure to the skills of interpretation.

The profession of a translator/interpreter has a long history.

According to the Bible at the dawn of human civilization all

people spoke one language but when the God got angry withpeople he mixed their languages in such a way that they couldnt

understand each other. And since that time the need ininterpretation and translation appeared. With the development of

human society the art of translation has developed as well. Many

poets and writers who know foreign languages are good translator.

The conference interpreting was developed as well. The first

device for synchronous (simultaneous) interpretation was

developed in 1926 in America.

In synchronous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be

able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the

original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or

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telephone equipment. The interpreter receives the original

message through his ear-phones and simultaneously speaks into

the microphone (mike) which transmits his speech to the listeners.

This type of translation involves a number of psychological and

psycholinguistic problems both of theoretical and practical nature.In consecutive (posledovatelnii) translation the translating

starts after the original speech or some part of it has been

completed. Here the interpreters strategy and the final result

depend to a great extent on the length of the segment to be

translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter

closely follows the original speech. As often as not, however, the

interpreter is expected to translate a long speech which has lastedfor scores of minutes or even longer. In this case he has to

remember a great number of messages and keep them in minduntil he begins his translation. To make this possible the

interpreter has to take notes of the original message.

Sometimes the interpreter is limited in time to give his rendering.

It means that he has to reduce his translation considerably,

selecting and reproducing the most important parts of the originaland dispensing with the rest. This implies the ability to make

judgments on the relative value of various messages and to

generalize or compress the received information. The interpreter

must be good and quick-witted person.

The profession of an interpreter/translator, especially,conference interpreter is prestigious, well-paid and respected. But

the person who wants to be a good translator/interpreter shouldovercome all obstacles and learn all stages of this profession from

the linear interpreter when he is young and it is not difficult for

him to meet the guests at the airport and be their guide up to the

conference interpreter. Its one of the most interesting professions

because very often the interpreter can see all spheres of our life

not as an outsider but from inside.Different Levels of Difficulties in Translation

Sometimes people think that if a person knows two languages

perfectly well it is not difficult for him to translate from the Target

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language into the Source language. But its not so. Lets take for

example the simple sentence in English The cat is on the mat. It

seems quite easy to translate this sentence into Russian or

RomanianKoshka na kovre and Mtsa este pe covor. Even this

sentence gives rise to some alternatives. Translating the wordcat into Russian or Romanian is rather straightforward. No

matter how finicky one may get. Translation into Romanian is

easier because there are articles definite and indefinite in English

and Romanian. But translating into Russian the translator has

some problems because in the Russian language there are no

articles, so the translator has a dilemma What cat? Is it our or

the neighbors cat, or may be it is some unknown cat? Thefollowing phrase is The cat is. English uses the verb to be to

express existence, both temporary and permanent, and location inaddition to its more usual function as a meaningless auxiliary.

Romanian uses a fi in the same way but in Russian this verb is

not translated. Thus, if the sentence is taken independently of the

text we dont know what time it refers to.

The cat is on English prepositions are widely regarded asbeing diabolical when translating from other languages into

English.

Finally the mat. This really is troublesome. Consider the fact

that the mat has no definite size. In this case it can mean a rug

or a carpet. Additionally, A mat can be used for: - cleaningyour shoes, in which case it can be called a doormat; - keeping

your feet warm; - protecting the floor in front of the sofa; -preventing you from slipping and injuring yourself in the

bath( bath-mat). It can be made of wool, rubber, cotton,

synthetics . It is a very difficult thing to define the meaning of a

word without a context. In each case this word can be translated

in different ways. The knowledge of a context is very important

especially for technical translators. But even in the case when the

translator knows the context the difficulties continue. Here we can

speak about pragmatic difficulties. For example, in hot countries

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the floor is never covered with thick carpets, especially from wall-

to-wall variety.

The attitude to cats also varies from country to country. In

ancient Egypt the cats were the sacred animals. In the world of the

rich cats are often better looked after than any children in poorfamilies. In less privileged societies animals are treated as

animals should be. Cats are useful for catching rats, mice . The

attitude of the poor to cats differ greatly from the attitude of the

rich.

So, we can speak about the contrasting world views of different

people. It means that geographical and historical context, material

well-being and similar factors change the persons view of things.The analyzed sentence is simple from grammar point of view

but nevertheless it is sometimes difficult to give the proper variantof translation.

Very often there happen sentences which are unclear and it is

difficult to see where the translation begins from. Lets take the

sentence The buyer of the collar buys a cap and writes the floor;

the writer of the collar writes a cap and buys a floor. To translatethis sentence in a proper way the translator should analyze not

only the grammar of the sentence but paradigms of all words as

well.

Translators come from all backgrounds. While a specialized

degree in translation is useful it is far from necessary. What countsmore is ability. Most translators are very well read in their

languages and can write well. Some are writers who usetranslation as a way to write for living. Others are fascinated by

the language and use translation to be close to their favorite

subject. Still others are experts in certain fields and use their

language skills to work in that field.

Almost all translators should have a college degree. All

translators must have a deep interest and dedication to the

languages they work with. The only exception to this rule is

people who translate very specialized material.

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The knowledge on the field the translator is working in is often

overlooked by translators and those people that hire them.

Translators are by definition language professionals, but they also

have to cultivate a knowledge of the areas they work in. Few

translators claim to be able to translate anything written in theirlanguages just as few people can claim to be experts in

everything. Most translators have to specialize, working with one

or two related categories of material: legal, financial, medical,

computers or engineering.... . Each field has its own vocabulary,

syntax, style; the translator has to work hard to develop

knowledge necessary to deal with such material. This knowledge

includes two main factors.First the background knowledge, experience and education.

Second - the translator should have the necessary resources todeal with the material. This means dictionaries, glossaries, etc.

Such resources can include web sites devoted to translation or

terminology, Usenet discussion groups concerning translation,

friends or colleagues who work in this profession, magazines and

journals. Translators have to work tirelessly if they want toimprove their knowledge. They also have to invest time and

money in maintaining their reference library. In other words

professional translators are always learning.2.2. Reliability and Speed in Translation

Reliability in translation is largely a matter of meeting theuser's needs: translating the texts the user needs translated, in the

way the user wants them to be translated, by the user's deadline.The demands placed on the translator by the attempt to be reliable

from the user's point of view are sometimes impossible;

sometimes disruptive to the translator's private life; sometimes

morally repugnant; often physically and mentally exhausting. If

the demands are at all possible, however, in many or even most

cases the translator's desire to take professional pride in reliability

will override these other considerations, and s/he will stay up all

night doing a rush job, cancel a pleasant evening outing with a

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friend, or translate a text reliably that s/he finds morally or

politically loathsome.

It is a matter of little or no concern to translation users, but of

great importance to translators, what translator associations or

unions we belong to, what translator conferences we go to, whatcourses we take in the field, how we network with other

translators in our region and language pair(s). These

"involvements" sometimes help translators translate better, which

is important for users and thus for the pride we take in reliability.

More crucially, however, they help us feel better about being

translators; they enhance our professional self-esteem, which will

often sustain us emotionally through boring and repetitive andlow-paid jobs. Reading about translation, talking about translation

with other translators, discussing problems and solutions related tolinguistic transfer, user demands, nonpayment, and the like, taking

classes on translation, attending translator conferences, keeping up

with technological developments in the field, buying and learning

to use new software and hardware all this gives us the strong

sense that we are not isolated underpaid flunkies but professionalssurrounded by other professionals who share our concerns.

Involvement in the profession helps us realize that translation

users need us as much as we need them: they have the money we

need; we have the skills they need.

Speed is a very important factor in translators work. Atranslator's translating speed is controlled by a number of factors:

typing speed; the level of text difficulty; familiarity with this sortof text; translation memory software; personal preferences or

style; job stress, general mental state.

The first thing to remember is that not everyone translates for

clients. There is no financial motivation for rapid translation when

one translates for fun. The second is that not all clients need a

translation next week. The acquisitions editor at a university press

who has commissioned a literary or scholarly translation may

want it done quickly, for example, but "quickly" may mean in six

months rather than a year, or one year rather than two. And the

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third thing to remember is that not everyone is willing or able to

force personal preferences into conformity with market demands.

Some people just do prefer to translate slowly, taking their time,

savoring each word and phrase, working on a single paragraph for

an hour, perfecting each sentence before moving on to the next.Such people will probably never make a living as freelancers; but

not all translators are freelancers, and not all translators need to

make a living at it. People with day jobs, high-earning spouses, or

family money can afford to translate just as slowly as they please.

Many literary translators are academics who teach and do research

for a salary and translate in their free time, often for little or no

money, out of sheer love for the original text.There can be no doubt, however, that in most areas of

professional translation, speed is a major virtue. The translatorshould work to increase his/her speed. The simplest step is to

improve the typing skills. The other factors governing translating

speed are harder to change. The speed with which you process

difficult vocabulary and syntactic structures depends partly on

practice and experience. The more you translate, the more well-trodden synaptic pathways are laid in your brain from the source

to the target language.

The hardest thing to change is a personal preference for slow

translation. Translating faster than feels comfortable increases

stress, decreases enjoyment and speeds up translator burnout. It istherefore more beneficial to let translating speeds increase slowly,

and as naturally as possible, growing out of practice andexperience rather than a determination to translate as fast as

possible right now.

In addition, with translating speed as with other things, variety

is the spice of life. Even the fastest translators cannot comfortably

translate at top speed all day, all week, all month, year-round. In

this sense it is fortunate, in fact, that research, networking, and

editing slow the translator down; for most translators a "broken"

or varied rhythm is preferable to the high stress of marathon top-

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speed translating. Interruptions may cut into your earnings; but

they may also prolong your professional life (and your sanity).

Many freelance translators and agencies increase translation

speed through the purchase and use of translation memory (TM)

software. These programs notably TRAD OS TranslationWorkbench, Atril's DejaVu, IBM Translation Manager, Star

Transit, and SDLX are all fairly expensive, and mainly useful

with very repetitive translation tasks, such as a series of user's

manuals from the same client, so their most spectacular

application has been in the translation divisions of corporations

("in-house" translating). TM software makes it possible for a new

hire to translate like an old hand after just a few hours of trainingin the software.

TM software also only works with texts that you receive indigital form, so if most of your work arrives over the fax line, you

can safely put off buying one of the programs (scanning a faxed

job with OCR (optical character recognition) will introduce so

many glitch characters that you will spend more time fixing up the

text for the software than the software would save you).Freelancers who use it are also quick to point out that TM

software doesn't "create creativity" it is purely for organizing

existing term match-ups and so is useless with literary

translation, and even for translating advertising copy.

However, despite these limitations, TM software has broughtabout a revolution in the translation profession that is comparable

to the spread of digital computers in the 1980s and the Internet inthe 1990s. Many agencies now regularly send their freelancers

TRAD OS files to translate (TRAD OS seems to be the agency

favorite; freelancers by and large prefer DejaVu, which they call

DV).

Still, freelancers who do high-volume work in repetitive fields

(especially those who do the bulk of their work for two or three

agencies) say that TM software pays for itself the very first week

sometimes the very first job. They note that there is an

inevitable "down time" involved, as you have to spend several

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hours learning how to use the software, inputting term databases,

setting operating options, and so on; and the software is somewhat

time-consuming to use. But the gains in productivity are

enormous, an estimated 2025 percent or higher. Freelancers

who use TM software regularly say they will not translateanything without it even a short easy sentence that seems to

require no terminological support at all.

2.3.Moral Issues in Translation Business

Just as professionals such as doctors and lawyers occasionally

grapple with ethics, translators and interpreters will likely face arange of ethical dilemmas in the practice of their profession.

Certain countries have established codes of conduct that set outguidelines for issues such as quality standards, impartiality, and

confidentiality; however, the truly difficult decisions arise when

linguists are asked to translate a text that clashes with their

personal ethical standards.

The professional ethics of translation have traditionally beendefined very narrowly: it is unethical for the translator to distort

the meaning of the source text. As we have seen, this conception

of translator ethics is far too narrow even from the user's point of

view: there are many cases when the translator is explicitly asked

to "distort" the meaning of the source text in specific ways, aswhen adapting a text for television, a children's book, or an

advertising campaign.Professional ethics is an integral part of anyinterpreter/translator. He is not an ordinary clerk, his profession is

connected with the translation of information and he must do it

with full responsibility. Our age is the age of HI-tech information

and a person who possesses this information is a mighty one. He

can use it in different ways. There are some rules that the

interpreter should follow.

From the translator's internal point of view, the ethics of

translation is more complicated still. What is the translator to do,

for example, when asked to translate a text that s/he finds

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offensive? Or, to put that differently, how does the translator

proceed when professional ethics (loyalty to the person paying for

the translation) clash with personal ethics (one's own political and

moral beliefs)? What does the feminist translator do when asked to

translate a blatantly sexist text? What does the liberal translator dowhen asked to translate a neo-Nazi text? What does the

environmentalist translator do when asked to translate an

advertising campaign for an environmentally irresponsible

chemical company?

As long as thinking about translation has been entirely

dominated by an external (nontranslator) point of view, these have

been nonquestions questions that have not been asked, indeedthat have been unaskable. The translator translates whatever texts

s/he is asked to translate, and does so in a way that satisfies thetranslation user's needs. The translator has no personal point of

view that has any relevance at all to the act of translation.

From an internal point of view, however, these questions must

be asked. Translators are human beings, with opinions, attitudes,

beliefs, and feelings. Translators who are regularly required totranslate texts that they find abhorrent may be able to suppress

their revulsion for a few weeks, or months, possibly even years;

but they will not be able to continue suppressing those negative

feelings forever. Translators, like all professionals, want to take

pride in what they do; if a serious clash between their personalethics and an externally defined professional ethics makes it

difficult or impossible to feel that pride, they will eventually beforced to make dramatic decisions about where and under what

conditions they want to work.

Translators, like the members of any other professional

group, are likely to encounter a variety of ethical issues in the

practice of their profession. In some countries, codes of conduct

exist that set out guidelines on issues such as quality guarantees,

impartiality, independence and secrecy.

Clients rely on the translator to provide a translation that does

full justice to the source text. This means that the translation

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should cover every aspect and connotation in the source, and

should not add any material or connotations extraneous to that

source, nor hints of the translators personal opinion with respect

to the subject-matter. Clients that are particularly keen on ensuring

that this practice is adhered to will ask for a sworn translation, butmost professionals would agree that the general principles

underlying sworn translations also apply to translation in general,

and should be used accordingly. This is easier said than done,

however. While it is true that translations should be reliable and

undistorted reflections of the source in a different language, clients

will also expect an attractive text that is pleasant to read and

effective in achieving its purpose. It is impossible to simplyconvert the content of the source text into the target language: the

requirements of register, stylistic authenticity and readabilityinevitably entail some degree of modification of the original.

Having said that, there is general consensus that clients can

rightfully expect a translator to possess professional skills, which

entails that the translator should not accept a translation job if he

feels incapable of providing a high-quality text, for instancebecause the subject-matter is not within his field of expertise.

Another interesting issue is that of errors in the source text. Therequirement of faithfulness dictates that any errors found should

simply be copied into the translation, but this obviously clashes

with every serious translators common sense and desire to

produce a text that is free from error and, if at all possible, even

better than the original. Sometimes a translator might even feel theurge to protect the authors reputation if he suspects that the

content or tone of voice of the source text would open its author to

ridicule. One example is that of a CEO whose deputy speechwriter

had come up with a New Years speech in a raving populist style.

The translator in this case had decided to somewhat neutralize theinvective, while of course pointing out to the client that he had

taken liberties with the text in order to adapt it to the tastes of thetarget audience.

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The obvious strategy in these cases is to highlight errors or

problems and ask the client to reconsider his text, and while many

clients will indeed appreciate such perspicacity, others will

condemn the translator for being pedantic. Clearly there is no ideal

remedy.Unethical behaviour in translation business

When most people think of ethics and professionals, they tend

to focus on people like accountants, doctors, lawyers, or other

high profile jobs. However, everyone that deals with other people

in their business has the duty and responsibility to be ethical.

Translators are no exception.

It is easy for people to point out unethical behaviour in certainprofessions, but what about translators? It might not be as

apparent. However, unethical activities do occur and it's importantto know what some of these are and ways to keep them from being

a temptation to you.

Unethical behaviour in the translation profession can take many

forms. For example, translators are usually on deadlines with

clients and it's important to be truthful to your clients in terms ofwhat you can accomplish in a given timeframe. If you come to

terms with a client and agree to finish a job by a certain deadline,

it is unethical to decide not to do that job or not finish it on time

without informing the client. They usually have deadlines as well,

and not respecting those is not only bad for business, but is alsounethical.

Another major way that translators can be unethical is by notkeeping their clients' information confidential. Translators are

privy to all sorts of information, and some of this information is

private and confidential to the client that requested the translation.

It is definitely unethical for a translator to disclose this

information to anybody.

Another way that translators can be unethical is by purposely

overcharging a client when a price has already been quoted. Many

translators' clients are first-time clients and might not know or

understand how translators calculate their fees. Translators must

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not give into the temptation to overcharge a client when they

know that the client is a little in the dark. Taking advantage of this

ignorance is unethical. Earning a few more dollars off of a client is

no way to increase your translation business, and in fact is the

perfect way to ruin your translation career.Ethical issues and situations can appear in any profession, and

the translation profession is no exception. Translators should be

aware of the ethical issues that can come up so that they know

how to avoid them as well. Being ethical is a responsibility that

every translator has.

There is also a category of texts which, at first sight, appear

to be positively illegal. If a translator agreed to translate bomb-making instructions, would he be responsible for attacks

committed with the bombs produced with the help of suchinstructions? He certainly would, in our view, if he did not take

the trouble of finding out who needed the translation, and for what

purpose it was required. If the nature of the client were sufficiently

obscure to raise even the slightest concern, no translator in his

right mind would accept such an order. However, if the translationwas commissioned by a government authority as part of efforts to

study terrorists practices, the translator might actually contribute

to a good cause by translating even the most reprehensible texts.

To sum up, it is clear that translators in addition to

grappling with the technical content of source texts may be up tosome morally challenging tasks as well. While guidelines and

codes of conduct exist to help translators formulate their stance ingeneral ethical issues, in many cases the approach to practical

moral dilemmas in translation will be a matter of personal

consideration and assessment, aided by the translators knowledge

of the client.

LECTURE 2. THE BEGINNING OF TRANSLATION

Plan1. The Ancient Chinese Schools

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2. The Academy of Jundishapur

3. The Passage to India

4. The House of Wisdom

5. The School of Toledo

6. The International Translation Day

1. The Ancient Chinese Schools

The earliest historical records show sporadic translation activities

in China in the eleventh century B.C. Documents from that time

indicate that translation was carried out by government clerks,

who were concerned primarily with the transmission ofideologies. In a written document from the late Zhou dynasty, Jia

Gongyan, an imperial scholar, wrote: Translation is to replace

one written language with another without changing the meaning

for mutual understanding. This definition of translation, although

primitive, proves the existence of translation theory in ancient

China. Serious discussions on translation, however, did not

begin until the introduction of Buddhism into the country during

the Six Dynasties (222-589), when Buddhist monks began

translating classics of Buddhism into Chinese. By the end of thefourth century, translation was officially organized on a large scale

in China. A State School of Translation was founded for this

purpose and Dao An, an imperial officer, was appointed its

director. In 379 Dao An was abducted to Changan (Xian) where

he started the famous Changan School. It was at this time that

monks from Kashmir began to enter China in large numbers,bringing with them many texts from their homeland, which they

translated into Chinese and making the school one of the most

important translation centers of the time. Three of the most

accomplished translators of the Changan school adopted differenttheories regarding translation. Dao An insisted on a strict literal

translation i.e., the source text translation word by word. The

Indian scholar Kumarajiva, on the other hand, took up an oppositeview and advocated a completely free translation method for the

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sake of elegance and intelligibility in the target language.

In his own translation practice, Chinese Buddhist scholar Xuan

Zang combined the advantages of both Dao An's respect for the

form of the source text, and Kumarajiva's free style of translation.

Xuan Zang aimed to achieve an intelligibility of the translation forthe target language readers, and developed his criteria that

translation "must be truthful and intelligible to the populace." It

might be during this period of time that there was the first

discussion on literal translation vs. free translation - a core issue of

translation theory.

Eventually, the translation of sutras lost importance in China

and rulers directed their attention westward. Arabs began to settlein China, with some even becoming mandarins or merchants.

Having learned the Chinese language, some of these erudite highofficials began translating scientific works from Arabic or

European languages. By the eighth century, conversion to Islam

had already started in Central Asia.

2. The Academy of Jundishapur

After all, the Arabs brought with them into Spain the Arabic

versions of the Greek works, from which translations were made

into Latin and spread throughout Europe, which was then in its

dark age. It is this Greek body of knowledge that brought Europeout of the Dark Ages and into the Renaissance - the rebirth or

revival. The question remains, however: by whom, where, andwhen was the Greek body of knowledge transmitted to the Arabs

themselves? In his book "How Greek Science Passed to the

Arabs", historian De Lacy O'Leary explains: "Greek scientific

thought had been in the world for a long time before it reached the

Arabs, and during that period it had already spread abroad in

various directions. So it is not surprising that it reached the Arabs

by more than one route. It came first and in the plainest line

through Christian Syrian writers, scholars, and scientists. Then the

Arabs applied themselves directly to the original Greek sources

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and learned over again all they had already learned, correcting and

verifying earlier knowledge." Among the scholars at the center

were Greek philosophers and teachers who had fled the closed

Plato's Academy at Athens. Among the works they brought with

them were Euclid's works in mathematics, the philosophy ofAristotle and Plato, works by Ptolemy and others. Along with

Nestorian scholar-refugees, they held discussions with the king,

wrote, taught and translated. These Syriac translators thought it

was essential to get as close to the original meaning of the Greek

as possible. But, this method led to a style of translation that was

virtually word-for-word, doing great injustice to Syriac word

order, and also later to Arabic word order when the sametechnique was used for the first translations into Arabic. Also

brought to the school were Indian scholars who discussed moraland ethical teachings, Indian astronomy, and Indian mathematics

with its Hindi numerals, which came to the Academy on its way to

Muslim lands and later to Renaissance Europe. When the city of

Jundishapur surrendered to Muslim military leaders in the year

636, the Academy was left undisturbed. Combining the scientifictraditions of the Greeks, Persians and Indians, it became the most

important medical centre in the world, continuing its influence

into the eleventh century, even during the height of Baghdad's

reign as an intellectual centre.

3. The Passage to India

The most notable of the Indian translators was the scholar-monk Kumarajiva. By the end of the fourth century, Indian culture

had penetrated into China from both the north and south of India,

giving Kumarajiva the opportunity to learn Chinese as well as his

native Sanskrit. Kumarajiva began working to correct the

imperfections of the provincial dialect and later to translating

Buddhist texts and correcting earlier translations. A Bureau of

Translators was set up under his supervision, with over 800

scholars on staff. The wealth of India, with its fine cities and

prosperous villages, attracted the attention of foreign invaders,

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including Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia. This was a

period of great scientific discovery and intellectual triumph for

Sanskrit learning. Brahman language scholars worked out all the

major rules regarding the science of language and sounds

(phonetics). Sanskrit grammar was standardized and Indian scriptwas formalized well able to represent all the sounds produced by

the human voice.

4. The House of Wisdom

For the history of Western civilization, the demise of Rome

was a turning point. Having reached a high level of classical

culture and learning, the fall of Rome was seen as a great decline.In Europe, the time of tumult and so-called barbarian invasions

turned a sparkling civilization into forgotten ruins. Learning andculture retreated into fortress-like monasteries, where it mouldered

for centuries with little improvement. It was in Baghdad that the

Muslims founded their great school of translation known as the

House of Wisdom. Their formidable ambition was to translate as

much as they could find of mathematics, astronomy, astrology,ethics, geography, mechanics, music, medicine, physics,

philosophy and the construction of scientific instruments . The

first Arabic translations used the literal style of the Syriac

translators. Syriac had evolved as a written language through

translations of the New Testament, where it was thought to beessential to get as close to the original meaning of the Greek as

possible. This led to a style that was virtually word-for-wordtranslation. The Arabs later abandoned the tradition of literal

translation and concentrated on making the sense of the Greek

writers comprehensible to the reader. They went back to the

original Greek texts and translated them directly into Arabic,

revising earlier translations into Syriac and Aramaic.

The House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah) was started by Caliph

al-Mamun in 830 AD. It was the center of Islamic learning, where

great translation projects took place to convert the great works of

different cultures into Arabic. During Baghdad's golden age there

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was no censorship or religious bigotry and the Arab elite

welcomed influences equally from Indians, Chinese, Christians,

Jews and Pagans. The Baghdad school employed a diverse team of

Christian and Muslim translators to help translate books from

around the world.One of the House of Wisdom's most famous scholars was

Hunayn ibn Ishaq, who eventually translated the entire canon of

Greek medical works into Arabic, including the Hippocratic Oath.

The book was translated into Latin and for centuries was the

authoritative treatment of the subject in both Western and Eastern

universities.

Some translators were paid an equal weight of gold to theirtranslated manuscripts. It meant sometimes traveling as far as

India to look for original manuscripts and study the mathematicsand philosophy of those who had written in classical Sanskrit

centuries earlier.

The first great advance on the inherited mathematical tradition

was the introduction of Arabic numerals, which actually

originated in India and which simplified calculation of all sortsand made possible the development of algebra.

This translation of knowledge is considered to be one of the

main events of the Middle Ages. The House of Wisdom's main

concern was foreign knowledge, and around it the Baghdad

School evolved. Great libraries and schools thrived on the worksthat the translators contributed. The House of Wisdom restored the

continuity of human knowledge by learning and translating fromthe older cultures. Without the ancient knowledge that was

preserved and translated through the dark ages of medieval

Europe, the Renaissance would not have been possible.

5. The School of Toledo

In 1085, Toledo, Spain was taken from the Muslims by

Alfonso VI of Leon. It soon became the capital of Castile and a

community of scholars. There, the transmission of ancient

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knowledge reached its peak through the School of Toledo where

translations were made from Arabic to Latin and later to Spanish,

and helped the scientific and technological development in the

years of the European Renaissance. Toledo took the place of

Baghdad as the new great translation center of the world. Underthe leadership of French Archbishop Raymond, who reigned from

1126 until his death in 1152, the Toledo School's Bureau of

Translation attracted first rate scholars from all over Europe.

Raymond knew the wealth of knowledge and scientific expertise,

which the Muslim world possessed, and desired that Christendom

gain access to its riches. Archdeacon Dominic Gundisalvi

undertook many translations and directed the Bureau ofTranslation that Raymond had founded. Among the school's great

scholars were Gherard of Cremona, John of Seville, Adelard ofBath, Robert of Chester, Rudolf of Bruges, Hermann of Carinthia,

and Michael Scot. The twelfth century came to be known as the

Age of Translation.

By the middle of the thirteenth century, scholars such as these

had translated the bulk of ancient science into Latin, including thewritings of such greats as Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid and

Hippocrates, which had been preserved in Arabic for hundreds of

years. These writings were Arabic manuscripts still held today in

the Vatican Library in Rome.

Etienne Dolet (1509-1546), a French humanist was tried fortranslating one of Plato's "Dialogues" in such a way as to imply

disbelief in immortality. Dolet did in fact add three extra words toa text he was translating from Greek, one of his biographers

defends their use as adding to the clarity. He was condemned as an

atheist, tortured and strangled at the age of thirty-seven and his

body was burned with copies of his books at his feet.

The second translator to die for his transgressions was Bible

translator and reformer William Tyndale (1494-1536), who was so

impressed by Luther's teachings that he created an English version

of both the Christian texts and the Torah, which were then

smuggled into England.

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Tyndale was forced to flee England but was eventually arrested

in Belgium in 1535, then strangled and burned at the stake after a

year and a half of imprisonment. As a translator, Tyndale crafted

many everyday phrases, including: "Let there be light", "Eat, drink

and be merry", "The powers that be", "Ye of little faith", "Ami mybrother's keeper", "A man after his own heart", and "Signs of the

times". His translation of the Bible is credited with influencing the

later "King James" version.

The last of the three 'translator-warriors' was the charismatic

and successful Martin Luther (1483-1546). In 1540, Luther wrote

the self-promoting and nationalistic Sendbrielvom Dolmetschen,

in which he criticized Latin, Hebrew and other languages forbeing full of "stones and stumps", in contrast to his 'smooth'

German writing. As a poet, writer and translator, Luther 'reformed'the German language in ways that can still be felt today. He is

often considered the "father of the modern German language."

Still, Luther was constantly forced to defend his principles of

meaning-oriented translation and he was eventually put under the

ban of the Empire. Fearing for his safety, his own friends onceeven kidnapped him to protect him.

Until the passage of these ten pivotal years, translators in the

West had been viewed far more readily as heroes than as villains.

They had opened all the ancient arts and sciences to the world

around them, not only philosophy, astronomy, and geometry butthe more advanced range of Arab mathematics, not to mention

medicine, optics, and other sciences. They had even opened thedoor to the enormously popular studies of alchemy, and astrology.

As Giordano Bruno himself would say: "From translation all

science had its off-spring." After 1546, public attitude began to

change and translators were no longer viewed as heroes.

Increasing emphasis would be placed on the inadequacy of

translators and even the translation process itself, a view which

has largely prevailed until the present day.

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6. The International Translation Day

St Jerome's Day, as International Translation Day is commonly

known, is celebrated on 30 September.

St Jerome, the bible translator, has always been considered to bethe patron saint of translators and interpreters throughout the

world. For a long time, the days and weeks (and sometimes

months) around 30 September have therefore been used by

translators and interpreters (and their associations) to celebrate the

occasion. Ever since FIT (International Federation of Translators)

was established in 1953, St Jerome's Day celebrations have been

encouraged and promoted by the FIT Council and ExecutiveCommittee.

It was not until 1991 that the Public Relations Committee ofFIT launched the idea of an International Translation Day. The

FIT Council took up the idea and decided to suggest to FIT

member associations that they join forces and show their solidarity

on St Jerome's Day in an effort to promote the translation

profession in their own countries (not necessarily only in Christiancountries). This would be an opportunity to display pride in a

profession that is becoming increasingly essential as borders are

tumbling worldwide.

A press release was issued and distributed to FIT member

associations, suggesting several activities to celebrate theoccasion, such as awarding diplomas to young translators,

bringing new translators into professional associations, presentingawards and announcing activities for the following year. It was

also suggested that the media should be involved in the

celebrations of International Translation Day, so that public

awareness of the many facets of our often misunderstood

profession could be increased. Since 1991, the FIT Secretariat has

collected reports by FIT member associations on the different

ways they have celebrated International Translation Day.

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No official motto was announced for International Translation

Day 1991. The motto of the Brighton FIT Congress was then also

chosen for the celebrations in 1992 - "Translation - the vital link"

The slogan for 1993 was "Translation, a pervasive presence.

That year, the press release contained some valuable informationfor consumers, including the following:

- Imagine how difficult it would be to assemble furniture or

bicycles, or to use video recorders, that you bought in a kit if the

instructions were not translated (and everybody knows what

problems badly translated assembly instructions can cause).

People with allergies to specific products would be at a risk if the

ingredients on product labels were not translated.Well-translated labels, instructions and marketing material can

enhance a company's image, while faulty translations willcertainly do a company's reputation no good!

The press release that FIT issued on the occasion of

International Translation Day 1993 also gave some interesting

statistical figures, which must have been difficult to compile. The

following are only a few examples:

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- Did you know that the Bible has been translated into 310

languages, and some text passages of the Bible into as many as 1

597 languages?

- Did you know that the works of Lenin have been translatedmore often than Shakespeare's dramas (321 compared to 93), and

that Jules Verne was published in more languages than Karl Marx

(238 against 103)?

- And did you know that Asterix and Tintin have both been

translated into 41 languages or dialects?

The motto for International Translation Day 1994 was "The

many facets of translation, with Jean F Joly, the FIT President,defining scientific and technical translators, media translators,

terminologists, conference interpreters, community interpreters,court interpreters, sign-language interpreters and "translatologists"

in his press release on the occasion.

"Translation, a key to development" was the theme for 1995,

and "Translators and Copyright" for 1996. The latter theme was

adopted because that year UNESCO launched the idea of anInternational Copyright Day, and the FIT Executive Committee

felt that translators (in particular sci-tech and media translators)

were not paying enough attention to their rights. In addition, the

information highway was creating new copyright issues of which

translators should be aware. The theme for 1997, finally, was"Translating in the Right Direction". The idea came from the

Finnish FIT member association. There, colleagues thought thatwith all their many translation assignments into languages other

than Finnish (in relation to Finland's entry into the EU), colleagues

were losing sight of the fact that the best translation/interpretation

is done into one's mother tongue. Should one or should one not

translate only into one's mother tongue? What are the advantages,

what are the drawbacks? Etc., etc.!

The theme selected for 1998 is "Good Translation Practices".

The subject matter is highly appropriate, since quality assurance is

on everybody's mind and needs to be considered by translators as

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well. FIT is contributing to a possible solution on the EU's

European Translation Platform.

In 1995, the FIT Executive Committee realized that it would

help member associations to prepare their International

Translation Day celebrations if a theme was announced (andannounced early). For this reason the themes are generally

announced about a year in advance, giving member associations

plenty of time to translate and publish the press release sent out by

the FIT Secretariat and organize their own celebrations and

publicity.

What types of activities are organized by FIT member

associations for International Translation Day? Basically, we seethree types of activities:

- Public relations focusing on the general public: Pressconferences, interviews with the press, radio and television.

Occasionally, several associations in one country even pool their

resources to run advertisements in the daily press on September

30.

- Public relations focusing on the translators: Diplomas orprizes to honour distinguished representatives of the profession are

the most common type of activity. In the Czech Republic, the FIT

member association came up with the idea of a Best Dictionary

Prize, which has been very useful in promoting the exchange of

glossaries, terminology lists, etc. that was so very important in thewake of the Velvet Revolution. In the meantime, the idea has been

"copied" by Norway. After all, there is a greater need to encouragethe publication of dictionaries in the "languages of limited

diffusion.

- Public relations focusing on the translators' associations:

Further training events by translators' associations for their

members (and as means to recruit new members), as well as joint

(academic and social) activities by the different translators'

associations in one country can be mentioned here by way of

example. It is encouraging to see that International Translation

Day has developed into a genuine event in our profession. All over

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the world, translators take the opportunity to think with pride of

their work and their achievements. From year to year, more

associations in a growing number of countries report on their

activities.

The International Federation of Translators notes thattranslation has established itself as a permanent, universal and

necessary activity in the world of today. It makes intellectual and

material exchanges possible among nations it enriching their life

and contributing to a better understanding amongst men. In spite

of the various circumstances under which it is practised translation

must now be recognized as a distinct and autonomous profession.

There exist general principles connected with this professionparticularly for the purpose of

- stressing the social function of translation,- laying down the rights and duties of translators,

- laying the basis of a translator's code of ethics,

- improving the economic conditions and social climate in which

the translator carries out his activity,

- recommending certain lines of conduct for translators and theirprofessional organizations, and to contribute in this way to the

recognition of translation as a distinct and autonomous profession,

- announcing the text of a charter proposed to serve as guiding

principles for the exercise of the profession of translator.

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LECTURE 3. LEARNING TO BE A TRANSLATOR

Plan

1. The Translator's Charter

1.1. General Obligations of the Translator1.2. Rights of the Translator

2. Translators Societies and Unions

3. National Organizations and the International Federation of

Translators

4. Language Interpreter and Translator Code of Professional

Conduct

5. The Translators Responsibilities

Learning to be a translator entails more than just learning lots of

words and phrases in two or more languages and transfer patterns

between them; more than just what hardware and software to own

and what to charge. It entails also, and perhaps most importantly,

grounding yourself in several key communities or social networks,

in fact in as many as you can manage and as thoroughly as youcan manage in each.

Translators know how languages and cultures interact.

Translators know how the marketplace for interculturalcommunication works (hardware and software, rates, contracts,

etc.). Translators have to be grounded in many social networks,

and will almost always know someone to call or fax or e-mail to

get an answer to a difficult terminological problem so thatbeing grounded in the translator community gives you invaluable

links to many other communities as well. Hence the importance of

belonging to and getting involved in translator organizations,

attending translator conferences, and subscribing to translator

discussion groups on the Internet.

But you should also, of course, be grounded in as many othercommunities as you can: people who use specific specialized

discourses and people who don't; specialists at work, at

professional conferences, and at the bar; people who read and /or

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write for professional journals, or for "general" periodicals for

news, science, and culture, and/or for various popular magazines

and tabloids; people who tell stories, things they saw on or read in

the news, things that happened to them or their friends, jokes

they've heard recently, things they've made up. Translating is, verymuch akin to other forms of reading and writing, telling and

listening; it is a form of communication, a channel for the

circulation of ideas and opinions, information and influence. And

translators have a great deal in common with people who use other

channels for circulating those things both within and between

cultures. It is essential for translators to ground themselves in the

communities that use these channels in at least two languagecommunities, of course this is the major difference between

translators and most other communicators but it helpstranslators to think and act globally to imagine their job as one of

building communicative connections with dozens, perhaps

hundreds, of different social networks all over the world.

Eugene Nida has written:

- translation is transmission;- translators are links in the communicative chain;

- translation is synaptic action in the global brain.

It is not particularly scandalous that few translators have been

kings, princes or priests. There is even a certain pride to be takenin the fact that political and moral authorities have had to trust the

knowledge conveyed by their translating servants. But how mightthe prince know that a particular translator is worthy of trust? It

would be foolish to suggest that all translators are equally

competent, that their fidelity corresponds automatically to what

they are paid, or that their loyalty is beyond doubt. Some kind of

extra-textual support is ultimately necessary. Perhaps the prince's

confidence is based on a diploma from a specialised translation

institute, references from previous employers, comparisons with

other translators, or even on what the individual translator is able

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to say about the practice of translating, since theorization is itself a

mode of professional self-defense.

1. The Translator's Charter (approved by the Congress at

Dubrovnik in 1963, and amended in Oslo on July 9, 1994)

1.1. General Obligations of the Translator

Translation, being an intellectual activity, the object of which is

the transfer of literary, scientific and technical texts from one

language into another, imposes on those who practice it specific

obligations inherent in its very nature.

A translation shall always be made on the sole responsibility ofthe translator, whatever the character of the relationship of

contract which binds him/her to the user.

The translator shall refuse to give to a text an interpretation of

which he/she does not approve, or which would be contrary to the

obligations of his/her profession.Every translation shall be faithful and render exactly the idea

and form of the original this fidelity constituting both a moraland legal obligation for the translator.

A faithful translation, however, should not be confused with a

literal translation, the fidelity of a translation not excluding an

adaptation to make the form, the atmosphere and deeper meaning

of the work felt in another language and country.

The translator shall possess a sound knowledge of the language

from which he/she translates and should, in particular, be a masterof that into which he/she translates.

He/she must likewise have a broad general knowledge and know

sufficiently well the subject matter of the translation and refrain

from undertaking a translation in a field beyond his competence.

The translator shall refrain from any unfair competition in

carrying out his profession; in particular, he/she shall strive for

equitable remuneration and not accept any fee below that whichmay be fixed by law and regulations.

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In general, he/she shall neither seek nor accept work under

conditions humiliating to himself/herself or his/her profession.

The translator shall respect the legitimate interests of the user by

treating as a professional secret any information which may come

into his/her possession as a result of the translation entrusted tohim/her.

Being a "secondary" author, the translator is required to accept

special obligations with respect to the author of the original work.

He/she must obtain from the author of the original work or from

the user authorization to translate a work, and must furthermore

respect all other rights vested in the author.

1.2. Rights of the Translator

Every translator shall enjoy all the rights with respect to the

translation he/she has made, which the country where he/she

exercises his/her activities grants to other intellectual workers.

A translation, being a creation of the intellect, shall enjoy the

legal protection accorded to such works.

The translator is therefore the holder of copyright in his/her

translation and consequently has the same privileges as the authorof the original work.

The translator shall thus enjoy, with respect to his/her

translation, all the moral rights of succession conferred by his/her

authorship.

He/she shall consequently enjoy during his/her lifetime the right

to recognition of his/her authorship of the translation, from whichit follows, inter alia, that

(a) his/her name shall be mentioned clearly and unambiguously

whenever his/her translation is used publicly;

(b) he/she shall be entitled to oppose any distortion, mutilation orother modification of his/her translation;

(c) publishers and other users of his/her translation shall not make

changes therein without the translator's prior consent;(d) he/she shall be entitled to prohibit any improper use of his/her

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translation and, in general, to resist any attack upon it that is

prejudicial to his/her honour or reputation.

Furthermore, the exclusive right to authorize the publication,

presentation, broadcasting, re-translation, adaptation, modification

or other rendering of his/her translation, and, in general, the rightto use his/her translation in any form shall remain with the

translator.

For every public use of his/her translation the translator shall be

entitled to remuneration at a rate fixed by contract or law.

The translator must be assured of living conditions enabling

him/her to carry out with efficiency and dignity the social task

conferred on him/her.The translator shall have a share in the success of his/her work

and shall, in particular, be entitled to remuneration proportional tothe commercial proceeds from the work he/she has translated.

It must be recognized that translation can also arise in the form

of commissioned work and acquire as such rights to remuneration

independent of commercial profits accruing from the work

translated.The translating profession, like other professions, shall enjoy in

every country a protection equal to that afforded to other

professions in that country, by collective agreements, standard

contracts, etc.

Translators in every country shall enjoy the advantages grantedto intellectual workers, and particularly of all social insurance

schemes, such as old-age pensions, health insurance,unemployment benefits and family allowances.

2. Translators Societies and Unions

In common with members of other professions, translators shall

enjoy the right to form professional societies or unions.

In addition to defending the moral and material interests of

translators, these organizations shall have the task of ensuring

improvement in standards of translation and of dealing with all

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other matters concerning translation.

They shall exert their influence on public authorities in the

preparation and introduction of legal measures and regulations

concerning the profession.

They shall strive to maintain permanent relations withorganizations which are users of translations (publishers'

associations, industrial and commercial enterprises, public and

private authorities, the press, etc.) for the purpose of studying and

finding solutions to their common problems.

In watching over the quality of all works translated in their

countries, they shall keep in touch with cultural organizations,

societies of authors, national sections of the Pen Club, literarycritics, learned societies, universities, and technical and scientific

research institutes.They shall be competent to act as arbiters and experts in all

disputes arising between translators and users of translations.

They shall have the right to give advice on the training and

recruitment of translators, and to co-operate with specialized

organizations and universities in the pursuit of these aims.They shall endeavor to collect information of interest to the

profession from all sources and to place it at the disposal of

translators in the form of libraries, files, journals and bulletins, for

which purpose they shall establish theoretical and practical

information services, and organize seminars and meetings.

3. National Organizations and the International Federation ofTranslators

Where several groups of translators exist in a country, organized

either on a regional basis or into different categories, it will be

desirable for these groups to co-ordinate their activities in a

central national organization, at the same time preserving their

identity.

In countries where societies or unions of translators are not yet

in existence, it is suggested that translators should join forces to

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bring about the necessary establishment of such an organization,

in accordance with the relevant legal requirements of their

country.

To ensure the attainment of their aims at world level by

common effort, national translators' organizations are called uponto unite in the Fdration internationale des traducteurs

(International Federation of Translators [FIT]).

Translators shall join their national organizations of their own

free will and the same must apply to the societies with respect to

their association with the International Federation of Translators.

The International Federation of Translators shall defend the

material and moral rights of translators at the international level,keep in touch with progress in theoretical and practical matters

relating to translation, and endeavor to contribute to the spread ofcivilization throughout the world.

The International Federation of Translators shall attain these

objectives by representing translators at the international level,

particularly through relations with governmental, non-

governmental and supranational organizations, by taking part inmeetings likely to be of interest to translators and translation at

the international level, by publishing works, and by organizing or

arranging for the organization of congresses at which questions

concerning translation or translators may be examined.

In general the International Federation of Translators shallextend the activities of the societies of every country at the

international level, co-ordinate their efforts and define its commonpolicy.

The national societies and the International Federation of

Translators, their central organization, derive the strength

necessary for the pursuit of their professional objectives from the

feeling of solidarity existing among translators and from the

dignity oftranslation which contributes to better understanding

among nations and to the spread of culture throughout the world.

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4. Language Interpreter and Translator Code of Professional

Conduct

1. Accuracy: Interpreters/translators shall always thoroughly and

faithfully render the source language message, omitting or addingnothing, giving consideration to linguistic variations in both

source and target languages, conserving the tone and spirit of the

source language message.2. Cultural Sensitivity Courtesy: Interpreters/translators shall

be culturally competent, sensitive, and respectful of the

individual(s) they serve.

3. Confidentiality: Interpreters/translators shall not divulge anyinformation obtained through their assignments, including but not

limited to information gained through access to documents or

other written material.4. Disclosure: Interpreters/translators shall not publicly discuss,

report, or offer an opinion concerning matters in which they are or

have been engaged, even when that information is not privileged

by law to be confidential.5. Proficiency: Interpreters/translators shall meet the minimum

proficiency standard by passing the required certificationexamination or screening evaluation.

6. Compensation: The fee schedule agreed to between the

contracted language service providers and the department shall be

the maximum compensation accepted. Interpreters/translators shall

not accept additional money, compensation, or favor for servicesreimbursed by the department. Interpreters/translators shall not use

for private or others gain or advantage, the department's time,

facilities, equipment, or supplies, nor shall they use or attempt to

use their position to secure privileges or exemptions.

7. Nondiscrimination: Interpreters/translators shall always be

neutral, impartial, and unbiased. Interpreters/translators shall not

discriminate on the basis of gender, disability, race, color, national

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origin, age, socioeconomic or educational status, or religious or

political beliefs.

8. Self-evaluation: Interpreters/translators shall accurately and

completely represent their certifications, training, and experience.

9. Impartiality - Conflict of Interest: Interpreters/translators

shall disclose any real or perceived conflict of interest whichwould affect their objectivity in the delivery of service. Providing

interpreting or translation services for family members or friends

may violate the individual's right to confidentiality, or constitute a

conflict of interest.

10. Professional Demeanor: Interpreters and translators shall be

punctual, prepared, and dressed in a manner appropriate and not

distracting for the situation.

11. Scope of Practice: Interpreters/translators shall not counsel,

refer, give advice, or express personal opinions to individuals for

whom they are interpreting/translating, or engage in any other

activities that may be construed to constitute a service other than

interpreting/translating. Interpreters are prohibited from having

unsupervised access to clients, including but not limited tophoning clients directly.

12. Ethical Violations: Interpreters/translators shall immediately

withdraw from encounters they perceive as violations of this

Code. Any violation of the Code of Professional Conduct maycause termination of the contract.

13. Professional Development: Interpreters/translators shall

develop their skills and knowledge through professional training,

continuing education, and interaction with colleagues and

specialists in related fields.14. This code applies to all persons providing language

interpreting or translation services and must be complied with at

all times.

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5. The Translators Responsibilities

Our work is translating and that is what we are supposed to be

accurate in. Accuracy of the information provided is the

responsibility of the author, not ours. If the author says somethingstupid, that is none of our business.

However, many translators, possibly most, spend too much

time trying to catch faults in the original. They do it for two

possible reasons: for fear that they will be blamed by any

inaccuracy found in the translation, no matter how it originated,

and to show the world and themselves that they are more

competent than the author. Sometimes we think those people are abit ashamed of being "mere" translators. Pity, because doing a

decent translation is quite a tall order.There may be some strategic merit in the above approach,

because it may help us win some popularity with clients and avoid

undeserved criticism. On the other hand, since turnaround times

are always so short, perhaps we should devote our time entirely to

polishing up our work. It is a pity to hear a translator say "I couldhave done a better job if I had a couple more days' time," when

more than a couple days' time were spent doing work that has

nothing to do with translation.

In addition, you start pointing out mistakes in the original and

the client will start demanding that you do this additional job alsoin the future. "How come you didn't notice this?" And there you

will be doing the job of an editor for free. Translating is the bestand deepest form of textual analysis and if you translate as

carefully as you should, source text weaknesses will glare you in

the face but wrong information may pass unnoticed.Disagreements, Mistakes, etc.

John loves a certain musical style; Jane hates it. This is

subjective, a mere difference of opinion, a disagreement. Either

they have endless arguments about it or they agree to disagree and

John uses earphones to listen to his favourite artists.

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John says Paris is the capital of Germany. This is an objective

statement, not an opinion. After a bit of arguing, Jane opens an

atlas or Wikipedia and triumphantly shows John he is wrong. He

has to concede she is right and that is it. Stating that Paris is the

capital of Germany is a mistake.Mistakes, in turn, may be slips, errors and wilful

misstatements. A slip is a mistake that escaped the writer or the

editor; an error is an honest mistake born out of ignorance; a

wilful misstatement is made on purpose.What to do?

If you run across a mere slip, just translate it right and be done

with your job. Don't add a triumphant five-line translator's noteevery time you see principle where principal would be the right

word. That does not show you're more intelligent, but that you're ahuge pain in the ass.

If you find an error, you have to decide whether to correct it or

not. If you correct it, someone will say it was just poetic license

and you should have respected it; if you don't correct it, someone

who never bothered to compa