The Environmental Effects of Mycotoxins

The Environmental Effects of The Environmental Effects of MycotoxinsMycotoxins

UMD – Chemical EcologyUMD – Chemical Ecology

TIP 2ATIP 2A

The Mycotoxin SystemThe Mycotoxin System

The Mycotoxin SystemThe Mycotoxin System

Composed of five interacting systems.Composed of five interacting systems.

Metabolism + Toxicology + Health Metabolism + Toxicology + Health +Wealth + Productivity[1].+Wealth + Productivity[1].

The Spoilage SystemThe Spoilage System

The Role of Key Words in Spoilage The Role of Key Words in Spoilage System System

Temperature:Temperature: High-temperature stress is one of the major determining factors in High-temperature stress is one of the major determining factors in

mold infestation and toxin production.mold infestation and toxin production.

Specific crop growth stagesSpecific crop growth stages:: Specific depths are set for each growth Specific depths are set for each growth stage, in particular to assist plant establishmentstage, in particular to assist plant establishment

Poor fertility:Poor fertility: Mycotoxins are included in the toxic substances that often Mycotoxins are included in the toxic substances that often occur in animal feeds, posing a serious menace to animals ingesting them ; for occur in animal feeds, posing a serious menace to animals ingesting them ; for example acting directly and indirectly on pig fertility.example acting directly and indirectly on pig fertility.

High crop densitiesHigh crop densities: Has been associated with increased mold growth and : Has been associated with increased mold growth and

toxin productiontoxin production Weed competition:Weed competition: Increases theIncreases the incidence rate of mycotoxinsincidence rate of mycotoxins

Molds and mycotoxins of world-Molds and mycotoxins of world-wide importancewide importance

Mold species Mycotoxins producedMold species Mycotoxins producedAspergillus parasiticusAspergillus parasiticus Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2

Aspergillus flavusAspergillus flavus Aflatoxins B1, B2Aflatoxins B1, B2

Fusarium sporotrichioidesFusarium sporotrichioides T-2 toxinT-2 toxin

Fusarium graminearumFusarium graminearum Deoxynivalenol (or nivalenol)ZearalenoneDeoxynivalenol (or nivalenol)Zearalenone

Fusarium moniliforme (F. verticillioides) Fusarium moniliforme (F. verticillioides) Fumonisin B1Fumonisin B1

Penicillium verrucosumPenicillium verrucosum Ochratoxin AOchratoxin A

Aspergillus ochraceusAspergillus ochraceus Ochratoxin AOchratoxin A

Source[2]Source[2]

The co-occurrence of mycotoxinsThe co-occurrence of mycotoxins

Adequate time, temperature or humidity Adequate time, temperature or humidity controlscontrols

Food grade packagingFood grade packaging

Potable water suppliesPotable water supplies

Maintenance of equipment[2]Maintenance of equipment[2]

The Socio-Economic SystemThe Socio-Economic System The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that 25% of the world's food crops are affected by The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that 25% of the world's food crops are affected by

mycotoxins, of which the most notorious are aflatoxins. [3]mycotoxins, of which the most notorious are aflatoxins. [3]

In many developing countries, the combination of insufficient drying and humid atmospheric conditions In many developing countries, the combination of insufficient drying and humid atmospheric conditions results in unacceptable levels of aflatoxin in harvested maize, groundnuts, tree nuts and other foods[9]results in unacceptable levels of aflatoxin in harvested maize, groundnuts, tree nuts and other foods[9]

In Africa, fifteen countries, accounting approximately 59 percent of the continent’s population, were known to have specific mycotoxin regulations in 2003 ([9]

SocialSocial FactorsFactors

Concerns about social and ethical values among consumers of organic food Concerns about social and ethical values among consumers of organic food include; include;

Providing assurance that consumer concerns are metProviding assurance that consumer concerns are met

Identification of quality focused critical control points in organic food Identification of quality focused critical control points in organic food

Examples of identified critical control pointsExamples of identified critical control points

The organizational and educational requirements for utilizing this concept in The organizational and educational requirements for utilizing this concept in real supply chainsreal supply chains

CulturalCultural FactorsFactorsAflatoxins are considered unavoidable contaminants of food and feed, even where good manufacturing Aflatoxins are considered unavoidable contaminants of food and feed, even where good manufacturing

practices have been followed. The FDA has established specific guidelines on acceptable levels of practices have been followed. The FDA has established specific guidelines on acceptable levels of aflatoxins in human food and animal feed by establishing action levels that allow for the removal of aflatoxins in human food and animal feed by establishing action levels that allow for the removal of violative lots from commerce[5]violative lots from commerce[5]

Cultural practices, including crop rotation, tillage, planting date, and management of irrigation and fertilization, Cultural practices, including crop rotation, tillage, planting date, and management of irrigation and fertilization, have limited effects on infection and subsequent mycotoxin accumulation.have limited effects on infection and subsequent mycotoxin accumulation.

Current infrastructure and grain storage practices in developed countries can prevent postharvest Current infrastructure and grain storage practices in developed countries can prevent postharvest development of mycotoxins, but this aspect remains a threat in developing countries, especially in development of mycotoxins, but this aspect remains a threat in developing countries, especially in tropical areas[9]tropical areas[9]

Figure 1[5]Figure 1[5]

PoliticalPolitical FactorsFactors

All nations have the right and the duty to protect their citizens from the harmful effects that undesirable substances in food may cause.

The impact of an intentional act of mycotoxin contamination could be severe; with potential public health The impact of an intentional act of mycotoxin contamination could be severe; with potential public health outcomes involving high mortality and devastating economic consequences stemming from the outcomes involving high mortality and devastating economic consequences stemming from the corresponding impact on the healthcare system, public fear, and avoidance of affected products[6].corresponding impact on the healthcare system, public fear, and avoidance of affected products[6].

International enquiries on existing mycotoxin legislation in foodstuffs and animal feedingstuffs have been International enquiries on existing mycotoxin legislation in foodstuffs and animal feedingstuffs have been carried out several times in the 1980s and 1990s and details about tolerances, legal bases, responsible carried out several times in the 1980s and 1990s and details about tolerances, legal bases, responsible authorities, official protocols of analysis and sampling have been published[3]. authorities, official protocols of analysis and sampling have been published[3].

Several other factors may influence the establishment of mycotoxin limits and regulations. These include: Several other factors may influence the establishment of mycotoxin limits and regulations. These include: availability of toxicological data of mycotoxins, availability of exposure data of mycotoxins, knowledge availability of toxicological data of mycotoxins, availability of exposure data of mycotoxins, knowledge of the distribution of mycotoxin, concentrations within a lot, availability of analytical methods, of the distribution of mycotoxin, concentrations within a lot, availability of analytical methods, legislation in other countries with which trade contacts exist, need for sufficient food supply[9]legislation in other countries with which trade contacts exist, need for sufficient food supply[9]

THE CONTROL SYSTEMTHE CONTROL SYSTEM

Identification of steps in the Commodity Flow where mycotoxin contamination is most likely to occur :Identification of steps in the Commodity Flow where mycotoxin contamination is most likely to occur :

Identification of mycotoxin hazardIdentification of mycotoxin hazard:: First consider which, if any, of the mycotoxins known to First consider which, if any, of the mycotoxins known to constitute a food safety hazard are likely to be present.constitute a food safety hazard are likely to be present.

Possible Mycotoxin Control Possible Mycotoxin Control Measures: The most effective mycotoxin control measures is to dry the Measures: The most effective mycotoxin control measures is to dry the commodity such that the water activity (aw) is too low to support mould growth and/or prevent mycotoxin commodity such that the water activity (aw) is too low to support mould growth and/or prevent mycotoxin production[3].production[3]. A control measure is any action and activity that can be used to prevent or eliminate a food A control measure is any action and activity that can be used to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard, or reduce it to an acceptable level.safety hazard, or reduce it to an acceptable level.

Determine Critical Control Points (CCPs): Can be achieved using a well designed decision tree, if Determine Critical Control Points (CCPs): Can be achieved using a well designed decision tree, if necessary, to supplement the knowledge and experience of the HACCP teamnecessary, to supplement the knowledge and experience of the HACCP team

Establish a monitoring system for each CCP: Establish a monitoring system for each CCP: The monitoring system must be a scheduled The monitoring system must be a scheduled measurement, usually of a basic parameter such as temperature or time, to detect any measurement, usually of a basic parameter such as temperature or time, to detect any deviation from the critical limits.[3]deviation from the critical limits.[3]

Effects of Mycotoxin on health and Effects of Mycotoxin on health and EnvironmentEnvironment

Aflotoxins are Carcinogenic, teratogenic, immunosuppressiveAflotoxins are Carcinogenic, teratogenic, immunosuppressive

Synergistic with hepatitis B and C virusesSynergistic with hepatitis B and C viruses

In India more than 20 million people are carriers[3] of AflotoxinsIn India more than 20 million people are carriers[3] of Aflotoxins

Affect health of human beings, cattle, sheep, poultry and ducks[7]Affect health of human beings, cattle, sheep, poultry and ducks[7]

Environmental conditions that favor fungal development in crops and commodities, and lack of regulatory Environmental conditions that favor fungal development in crops and commodities, and lack of regulatory systems for aflatoxin monitoring and control.systems for aflatoxin monitoring and control.

In warm, humid developing countries, regular mycotoxin presence in the diet affects human populations In warm, humid developing countries, regular mycotoxin presence in the diet affects human populations and domesticated animals, causing morbidity and premature deaths and domesticated animals, causing morbidity and premature deaths

Mycotoxins and the health of Mycotoxins and the health of humans and livestockhumans and livestock

Figure 2[8]Figure 2[8]

Why should we study themWhy should we study themUbiquitous in many foods, especially consumable food products in developing countriesUbiquitous in many foods, especially consumable food products in developing countries

Three ICRISAT mandate crops are contaminated: groundnut, sorghum and millet. ICRISAT believes in the Three ICRISAT mandate crops are contaminated: groundnut, sorghum and millet. ICRISAT believes in the potential of biotechnology to enhance the speed, precision, efficiency and value addition in many aspects potential of biotechnology to enhance the speed, precision, efficiency and value addition in many aspects of its crop improvement efforts[10].of its crop improvement efforts[10].

Many commodities used along with our mandate crops in foods and feeds are contaminated.Many commodities used along with our mandate crops in foods and feeds are contaminated.

Mycotoxins and the pathologies they induce are becoming a world-wide preoccupation and a cause of Mycotoxins and the pathologies they induce are becoming a world-wide preoccupation and a cause of serious economic and sanitary problems.serious economic and sanitary problems.

In Tunisia a clear cut correlation has been found between the consumption of food contaminated by In Tunisia a clear cut correlation has been found between the consumption of food contaminated by toxigenic fungi and specific pathologies. Clinical and laboratory-based studies performed in our toxigenic fungi and specific pathologies. Clinical and laboratory-based studies performed in our laboratory provide a mechanistic explanation for the toxic effects of some mycotoxinslaboratory provide a mechanistic explanation for the toxic effects of some mycotoxins [11][11]

TWO IMPORTANT ISSUESTWO IMPORTANT ISSUES

DIAGNOSISDIAGNOSIS Cost-effective tools (immuno-logical, ELISA-based)Cost-effective tools (immuno-logical, ELISA-based)

Adaptable to developing countriesAdaptable to developing countries

MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTContamination can occur at pre-harvest, during harvest and post-harvest storageContamination can occur at pre-harvest, during harvest and post-harvest storage

Experiments conducted to understand the factors contributing to contaminationExperiments conducted to understand the factors contributing to contamination

Important for international tradeImportant for international trade

Figure 3[8]Figure 3[8]

Source: Dr. MVLN Raju, Project Source: Dr. MVLN Raju, Project Directorate on Poultry (ICAR),Directorate on Poultry (ICAR),Rajendranagar 500 030Rajendranagar 500 030

Interactant factorsInteractant factorsFigure 4[8]Figure 4[8]

Many factors make the process of Many factors make the process of mycotoxin prevention hardmycotoxin prevention hard

. . On the field, fungi contamination is very hard to prevent;On the field, fungi contamination is very hard to prevent;

.  Mycotoxins are very stable substances thus their elimination is a very complex .  Mycotoxins are very stable substances thus their elimination is a very complex issue;issue;

.Mycotoxins can be bound with certain plant nutrients which makes them .Mycotoxins can be bound with certain plant nutrients which makes them undetectable to most of the analytic procedures (“masked” mycotoxins);undetectable to most of the analytic procedures (“masked” mycotoxins);  

.Different mycotoxins are often produced by the same fungi leading to synergistic .Different mycotoxins are often produced by the same fungi leading to synergistic effects in the animals;effects in the animals;

. There are many animal factors influencing animal’s response to mycotoxins . There are many animal factors influencing animal’s response to mycotoxins (interactant factors).(interactant factors).

References:References:

[1] Coker, R D (1997). Mycotoxins and their control: constraints and opportunities. NRI [1] Coker, R D (1997). Mycotoxins and their control: constraints and opportunities. NRI

Bulletin 73. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.Bulletin 73. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.

[2]Miller, J D (1991) Significance of grain mycotoxins for health and nutrition. pp 126-135. In: [2]Miller, J D (1991) Significance of grain mycotoxins for health and nutrition. pp 126-135. In: Fungi and Mycotoxins in Stored ProductsFungi and Mycotoxins in Stored Products. Champ, B R, Highley, E, Hocking, A D and Pitt, . Champ, B R, Highley, E, Hocking, A D and Pitt, J I (eds). ACIAR Proceedings No. 36. Canberra, Australia.J I (eds). ACIAR Proceedings No. 36. Canberra, Australia.

[3] Van Egmond, H O & Dekker, W H (1997). Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in 1995 - A compendium. [3] Van Egmond, H O & Dekker, W H (1997). Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in 1995 - A compendium.

FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 64, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 64, FAO, Rome, ItalyFAO, Rome, Italy..[4] JECFA (1996a). Ochratoxin A: A safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. WHO Food [4] JECFA (1996a). Ochratoxin A: A safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. WHO Food

Additive Series, 35, pp 363-376. Additive Series, 35, pp 363-376.

[5] Mycotoxins: Occurrence and Control in Foods(2005). Retrieved from [5] Mycotoxins: Occurrence and Control in Foods(2005). Retrieved from http://www.foodtech-international.com/papers/mycotoxins.htm on 05-13-09http://www.foodtech-international.com/papers/mycotoxins.htm on 05-13-09

[6][6] JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 71, Nr. 5, 2006. Retrieved from JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 71, Nr. 5, 2006. Retrieved from

http://members.ift.org/NR/rdonlyres/62024337-FB0E-4952-AD9F-55E860551809/0/mycotoxins.pdfhttp://members.ift.org/NR/rdonlyres/62024337-FB0E-4952-AD9F-55E860551809/0/mycotoxins.pdf on 05-13-09 on 05-13-09

ReferencesReferences[7] Schiefer, H B, Hancock, D S and Bhatti, A R (1986) Systemic effects of topically applied [7] Schiefer, H B, Hancock, D S and Bhatti, A R (1986) Systemic effects of topically applied trichothecenes. I. Comparative study of various trichothecenes in mice. trichothecenes. I. Comparative study of various trichothecenes in mice. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 33A, 373-383.Bhavanishankar, T N, Ramesh, H P and Shantha, T (1988) Dermal toxicity of 33A, 373-383.Bhavanishankar, T N, Ramesh, H P and Shantha, T (1988) Dermal toxicity of FusariumFusarium toxins toxins in combinations. Archives of Toxicology, 61, 241-244.in combinations. Archives of Toxicology, 61, 241-244.[8] Mycotoxins: (2000): diagnostics & Management International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-[8] Mycotoxins: (2000): diagnostics & Management International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru 502324, India. Retrieved from Arid Tropics, Patancheru 502324, India. Retrieved from http://www.aflatoxin.info/mycotoxins.asphttp://www.aflatoxin.info/mycotoxins.asp

[9] AFRO Food Safety Newsletter Issue No 2. July 2006[9] AFRO Food Safety Newsletter Issue No 2. July 2006

World Health Organization Food Safety (FOS). Retrieved from World Health Organization Food Safety (FOS). Retrieved from http://www.afro.who.int/des/fos/afro_codex-fact-sheets/newsletter_0706.pdf 0n 05-04-09http://www.afro.who.int/des/fos/afro_codex-fact-sheets/newsletter_0706.pdf 0n 05-04-09

[10]Internationational Crop Research Institute For the Semi Arid Tropics(2009). Retrieved from [10]Internationational Crop Research Institute For the Semi Arid Tropics(2009). Retrieved from http://www.icrisat.org/vision/p2_chapter3.htm on 05-09-09http://www.icrisat.org/vision/p2_chapter3.htm on 05-09-09

[11] Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicosis in Tunisia: What do We Know and What Do We Need to Know? (2009). [11] Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicosis in Tunisia: What do We Know and What Do We Need to Know? (2009). Retrieved from http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a907270408~db=allRetrieved from http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a907270408~db=all

Quiz Quiz True or FalseTrue or False

1. Feeds that are visibly moldy are at high risk for mycotoxin contamination? 1. Feeds that are visibly moldy are at high risk for mycotoxin contamination? FF

2. The mycotoxin system is composed of six interaction systems. 2. The mycotoxin system is composed of six interaction systems. FF

3. High-temperature stress is one of the major determining factors in mold infestation and toxin 3. High-temperature stress is one of the major determining factors in mold infestation and toxin

production. production. T T

4. Mycotoxins are included in the toxic substances that often occur in animal feeds, posing a serious menace to 4. Mycotoxins are included in the toxic substances that often occur in animal feeds, posing a serious menace to animals ingesting them ; for example acting directly and indirectly on pig fertility. animals ingesting them ; for example acting directly and indirectly on pig fertility. TT

5. The color of molds on crops is a good indicator of mycotoxin contamination potential? 5. The color of molds on crops is a good indicator of mycotoxin contamination potential? FF

6. Cultural practices, including crop rotation, tillage, planting date, and management of irrigation and 6. Cultural practices, including crop rotation, tillage, planting date, and management of irrigation and fertilization, have limited effects on infection and subsequent mycotoxin accumulation. fertilization, have limited effects on infection and subsequent mycotoxin accumulation. TT 7. All nations have the right and the duty to protect their citizens from the harmful effects that undesirable 7. All nations have the right and the duty to protect their citizens from the harmful effects that undesirable substances in food may cause. substances in food may cause. TT8. Determining Critical Control Points (CCPs) cannot be achieved using a well designed decision tree, if 8. Determining Critical Control Points (CCPs) cannot be achieved using a well designed decision tree, if necessary, to supplement the knowledge and experience of the HACCP team. necessary, to supplement the knowledge and experience of the HACCP team. FF9. Aflotoxins are Carcinogenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive. 9. Aflotoxins are Carcinogenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive. TT10. One of the reasons we should study mycotoxins is because they are Ubiquitous in many foods, especially 10. One of the reasons we should study mycotoxins is because they are Ubiquitous in many foods, especially consumable food products in developing countries. consumable food products in developing countries. TT