The Enlightenment Thinkers - WordPress.com€¦ · The Enlightenment Thinkers believed that human progress was possible. Central to this belief were three fundamental ideas. 1. Individualism:

The Enlightenment Thinkers

Individualism, Relativism and Rationalism ‘Three fundamental ideas, encompassing everything that the Age of Enlightenment stood

for.’

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“I think, therefore I am” Rene Descartes

The Age of Enlightenment 1650-1800

The Enlightenment

Thinkers believed

that human progress

was possible.

Central to this belief were three fundamental ideas.

1. Individualism: emphasized the importance of the

individual and their inborn rights.

2. Relativism: Concept that different cultures, beliefs

ideas, and values had equal merit.

3. Rationalism: Conviction that with the power of

reason, humans could arrive at the truth and improve

the world.

The Enlightenment

Thinkers and their

ideas.

Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679: Wrote ‘Leviathan’ and

stated that Humans exist in a ‘primitive state of

nature’ and consent to the government for protection.

John Locke 1634-1704: Wrote ‘Two Treatises on

Government’ and stated that people are sovereign and

consent to government for protection of natural rights

to life, liberty and property.

Montesquieu 1869-1755: Wrote ‘The Spirit of Laws’

where he stated the best form of government included

the separation of powers.

Jean Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778: Wrote the ‘Social

Contract’ stating that the Government is a contract

between rulers and the people.

Voltaire 1694-1778: Believed that religious toleration

should triumph over religious fanaticism and the

church should be separate from the state.

Question Time :)

1. Is there a common theme, or idea between the thoughts and works of the enlightenment thinkers?

2. What issues do you think society was facing at that time?

3. What is meant by ‘three fundamental ideas’?

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“Human beings are licensed by Nature to undertake whatever actions are

necessary for their survival. The human condition is therefore one of

conflict” Thomas Hobbes Do you agree or disagree with the

opinion of Thomas Hobbes?

Leviathan ‘The

Social Contract’.

Thomas Hobbes is the author of Leviathan, which some

historians believe is one of the ‘greatest works of

political philosophy ever written’.

Your task is to analyse the cover of the book written

by Thomas Hobbes. You need to describe what you

see, and from the pictures infer what you think the

book is about, as part of you analysis, and the fact

below. You should include your knowledge of the title

of the book in your analysis too.

FACT: The Leviathan is known as a sea monster. It is synonymous with any large sea monster and known as one of the seven princes of hell.

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The Social Contract.

Thomas Hobbes identifies the first law of nature, “man is forbidden to do that

which is destructive of his life or take away the means of preserving his life,

and to omit that by which he thinks it may be preserved.” [Leviathan Ch VI] Thomas Hobbes believed that self preservation is rationally sought by communal

agreement with others, helping him to establish his second law of nature, “man

is willing when others are too, for ones peace and defence, shall think it

necessary to lay down this right to all things and be happy with so much

liberty as he would allow against other men.

But if other men will not lay down their right, then there is no need to lay

down ones own rights. Whatsoever you require you require others do to you,

that you will do to them”

Hobbes believes that the Social Contract is the ‘mutual transferring of right’. In

the state of nature, everyone has the right to everything, there are no limits to

the right of natural liberty. The social contract is the agreement by which

individuals transfer their natural right.

Natural Right vs Limited Right

According to Hobbes there is no limits to people’s natural liberty. That means

that if you have an iPad2 then I can steal it from you and keep it, after all there

are no limits to my liberty. But what about your liberty? Does this mean that you

can then steal my MacBook? Reflect on what the consequences of those actions

would be?

Hobbes says that individuals give up their natural right to steal from one another,

to create a limited right, in this example, the right to property.

Hobbes states that we do not write out explicit contracts on this because we are

born into a civil society with laws, conventions and contracts already in place.

Does Hobbes’ first law of nature connect with his view on Natural Rights vs Limited Rights?

Does the theory of Natural Rights vs Limited Rights always work in practice?

“It is natural and rational for people to give up some liberty in order to gain security of self preservation” Thomas Hobbes.

Do you agree or disagree with this statement?

“The Social Contract is the mutual transferring of right.” Thomas Hobbes.

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Questions.

1. Explain whether Hobbes’ ideas

connect with the three fundamental

ideas of the Enlightenment Age?

2. Using your knowledge of divine

right, explain the issues Thomas

Hobbes faced at that time?

3. Analyse whether you see any

problems with Hobbes’ first and

second laws of nature?

4. Evaluate whether governments

have the right to block our liberty to

use Facebook in times of crisis?

Legitimate Government

Hobbes stated that society consents to the

government to protect them. In other words,

society is happy for the Government to

create the laws, conventions and rules to

help society live together peacefully.

Hobbes was interested in presenting a

legitimate government. He states that the

function of the Government is to enforce the

law and serve common protection.

He argued that where the Government

protects the strong over the weak, then they

have exceeded their legitimate function.

In Hobbes’ time, rulers claimed their

authority to rule was divine right, granted by

God, like Louis XIV of France.

Hobbes supported the monarchy, but said

that the authority to govern came not from

the divine right from God, but on the

grounds of reasoned principles.

In this case, it is believed to be the consent

of the people to allow the government to

rule for them, for the protection of society.

Summary of Thomas Hobbes

Wrote the Leviathan, which is about political

philosophy.

Believed man to live in a primitive state of

nature.

Created the Social Contract, where society

consents to be governed by rulers for self

preservation.

Man has natural rights, like liberty which

they give up for limited rights, and security.

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“All mankind... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions.” John Locke

John Locke was an English political theorist who focused on the structure of

governments. Locke believed that men are all rational and capable people but

must compromise some of their beliefs in the interest of forming a government

for the people. In his famous Two Treatises of Government (1690), he

championed the idea of a representative government that would best serve all

constituents (the people).

Locke preached the doctrine that men naturally possess certain large rights:

life,

liberty, and

property.

Rulers, he said, derived their power only from the consent of the people. He

thought that government should be like a contract between the rulers and his

subjects: The people give up certain of their rights in return for just rule, and

the ruler should hold his power only so long as he uses it justly. These ideas had

a tremendous effect on all future political thinking. The American Declaration of

Independence clearly reflects Locke's teachings.

Locke was always very interested in psychology. About 1670, friends urged him to

write a paper on the limitations of human judgment. He started to write a few

paragraphs, but 20

years passed

before he finished.

The result was his

great and famous

'Essay Concerning

Human

Understanding'. In

this work he

stressed the theory

that the human

mind starts as a tabula rasa (smoothed tablet)--that is, a waxed tablet ready to

be used for writing. The mind has no inborn ideas, as most men of the time

believed. Throughout life it forms its ideas only from impressions (sense

experiences) that are made upon its surface.

“Man is like an iPad” what John Locke might have said today.

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Two Treatises of Government by John Locke.

accept them and because they are for the public good.

In chapter ii, Locke claims that all men are originally in a state

of nature. A man in this original state is bound by the laws of

nature, but he is otherwise able to live, act, and dispose of his

possessions as he sees fit.

More important, human beings, free from the arbitrary laws of

other men, have an obligation to protect the interests of each

other, since they are all equally children of God. They also

have an obligation to punish those who go against God’s will

and attempt to harm another by compromising his life, liberty,

or possessions.

In chapters iii and iv, Locke outlines the differences between

the state of nature and the state of war. The state of nature

involves people living together, governed by reason, without

the need for a common superior. The state of war occurs when

people exert unwelcome force on other people, interfering

with their own natural rights and freedom, without common

authority.

The difference between war in society and war in nature

depends on when they end. In society, war ends when the act

of force, such as fighting is over. When the last blow has been

thrown, both parties can appeal to common authorities for the

final resolution of past wrongs.

But in nature, war does not end until the aggressive party

offers peace and offers to repair the damage done.

Locke believes that people enter into society to avoid the state

of war.

The Chapter v deals with the definition and function of

property. Whether by natural reason or the word of the Bible,

the earth can be considered the property of all the people in

the world to use for their collective survival and benefit.

But Locke also believes in individual property. For individual

properties to exist, there must be away for individuals to

take possession of the things around them.

Locke explains that the best theory of right to ownership is

the fact that each person owns their body, and all the labour

they do with that body. So when an individual adds their own

physical labour which is his own property to another object,

it is their possession. I type on my Macbook therefore, it is

mine!

The rest of the Treatise is devoted to a more specific critique

of government, stressing the rule of the majority as the most

practical choice for government. He identifies three elements

necessary for a civil society: a common established law, a

known and impartial body to give judgment, and the power to

support such judgments. He calls for a government with

different branches, including a strong legislature, and an

active executive who does not outstrip the lawmakers in

power. Toward the end of the Treatise, Locke finally arrives

at the question of forming a new government. When the state

ceases to function for the people, it dissolves or is

overthrown and may be replaced. When the government is

dissolved, the people are free to reform the legislative to

create a new civil state that works in their best interest,

without resorting to force, hence no unrest or rebellion.

Locke, like Hobbes disagrees with the theory

of divine right of a King to rule. Locke

refuses to accept such a theory because of

his belief in reason and in the ability of

every man to virtuously govern himself

according to God’s law. The Second Treatise

is Locke’s proposed solution to the political

upheaval in England and in other modern

countries. This text laid the foundation for

modern forms of democracy and for the

Constitution of the United States.

In chapter i, Locke defines political power

as the right to make laws for the protection

and regulation of property. In his view,

these laws only work because the people

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Questions.

1. Explain whether Locke’s ideas

connect with the three fundamental

ideas of the Enlightenment Age?

2. Explain what would happen if

people did not agree that the laws

created were for their benefit.

3. Evaluate whether in today’s

world we live in a state of nature or

a state of war, with examples to

support your answer.

Activities

In groups or pairs complete the

following:

1. State Locke’s definition of

political power.

2. Explain the meaning of ‘arbitrary

laws’.

3. Contrast the State of Nature with

the State of War

4. Explain how a war in society ends,

and how the ending differs from a

war in nature?

Summary of John Locke

Political theorist who wrote Treatises of

Government.

Man has three rights, the right to life, liberty

and property.

Rulers rule by the consent of the people, and

must rule justly.

Laws only work if people believe they are for

the public good, or benefit to the public.

Argues for the separation of powers.

Three elements necessary for a civilized

society, an established common law, an

impartial body to give judgment and the

power to support the judgments.

If rulers rule unjustly, the people have the

right to change their government, since they

have broken the consent with the people.

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“The less men think, the more they talk.” Charles Montesquieu The foremost French political thinker of the Enlightenment, whose most influential book, The Spirit of Laws, expanded John Locke’s political study and incorporated the ideas of a division of state and separation of powers. Montesquieu’s work also ventured into sociology: he spent a considerable amount of time researching various cultures and their climates, ultimately deducing that climate is a major factor in determining the type of government a given country should have.

Forms of Government according to Montesquieu.

Republican Democracy Republican Aristocracy Monarchial Despotic

Who wields the power? People as a body hold supreme power within.

People as a body hold supreme power within.

Citizenship is restricted to select few.

Single person holds supreme power within the confines established and

fixed laws

Single ruler unfettered by laws, whose will dominates

the entire state.

How do they rule? People can delegate (by voting) for elected persons

to rule for them.

People can delegate (by voting) for elected persons

to rule for them.

Core laws which are subordinate to the ruler,

but mediate his rule.

Breaks the spirit of rule. Only has to threaten and

people will obey.

Principles driving the system. (A spring or motor which motivates behaviour

of citizens that will support the form of

government to make it function smoothly)

Love of Virtue: Willingness to put the interests of the community before private

interests, and that of equality. Virtues are a key

part of any democracy. Without virtues, the republic becomes an

empty shell

Virtues not deemed a necessity. The nobles must

have virtues, so they do not act in self interest.

Love of Honour: Desire to attain rank and privilege. Laws replace all virtues. If

no-one sees an action it has no legal consequence. Honour is more important

for a monarchial government to suceed.

Fear of the Ruler: Honour is dangerous in a despotic government, and virtues

are non existent. Only fear prevails and all men are

slaves.

The above table is a summary of Montesquieu’s Constitutional Theory, which he set out in his book, the Spirit of Laws. Montesquieu believed that if a political system failed, it was because the appropriate principle is lacking. Thus, as we have seen last year, when the fear of a ruler is gone, then the leader will fall, as the world witnessed in Libya 2011.

This is only the first section of his book. In the second part of his book, Montesquieu looks at Liberty and the Separation of Powers, and the third section looks at Climate, culture and society.

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Liberty & the Separation of Powers.

Climate Culture Society Montesquieu distinguishes between ‘Political Liberty’ and Liberty.

Montesquieu states that liberty and democracy are not the same.

He also states that liberty is not being able to do what you want, when you want to, without any constraints.

Montesquieu does seem to share the views of Thomas Hobbes and his Social Contract.

Montesquieu wrote that geography and climate interact with particular cultures to produce the ‘spirit of the people’.

Montesquieu believed that this spirit inclines people toward certain political and social institutions and away from others.

“Political liberty is not possible in a despotic government, but is possible but not guaranteed in a republic or monarchy” Charles Montesquieu. Do you agree or disagree?

Montesquieu believes to establish political liberty you need the separation of the powers of government and appropriate civil and criminal laws to ensure personal security.

Separation of the Powers of Government.

Montesquieu developed John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government and said that the Executive, Legislative, and Judicial functions should be assigned to different bodies. This was to prevent one of the branches of government from infringing the political liberty, and that the other two branches would restrain it, or act as a check and balance of its use of power.

Appropriate Civil & Criminal Laws. Montesquieu argued for a robust procedural due process, including the right to a fair trial, the right to be considered innocent until proven guilty and proportionality in the severity of the punishment (punishment fits the crime).

Montesquieu also argued for the abolition of slavery, and for freedom of opinion and association.

Executive Functions Legislative Functions Judicial Functions

“There reigns in Asia a servile spirit, which they have never been able to shake off and it is impossible to find in all the histories of that country a single passage that discovers freedom of spirit; we shall never see anything there but the excess of slavery.” Charles Montesquieu. Do you agree or disagree?

Questions.

1. Explain which form of government Montesquieu favoured and why.

2. Is the form of government which Montesquieu favoured the same form of government we have in Malaysia today?

3. Explain how the works of Montesquieu has been influenced by the work of his contemporaries.

4.Explain whether the work of Montesquieu connect with the three fundamental ideas of the Enlightenment Period. Evaluate the strength of the connection.

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Summary of Charles Montesquieu

French political writer who wrote The Spirit

of Laws.

Believed that there were four forms of

government, Republican Democracy,

Aristocratic Democracy, Monarchial and

Despotic.

Believed that Principles drove each form of

government, and the reason they would fail

was because the Principle was not followed.

Agreed with John Locke, that a successful

government should have separation of

powers.

Believed in Political Liberty, and in the

creation of civil and criminal laws.

His thoughts played a vital role in the

American Declaration of Independence.

Below is a diagram explaining the separation of powers as written by John Locke and Montesquieu which was used by

the Founding Fathers of America, to create the system which still exists today.

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“Man is born free; but is everywhere in chains” Jean Jacques Rousseau Jean Jacques Rousseau was an eclectic Swiss-French thinker who brought his own approach to the Enlightenment. He believed that man was at his best when unshackled by the conventions of society.

In 1754 he wrote the Discourse on the Origins and Foundations of Inequality, which reemphasized the natural goodness of man and the corrupting influences of institutionalized life.

In his work, The Social Contract (1762) he wrote about a system of direct democracy where all citizens surrender their rights and possessions to contribute to an overarching general will, that serves everyone at once. This is the Social Contract.

Later in his life, Rousseau released Confessions, which brought a previously unheard of degree of personal disclosure to the genre of autobiography. The frank, personal and emotional discussions were a major cause for the shift towards Romanticism.

With the famous phrase, “man is born free, but he is everywhere in chains,”

Rousseau asserts that modern states repress the physical freedom that is our

birthright, and do nothing to secure the civil freedom for the sake of which we enter

into civil society.

Legitimate political authority comes only from a social contract agreed upon by all

citizens (who are the sovereign) for their mutual preservation.

Rousseau explained that while each individual has a particular will that aims for his

own best interest, the sovereign expresses the general will that aims for the common

good. The sovereign only has authority over matters of public concern, but its

authority is absolute, and those that violated the Social Contract should be

sentenced to death.

The sovereign exercises legislative power through laws, but states also need a

government to exercise executive power (day to day running).

Rousseau like Montesquieu believed that the forms of government can be democracy,

aristocracy and monarchy, depending on the size of the state. He believed Monarchy

The general will is that all laws must ensure liberty and equality; beyond that they may vary depending on local circumstances.

Rousseau points out that the government is distinct from the sovereign, but predicts

that the two are almost always in friction, which can destroy a healthy state.

Rousseau wrote that the people will exercise their sovereignty by meeting in regular

assemblies, and all should attend, as participation is essential to the well being of

the state.

When voting in assemblies, people should not vote for what they want personally,

but for what they believe is the general will.

In a healthy state the results of these votes should be unanimous.

To prove even larger states can assemble their citizens, Rousseau gave the example

of the Roman Republic.

In an emergency, Rousseau recommended the establishment of a tribunal to mediate

between government and sovereign, and government and people, and that a brief

dictatorship may be necessary.

Rousseau said that while everyone should be free to practice their personal beliefs in

private, the state should require citizens to observe a public religion that encourages

good citizenship.

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“Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” Jean Jacques Rousseau

Summary of Jean Jacques Rosseau.

Wrote the highly influential book, The Social Contract.

Believed that modern states repressed our birthright

of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.

Under his version of direct democracy, citizens gave

up their rights and possessions to contribute to the

overarching aim of the general will, or greater good.

The General Will is that all laws will ensure liberty and

equality.

Sovereign (people) should meet regularly at

assemblies.

Most not vote for self interest but the general will.

Votes should be unanimously decided.

To break the Social Contract would mean death to

that person.

Questions

1. Critically Evaluate the following quote, “Man is born free,

but he is everywhere in chains.” To what extent do you believe

this to be true in modern society?

2. Explain Rousseau’s thoughts on Democracies, Monarchies and

Aristocracies.

3. Analyse the following statement: ‘The Theory of Good Will

works in theory and in practice.’

4. Explain whether you agree or disagree with the following

statement, ‘Dictatorships are a necessary evil in democracies’.

When the Social Contract was first published, it was met with outrage and censorship in France and Geneva, and Rousseau

became a wanted man.

However, 32 years later after the French Revolution, his remains were transported to the Pantheon in France, and he was

buried as a national hero.

The social contract was the biggest influence on the intellectual development of the French Revolution, and that stormy period

in history is our best example of Rousseau’s ideas put into practice.

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French System English System

Education Rene Descartes, brilliant mathematician taught that deductive reasoning was the only sure path to knowledge. God had planted innate ideas in us, by careful reasoning we could tease out the truth.

Francis Bacon put forward the inductive and experimental mode of science, supported by Isaac Newton. John Locke argued we learn only through our senses (iPad2 argument). Believed inductive reasoning better way to the truth

Political Order Louis XIV and his grandson ruled absolutely. System held in place by force, bribery and corruption. Aristocracy had little power, apart from a tax free status and military exemption. Louis XV was a popular but inept ruler.

England structured as a limited monarchy, with participatory democracy. The system had been created by negotiation and compromise

Religious Freedoms The Established Catholic Church was really an arm of the State. The King appointed the bishops of the Churches. The Church preached that disobedience to the king a grievous sin.

All the various religions were allowed to practice, Catholics, Protestants and Quakers. The Quakers even refused to follow English customs, but they were not persecuted.

Economy Mercantile system. Free trade was discouraged. So were any transactions which did not increase the store of precious metals in the country. A nobleman lost his status if he engaged in business. Idleness rather than industry was the admired lifestyle.

Capitalist system led by Scottish economist Adam Smith. Trade was encouraged and merchants and businessmen were held in high esteem. Members of the aristocracy engaged in commerce. The burden of taxes was more evenly distributed and commercial disputes were governed by law, not decided arbitrarily.

Voltaire

Voltaire was born in Paris in 1694, and died in 1778. To some he is known as the Patriarch or father of the French

Enlightenment.

Voltaire wrote around 100 bound volumes of work, and 20,000 letters. He engrossed himself in writing about politics, religion,

science, history and philosophy. He was a poet, an essayist, a novelist and a playwright.

Voltaire had a quick wit, and this got him in trouble and he ended up in Bastille, twice. On his release he agreed with his jailors

that he would go into voluntary exile. Voltaire chose England. He was critical of the French government, which made him very

popular in England.

The table below highlights the differences that Voltaire experienced between France and England, while in England. Rather than keep quiet about his

observations, he documented them and the letters formed a book ‘Philosophical Letters’. This was not well received in France, and the books were burned.

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Voltaire lived in the time of

the Enlightenment where ideas

were being spread about the

basic rights of man and the

importance of reason and

scientific objectivity.

There were some terrible events which influenced Voltaire’s writing of Candide, the

Earthquake in Lisbon 1755, the outbreak of the Seven Years War in the German States in

1756, and the unjust execution of English Admiral John Byung in 1757,

In his book, Voltaire condemns the nobility, philosophy, the church and cruelty.

A key element of the Enlightenment is the profound faith in the power of reason, and that

rational thought can lead man to create a better, fairer social structure.

The political ideology of the Enlightenment is one of social reform. They called for a

rebellion against superstition, fear and prejudice.

He also attacked the aristocracy and the Church.

A key element where Voltaire differs from his contemporaries of the Enlightenment Age is

that he attacks the belief that rational thought can prevent evil acts or deeds done by man.

The Folly of Optimism – To the Enlightenment Thinkers, the existence of evil would be a sign

that God is not all powerful, and to them the idea of an imperfect God was nonsense.

Therefore they argue the world is perfect, so to is God. Those that perceive imperfections in

the word do so because they do not understand God’s plan. Candide rejects this idea, and

basically says, ‘Perfect world…Epic Fail’. He writes that these evils do not serve any greater

good, but point to the cruelty of humanity.

Philosophers would respond that to prevent this evil, man needs to have rational thought.

“Everything is for the best in the best of all possible worlds”

Issues he challenged.

Question:

1. Define a rational man.

2. Analyse whether humans will act rationally or irrationally.

Ideas on Social Class: Enlightenment thinkers like Montesquieu believed an enlightened

monarch was an alternative to a radical reformation of society. Instead of ruling by

divine right, King’s rule to protect their people’s rights. Voltaire argues that the

Enlightenment could be used to legitimize despotism. As witch hunts and religious

persecution continued into the 18th Century, the enlightenment view of reason did not

always remove fear and superstition.

The Uselessness of Philosophical Speculation: Philosophical arguments are based on

abstract concepts, not connected to the real world. Voltaire through Candide argues that

this speculation does more harm than good and leads to inaction. The same theme as

mentioned in Gulliver’s Travels.

The Hypocrisy of Religion: Religious leaders are corrupt and hypocritical, who persecute

those who do not share their views.

Crime and Punishment: Criticised punishment for violation of religious ceremony or

beliefs. Criticised lighter sentences given to aristocracy and discretion of judges. Violent

and irregular punishments were not helpful. Justice should be swift and not arbitrary

within clearly defined criminal laws and not to allow judges too much discretion.

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“Common Sense is not so Common

Questions:

1. Analyse the following quotes. Explain what you think Voltaire means by saying it.

a) It is dangerous to be right, when the Government is wrong.

b) Prejudices are what fools use for reason.

c) Doubt is an uncomfortable position, but certainty is a ridiculous one.

2. Explain whether Voltaire benefited from exiling himself to England.

3. Evaluate whether the work of Voltaire connects to the three fundamentals of the Enlightenment, and

critically evaluate the strength of any connection.

Ideas on Social Class: Summary of Voltaire

Known as a poet, playwright, essayist and novelist, who could be sarcastic and had a quick wit.

Wrote letters to France about his experiences in England, comparing the two countries based on its education, political order, religious

freedoms and economical theory. The book was burned in France.

Wrote Candide which criticized the Government, Monarchies and Enlightenment thoughts.

Disagreed that a rational man could prevent the evil deeds committed in the world.

Had what was then seen as Liberal opinions towards religious tolerance and crime and punishment.

Even though deemed by some the Father of the French Enlightenment, he was critical of many aspects of it.

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Summary

This brings us to the end of our section focusing on the Age of Enlightenment and the Enlightenment Thinkers. (You may even breathe a sigh of relief!) but it is important to now

connect all of the strands together and evaluate the significance of it all. The Enlightenment Period did not happen by chance, and although not mentioned specifically, other

people like Galileo and Newton opened the door, and once the door was opened, other people followed and read the work of others and built upon it.

As you can observe, The Enlightenment Philosophy is built on three fundamental principles of individualism, relativism and rationalism. It is evident in the work of Montesquieu

that he understood the works of John Locke and his theory of the social contract and developed it further, so too Jean Jacques Rousseau. The Enlightenment Period thinkers saw

an imbalance between the rulers, and those who were ruled, and thought of different concepts to change the balance, so that politics was seen more as a contract between the

people and the rulers. It is this theory of the separation of powers which founded the United States of America. Jefferson travelled to France, and took those ideas to America.

Former British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher is correct in her opinion that America was built on philosophy. This connects to our significant concept of freedom of thought as

people developed their thoughts based on a set of principles, and others were free to challenge them.

Not everyone agreed with the fundamentals of the Enlightenment philosophy, and in particular Voltaire disagreed with the fundamental of a rational being, whereas all the other

philosophers did. If it is argued that man is not rational as Voltaire does, then this is a serious criticism of the Enlightenment Age. One could argue that in theory the philosophers

are correct, but we are dealing with human beings with their own thoughts, and in theory it is a noble idea that man will act against self interest for the benefit of society as a

whole, but in practice this may not happen. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant, who developed the social contract theory into socialism, and that developed into

communism, took up the ideas of Rousseau. However as we can see, in England, the economic benefits of capitalism were taking shape, which contradicts the social contract

theory.

How did the Enlightenment Philosophers know they were right? A lot of them observed the society around them, and commented on the issues facing their society, and that of

others to develop new ways of thinking. The fact that concepts such as Separation of Powers, Religious tolerance, Criminal and Civil Laws, Democracy, Despotism, Capitalism and

Socialism have developed in the world since, is evidence that perhaps their theories were right. Whether they have benefited us is another matter altogether. Just because they

have not benefited us, is that reason enough to claim they were wrong, or is it because man has been held in such high esteem, which in all systems the action of man is the

problem?

If anything, we can claim that the Enlightenment Period altered the way the people saw their rulers, and gave us the Separation of Powers, which built on Louis XIV’s Mechanisms

of the State. We can also state that through the works of Voltaire that the issues of Crime and Punishment were changed, so that it was more just, at least in theory. While it may

not have happened completely in that time, in todays world in most democracies we can see this happening. Even when it does not, and democracies turn more authoritarian, or

dictatorial, one could argue that the rationale for that comes from the Enlightenment Thinkers. Written by John Harvey.

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Bibliography

1) “The Enlightenment (1650-1800) Key People and Terms.” SparkNotes. Web. 2011

2) “Great Philosophers: Thomas Hobbes: Social Contract.” Oregon State University. Web. 2002

3) “John Locke 1634-1704: Two Treatises of Government.” SparkNotes. Web. 2011

4) Uzgalis, William. “John Locke.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Web. 2007

5) Timmy. “Montesquieu and the Forms of Government.” Helium.com. Web. July 08 2007

6) “The Roots of Enlightenment.” SparkNotes. Web. 2011

7) “Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws.” Center for History & New Media. Web.

8) Greenman, J. “A Summary of Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws.” Publius. J. Greenman Blog. Web. May 03 2010

9) Ruiz, Roberto. “Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan.” Philosophy Monkey. Roberto Ruiz Blog. Web.

10) Kreis, Steven “Jean Jacques Rosseau 1712-1778.” The History Guide. Web. August 4 2009

11) “The Social Contract: Summary.” SparkNotes. Web. 2011

12) “The Social Contract: Analytical Overview.” SparkNotes. Web 2011

13) Cusick, Richard. “Voltaire and the Enlightenment”. Philclubcle.Web February 17 2008

14) “Candide Context.” Sparknotes. Web. 2011

15) “Candide: Themes, Motifs and Symbols.” SparkNotes. Web. 2011

16) “Punishment – The Enlightenment.” Science Encylopedia JRank Articles. Web. 2012.

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Students’ own notes.

Fairview International School www.fairview.edu.my