The Enlightenment. New Ways of Thinking A.Secular world view 1.Natural science and reason A.Most basic assumption: faith in reason rather than faith in.

The Enlightenment

New Ways of ThinkingA. Secular world view

1. Natural science and reasonA. Most basic assumption: faith in reason rather than faith in revelation

2. Autonomy of man’s intellect apart from God3. Deism: religious arm of the Enlightenment

a. Existence of God was a rational explanation of the universe and its form

b. God was a deistic creatorc. The universe was governed by “natural law”

• Grew out of Newton’s theories regarding natural law• Baruch Spinoza

~ Philosopher who created a world view where he equated God and nature

B. Scientific method explains the laws of society1. Progress was possible if natural laws could be understood2. Education was key

Early PhilosophersC. John Locke

1. Two Treatises of Civil Government, 1690a. Philosophical defense of “Glorious Revolution” in England

b. State of Nature• Humans are basically good but lack protection

~ Contrast with Thomas Hobbes: nasty and brutish

c. Governments provide rule of law through consent of the governed

d. Purpose of government is to protect “natural rights”: life, liberty, and property

e. Right to rebel

2. Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690a. Stressed the importance of the environment on human development

b. Tabula Rasa: human mind is a blank slate– Human knowledge the result of sensory experiences without preconceived notions– Rejected Descartes' view that people born with basic ideas and ways of thinking

c. For progress to occur, education was critical

Early Philosophers

D. Ideal of toleration popularized1. Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757)

a. Stressed idea of progress

b. Skeptical of absolute truth and questioned claims of organized religions

2. Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)a. Critical and Historical Dictionary 1697

• Advocated complete toleration of ideas• Skeptic• Criticized Christianity and its attempt to impose orthodoxy

The Philosophes

A. Committed to fundamental reform in society

1. By 1775, Europe’s educated elite embraced the Enlightenment

2. Believed in progress

3. Radically optimistic

The Philosophes

B. Voltaire1. Perhaps most influential of the Philosophes

2. Challenged traditional Catholic theologya. Believed that human reason was the key to progress, not religious

faith

3. Influential social criticism inspired many to call for changea. Hated bigotry and injustice

• Called for religious toleration• Most famous quote was “crush the infamous thing” (“Ecracsez l’infame”)

4. Advocated “enlightened despotism”a. Influenced several “Enlightened Despots” including Frederick the

Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, and Napoleon of France

The Philosophes

C. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)1. Member of French nobility; hated

absolutism2. Spirit of the Laws (1748): called for

separation of powers in government into three branchesa. Principle of checks and balances

3. Significant impact on U.S. Constitution and French Revolution

The Philosophes

D. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)1. Social Contract (1762)

a. The general will, a consensus of the majority

2. Though considered part of Enlightenment more accurately seen as founder of Romantic Movement

1. Glorification of emotion

3. The “noble savage”--man is corrupted by the materialism of civilization

4. Emile (1762)1. Believed in progressive education; learning by doing; self-

expression encouraged

The Philosophes

E. Denis Diderot (1713-1784)1. The Encyclopedia (completed 1765)

a. Perhaps the greatest and most representative work of the philosophes

b. Banned in France and placed by the pope on the Index of Prohibited Books

F. Marquis di Beccaria: On Crimes and Punishment (1764)

1. Sought to humanize criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality before the law

2. Influenced the Enlightened Despots

Economic Theory in the Enlightenment

A. Francois Quesnay (1694-1774)1. Leader of physiocrats2. Sought to reform the existing agrarian system by

instituting laissez faire in agriculture

B. Adam Smith (1727-1790)1. Wealth of Nations (1776)

a. Considered the “bible” of capitalismb. Refined and expanded laissez-faire philosophyc. Economy governed by natural laws of supply and demandd. Competition e. Against government regulation

Women of the Enlightenment

A. Played a major role in the salon movement1. Madame de Geoffren

a. Major role in patronizing the Encyclopedia

2. Louise de Warnes

B. Philosophes favored increased rights and education for women1. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) England

a. Promoted political and educational equality for women

Later Enlightenment

A. Became more skeptical1. Baron Paul d’Holbach: System of Nature

2. David Hume (1711-1776)

3. Jean de Condocet (1743-1794)a. His utopian ideas also undermined the legitimacy of Enlightenment

ideas

4. Rousseaua. Attacked rationalism and civilization as destroying rather than

liberating the individual

5. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)a. Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge

b. Science could describe nature, it could not provide a guide for morality

Classical Liberalism

A. The political outgrowth of the Enlightenment1. Belief in liberty of the individual and equality before the law (but NOT

democracy)2. “Natural rights” 3. Impact of Locke and Montesquieu 4. Rousseau: idea of the “general will”

B. Belief in laissez faire capitalism (Adam Smith)1. Government should not interfere in the economy2. Opposite of mercantilism

C. Belief in progress (through reason and education), human dignity and human happiness

D. Religious toleration, freedom of speech & the press, just punishments for crimes, and equal treatment before the law

New Christian groups opposed the Enlightenment

A. Reaction among some Christian leaders1. believed Christian spirituality was on the decline

a. German pietism b. Methodism

• John Wesley (1703-91): Founder of Methodismc. Jansenism (Catholic sect) in France argued against idea of

an uninvolved or impersonal God

Impact Of Enlightenment

A. Emergence of a secular world view of the universe

B. Enlightened despotismC. American and French RevolutionsD. Educational ReformE. Growth of laissez faire

Enlightened Despotism

A. The philosophes inspired and supported the reforms of the Enlightened Despots1. Believed absolute rulers should promote the good of the people2. Yet believed, like Hobbes earlier, that people were not capable of

ruling themselves

B. Reforms of the Enlightenment were modest1. Religious toleration2. Streamlined legal codes3. Increased access to education4. Reduction or elimination of torture and the death penalty

Frederick the Great (Frederick II) (r. 1740-1786)

A. Background1. One of the greatest rulers in German history2. Son of Fredrick William I who gave him a strong military

education3. Profoundly influenced by the Enlightenment

A. He considered French learning to be superiorB. Patronized Voltaire and invited him to live in his court in BerlinC. Musician and poet

Frederick the Great (Frederick II) (r. 1740-1786)

B. Wars of Frederick the Great1. The first 23 years of Frederick’s reign was dominated by warfare2. War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

a. Cause: Frederick invaded and annexed Silesia, part of the Austrian Hapsburg empire

b. Prussia efficiently defeated Austriac. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle:

3. Seven Years’ Wara. Cause: Maria Teresa sought to regain Silesia from Prussia and

gained Russia and France as allies.b. “Diplomatic Revolution of 1756”

• France and Austria, traditional enemies, now allied against Prussia

• Britain, a traditional ally of Russia

Frederick the Great (Frederick II) (r. 1740-1786)

3. Seven Years’ Warc. Bloodiest war in Europe since the Thirty Years’ War of the 17th century.

• World war that also included England and France’s struggle for North America~ Prussia outnumbered by its enemies 15 to 1~ Prussia suffered 180,000 dead and severe disruptions to its society~ Berlin was twice captured and partially destroyed by Russian troops~ Prussia was on the verge of a catastrophic defeat

d. Russian Czar Peter III (an admirer of Frederick) pulled Russia out of the war in 1763)• This saved Prussia from almost certain defeat• Peter was assassinated and replaced by Catherine II as a result

e. Treaty of Paris (1763)• Most important peace treaty of the 18th century and most important since the Treaty of

Westphalia (1648)~ Prussia permanently retained Silesia~ France lost all its colonies in North America to Great Britain~ Britain gained more territory in India

Frederick the Great (Frederick II) (r. 1740-1786)

C. Enlightened Reforms of Frederick the Great1. “first servant of the state”encouraged improvement of society

• absolute ruler• His reforms were mostly intended to increase the power of the state• The peasantry did not really benefit from his reforms

a. Allowed religious freedom (although less so for Jews)• Jews finally gained religious freedom in 1794, 8 years after Frederick’s

death

b. Promoted education in schools and universities• In reality, gains in primary education were very modest

c. Codified and streamlined laws• Numerous existing laws from throughout the provinces in the realm were

simplified to create a clear unified national code of law• Judicial system became efficient in deciding cases quickly and impartially• Abuses by judicial magistrates were curtailed

Frederick the Great (Frederick II) (r. 1740-1786)

C. Enlightened Reforms of Frederick the Great1. “first servant of the state”encouraged improvement of society

e. Freed the serfs on crown lands in 1763• Frederick’s motive: peasants needed for the army• Serfdom remained in full-force on noble estates although Frederick ordered

an end to physical punishment of serfs by their lords

f. Improved state bureaucracy by requiring examinations for civil servants

g. Reduced censorshiph. Abolished capital punishment (but not in the army)i. Encouraged immigrationj. Encouraged industrial and agricultural growth