The Electrical Characterization of Semiconductors: Majority Carriers and Electron States P. BLOOD and J.W. ORTON Philips Research Laboratories, Redhill, SurreyRHI 5HA, UK ACADEMIC PRESS Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Publishers London San Diego New York Boston Sydney Tokyo Toronto
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The Electrical Characterization of Semiconductors: Majority Carriers and Electron States
P. BLOOD and J.W. ORTON
Philips Research Laboratories, Redhill, SurreyRHI 5HA, UK
ACADEMIC PRESS Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Publishers London San Diego New York Boston Sydney Tokyo Toronto
Contents
Preface viii List of Commonly Used Symbols xi
1 Introduction 1 1.1 Semiconductor Characterization 1 1.2 Majority Carrier Properties and Electron States 6
2 Measurement of Resistivity 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Samples with Ohmic Contacts 14 2.3 The Four-Point Probe 26 2.4 Spreading Resistance 53 2.5 Contactless Methods 74 2.6 Relationship Between Carrier Density, Mobility and
Resistivity 82 2.7 Summary 89
3 Galvanomagnetic Effects 93 3.1 Introduction 93 3.2 The Hall Effect—Elementary Survey 95 3.3 Non-uniform Current Distribution 108 3.4 More Advanced Theory 114 3.5 The Hall Scattering Factor 122 3.6 Detailed Analysis of Temperature-dependent Hall Data 131 3.7 Magnetoresistance—Measurement of Carrier Mobility 151 3.8 Measurements on High Resistivity Material—Semi-
insulating GaAs 159 3.9 Measurements on Two-dimensional Electron Gas
Structures 167 3.10 Summary 177
4 Resistivity and Hall Effect Profiling of Non-uniform Material 181 4.1 Introduction : '. 181 4.2 Layer Removal 182 4.3 Resistivity Profiling with the Four-point Probe 188 4.4 Hall Effect Profiling 191 4.5 Magnetoresistance Mobility Profiling 203 4.6 Spreading Resistance Profiling 206
6 Interpretation of Capacitance-Voltage Profiles 266 6.1 Introduction 266 6.2 Departures from the Depletion Approximation 267 6.3 Instrumental Depth Resolution and Accuracy 282 6.4 Capacitance-Voltage Profiling of Multilayer and
Quantum Well Structures 288 6.5 Influence of Deep States 295 6.6 Relation between Hall Effect and Capacitance-Voltage
Measurements 308 6.7 Influence of the Test Diode 315 6.8 Verification of Capacitance-Voltage Profiles 331
7 Deep States in Depletion Regions 336 7.1 Introduction 336 7.2 Rate Equations 339 7.3 Observation of Deep States 350 7.4 Behaviour of Deep States in Depletion Regions 355 7.5 Depletion Capacitance and Deep States 369 7.6 Space Charge Transients 371 7.7 Transient Currents in Depletion Regions 380 7.8 Currents in Undepleted Samples: Transient Conductivity 393 7.9 Summary 397
8 Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy of Majority Carrier Traps 399 8.1 Introduction 399 8.2 Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy 400 8.3 Material Characterization by DLTS 413 8.4 Interpretation of Arrhenius Plot 426 8.5 Performance of Rate Window Systems 439 8.6 Other Applications of DLTS Techniques 456 8.7 Summary 464
9 Other Techniques for Study of Majority Carrier Traps 466 9.1 Introduction 466
Contents vii
9.2 Thermally Stimulated Conductivity, Current and Capacitance 467
9.3 Photo-Induced Current Transient Spectroscopy 478 9.4 Admittance Spectroscopy 492 9.5 Capacitance Transients at Large Trap Concentrations . 517 9.6 Summary 522