The effects of trans-nationalism on infant development: are we meeting the mental health needs of our youngest victims of globalization? Yvonne Bohr La.

The effects of trans-nationalism on infant development: The effects of trans-nationalism on infant development: are we meeting the mental health needs of our youngest victims are we meeting the mental health needs of our youngest victims

of globalization?of globalization?

Yvonne BohrYvonne BohrLa Marsh Research Centre, York University , Toronto, CanadaLa Marsh Research Centre, York University , Toronto, Canada

Presented at “Transcultural mental health in a changing world: Building a global response”Presented at “Transcultural mental health in a changing world: Building a global response” Minneapolis, Minnesota, October 29 – 31, 2007.Minneapolis, Minnesota, October 29 – 31, 2007.

AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments

The parents who shared their storiesThe parents who shared their stories York University lab: York University lab:

Natasha MullenNatasha Mullen Jessica ChanJessica Chan

At Aisling Discoveries Child & Family Centre:At Aisling Discoveries Child & Family Centre: Connie TseConnie Tse Sadie KwongSadie Kwong

The La Marsh Research Centre The La Marsh Research Centre

ContextContext

Primary relationships can be Primary relationships can be disrupted by population mobilitydisrupted by population mobility

In an era of intensifying In an era of intensifying globalization, even very young globalization, even very young children are facing increasingly children are facing increasingly complex challenges due to this complex challenges due to this mobilitymobility

The storiesThe stories

On the second Thursday in July, the woman, On the second Thursday in July, the woman, Xiu, finally did it. Wrapping a tiny gold Xiu, finally did it. Wrapping a tiny gold bracelet around his wrist, she placed her son bracelet around his wrist, she placed her son in the arms of a friend of a friend, who, for in the arms of a friend of a friend, who, for $1,000, agreed to take him to China. Xiu's $1,000, agreed to take him to China. Xiu's parent is raising him there now, along with the parent is raising him there now, along with the 10-year-old daughter left behind last year 10-year-old daughter left behind last year when Xiu joined her husband in New York. She when Xiu joined her husband in New York. She plans to bring Henry back when he reaches plans to bring Henry back when he reaches school age. But until then, she remains here, school age. But until then, she remains here, waiting to be a parent to her child.waiting to be a parent to her child. Sengupta, 1999, p.1Sengupta, 1999, p.1

ContextContext

Trans-nationalism: the development by Trans-nationalism: the development by expatriates or immigrants of “multi-expatriates or immigrants of “multi-stranded social relations that link together stranded social relations that link together their societies of origin and settlement” their societies of origin and settlement”

Trans-nationalism “has changed people’s Trans-nationalism “has changed people’s relations to space particularly by creating relations to space particularly by creating social fieldssocial fields that connect and position that connect and position some actors in more than one country”. some actors in more than one country”.

Basch, Glick Schiller, & Blanc-Szanton , 1994Basch, Glick Schiller, & Blanc-Szanton , 1994

ContextContext

Geographical and cultural duality are Geographical and cultural duality are adding a layer of complexity to adding a layer of complexity to understanding immigrant families who understanding immigrant families who live a trans-national lifelive a trans-national life

Practices and cultural meanings Practices and cultural meanings “derived from specific geographical and “derived from specific geographical and historical points of origin have been historical points of origin have been transferred and re-grounded” in new transferred and re-grounded” in new cultural settings¹cultural settings¹¹Vertovec, 1999¹Vertovec, 1999

Satellite babiesSatellite babies

Some new immigrant parents Some new immigrant parents engage in the practice of sending engage in the practice of sending infants back to their country of infants back to their country of origin, to be raised by members of origin, to be raised by members of their extended family.their extended family.

This custom is particularly prevalent This custom is particularly prevalent amongst Chinese immigrants to the amongst Chinese immigrants to the United States and Canada United States and Canada

““satellite children”¹satellite children”¹¹Waters, 2002¹Waters, 2002

Satellite babiesSatellite babies

The children return to their parents The children return to their parents in time to begin schooling, having in time to begin schooling, having endured multiple separationsendured multiple separations

Does this have serious repercussions Does this have serious repercussions for social-emotional development?for social-emotional development?

When infants are separated When infants are separated from their familiesfrom their families

Studies deal primarily with adolescents' or Studies deal primarily with adolescents' or young adults' perceptions and feelings young adults' perceptions and feelings about earlier separations from their about earlier separations from their parentsparents

Few studies available are mostly Few studies available are mostly retrospectiveretrospective

We know little about outcomes for We know little about outcomes for younger, children exposed to serial younger, children exposed to serial separationsseparationsGlasgow & Ghouse-Sheese,1995; Smith, Lalonde & Glasgow & Ghouse-Sheese,1995; Smith, Lalonde & Johnson, 2004Johnson, 2004

When infants are separated When infants are separated from their familiesfrom their families

Many potential problems are Many potential problems are associated with major disruptions associated with major disruptions and losses in the caregiver-baby and losses in the caregiver-baby relationshiprelationship

Greatest concern is threat to the Greatest concern is threat to the bilateralbilateral attachmentattachment relationship relationship

Bowlby, 1951/1969; Cassidy, 1999; Karen, 1994; Kobak, 1999; Bowlby, 1951/1969; Cassidy, 1999; Karen, 1994; Kobak, 1999; Miranda, Siddique, Der-Martirosian & Belin, 2005; Smith et al., Miranda, Siddique, Der-Martirosian & Belin, 2005; Smith et al., 2004; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 20012004; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2001

When infants are separated When infants are separated from their familiesfrom their families

The problem:The problem: Models of child mental health are Models of child mental health are

based on First World, Western based on First World, Western research¹research¹

¹Liu & Clay, 2002; Sue, Casas, & Fouad, 1998¹Liu & Clay, 2002; Sue, Casas, & Fouad, 1998

Attachment across culturesAttachment across cultures

Infants are certainly able to engage in Infants are certainly able to engage in multiple, functional attachment multiple, functional attachment relationships¹relationships¹

Alternative attachment styles, e.g., Alternative attachment styles, e.g., avoidance, may in fact maximize avoidance, may in fact maximize “survival” in less supportive contexts²“survival” in less supportive contexts²

Numerous examples of infants having to Numerous examples of infants having to “fit into the culture” at the expense of “fit into the culture” at the expense of comfort and happiness of both child and comfort and happiness of both child and mother³mother³

¹ ¹ van Ijzendoorn, Sagi & Lambermon, 1992; van Ijzendoorn, Sagi & Lambermon, 1992; ²Main, 1990; ³Hinde, 1991Main, 1990; ³Hinde, 1991

Attachment studies from Attachment studies from the Chinese communitythe Chinese community

Concept of attachment very applicable to Concept of attachment very applicable to this cultural context¹this cultural context¹

Attachment classifications has been Attachment classifications has been ”remarkably similar to the global ”remarkably similar to the global distribution”² distribution”²

““indifferent attachment”³indifferent attachment”³ Chinese youngsters are more Chinese youngsters are more

apprehensive or inhibited towards apprehensive or inhibited towards strangers than European American strangers than European American childrenchildren¹Posada, 1995; ²van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988; ³Hu & ¹Posada, 1995; ²van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988; ³Hu & Meng,1996; Hsu, 1985Meng,1996; Hsu, 1985

Objectives of this studyObjectives of this study

To study infants and their parents who To study infants and their parents who are entangled in the complexities of a are entangled in the complexities of a transnational lifestyle, and are transnational lifestyle, and are subjected to multiple separationssubjected to multiple separations

To generate useful information for To generate useful information for mental health cliniciansmental health clinicians

Objectives of the studyObjectives of the study

To To exploreexplore the cultural, socio-economic, the cultural, socio-economic, and individual factors that contribute to and individual factors that contribute to new immigrant parents’ decision to send new immigrant parents’ decision to send their child overseas to be cared for by their child overseas to be cared for by relatives, in the face of strong bio-relatives, in the face of strong bio-evolutionary drives that would dictate evolutionary drives that would dictate proximityproximity

To describe parents’ To describe parents’ decision-makingdecision-making processprocess and propose a and propose a culturally culturally sensitivesensitive decision-making model decision-making model

MethodMethod Qualitative studyQualitative study Recruitment through a children’s mental health center in Recruitment through a children’s mental health center in

Toronto Toronto Semi-structured interviews with 12 mothers (5 of whom Semi-structured interviews with 12 mothers (5 of whom

were joined by their husbands), who had expressed an were joined by their husbands), who had expressed an interest in, or were attending, a parenting group for interest in, or were attending, a parenting group for Chinese Canadian families.Chinese Canadian families.

All were struggling with the decision of whether or not to All were struggling with the decision of whether or not to send their infants back to their home country, to be send their infants back to their home country, to be raised by relatives.raised by relatives.

All participants were recent (6 months- 3 years) All participants were recent (6 months- 3 years) immigrants from mainland China, and ranged in age immigrants from mainland China, and ranged in age from 24 to 36 (mean=26).from 24 to 36 (mean=26).

All were university – educated. All were university – educated. 1-1½ hour in home interview. 1-1½ hour in home interview. Individual interviews; modified grounded theory Individual interviews; modified grounded theory

approach.approach.

Affectively charged

attachment schemas

Acculturation and educational benefits

Nuclear family biasRational objections

to separation

NEW CULTURE

OLD CULTURE

Preservation of Cultural traditions

Cultural andEconomic value

of career

Extended family Systems needs

Support FOR SEPARATION

Lack of communityresources

Current economic

needs

Decision-Making Process

Opposition toSEPARATION

Am

biv

ale

nce

Am

biv

ale

nce

Affectively charged

attachment schemas

Acculturation and educational benefits

Nuclear family biasRational objections

to separation

NEW CULTURE

OLD CULTURE

Preservation of Cultural traditions

Cultural andEconomic value

of career

Extended family Systems needs

Support FOR SEPARATION

Lack of communityresources

Current economic

needs

Decision-Making Process

Opposition toSEPARATION

Am

biv

ale

nce

Am

biv

ale

nce

AmbivalenceAmbivalence

““I have been thinking about I have been thinking about sending my child to China to live sending my child to China to live with grandparents... I haven’t with grandparents... I haven’t made up my mind yet, so my child made up my mind yet, so my child is still here. I have to spend quite a is still here. I have to spend quite a lot of time on the child…. I still lot of time on the child…. I still haven’t made the decision…we are haven’t made the decision…we are having the strong feeling of having the strong feeling of keeping the child here…”keeping the child here…” (Li Wen) (Li Wen)

Affectively charged

attachment schemas

Acculturation and educational benefits

Nuclear family biasRational objections

to separation

NEW CULTURE

OLD CULTURE

Preservation of Cultural traditions

Cultural andEconomic value

of career

Extended family Systems needs

Support FOR SEPARATION

Lack of communityresources

Current economic

needs

Decision-Making Process

Opposition toSEPARATION

Am

biv

ale

nce

Am

biv

ale

nce

Cultural and Economic value of career

““Because of the family financial Because of the family financial [situation}, we need to send her [situation}, we need to send her back to China for parents to take back to China for parents to take care of her… I have to send my care of her… I have to send my child back to China. At least for a child back to China. At least for a couple of years.”couple of years.” ((Lee)Lee)

Cultural and Economic value of career

““I've been here for three years, I want I've been here for three years, I want

to have my own career; I had a good job to have my own career; I had a good job in China but I am starting over, here…I in China but I am starting over, here…I feel like I have to start all over; because feel like I have to start all over; because of the baby I can't go back to work…I of the baby I can't go back to work…I want to work harder to get a house…is want to work harder to get a house…is hard to afford; the most important hard to afford; the most important factor is financial; It's bad to rent an factor is financial; It's bad to rent an apartment with the baby, so we can apartment with the baby, so we can have a house when the baby comes back have a house when the baby comes back home, so the baby will have her own home, so the baby will have her own room for studying that she doesn't have room for studying that she doesn't have to share with anyone else.”to share with anyone else.” (Monica) (Monica)

Affectively charged

attachment schemas

Acculturation and educational benefits

Nuclear family biasRational objections

to separation

NEW CULTURE

OLD CULTURE

Preservation of Cultural traditions

Cultural andEconomic value

of career

Extended family Systems needs

Support FOR SEPARATION

Lack of communityresources

Current economic

needs

Decision-Making Process

Opposition toSEPARATION

Am

biv

ale

nce

Am

biv

ale

nce

Preservation of Cultural traditions

“My grandparents took care of “My grandparents took care of me” me”

“ “My parents they also want us to My parents they also want us to

send the baby back, they also send the baby back, they also want to play with the grandchild; want to play with the grandchild; in China grandparents are taking in China grandparents are taking care of the babycare of the baby ” (Lee) ” (Lee)

Preservation of Cultural traditions

““There are different cultures for There are different cultures for China & Canada. If my baby China & Canada. If my baby grows up here and he just picks grows up here and he just picks up the Canadian culture maybe up the Canadian culture maybe he will have so many different he will have so many different ideas than us. I don't want my ideas than us. I don't want my child just to grow up in Canada child just to grow up in Canada and just talk Canadian “and just talk Canadian “ (Connie) (Connie)

Preservation of Cultural traditions

““He [will not be able to] He [will not be able to] understand Chinese. That is a big understand Chinese. That is a big problem. He [will not be able to] problem. He [will not be able to] speak Chinese [or] read or write speak Chinese [or] read or write any Chinese. He [will not be able any Chinese. He [will not be able to] understand his Chinese name”to] understand his Chinese name” (Lynn)(Lynn)

Affectively charged

attachment schemas

Acculturation and educational benefits

Nuclear family biasRational objections

to separation

NEW CULTURE

OLD CULTURE

Preservation of Cultural traditions

Cultural andEconomic value

of career

Extended family Systems needs

Support FOR SEPARATION

Lack of communityresources

Current economic

needs

Decision-Making Process

Opposition toSEPARATION

Am

biv

ale

nce

Am

biv

ale

nce

Extended family systems needs

““For the good of the familyFor the good of the family””

“ “For the child herself I don’t For the child herself I don’t think there’s any advantage for think there’s any advantage for her, but just for the consideration her, but just for the consideration of the family, for the whole of the family, for the whole family, (we) have to think of it as family, (we) have to think of it as an advantage”an advantage” (Lee) (Lee)

Extended family systems needs

““But the relationship with But the relationship with

relatives and friends, they are in relatives and friends, they are in Bejing, so child will feel more Bejing, so child will feel more the family ties, that is what's the family ties, that is what's most important”most important”

Affectively charged

attachment schemas

Acculturation and educational benefits

Nuclear family biasRational objections

to separation

NEW CULTURE

OLD CULTURE

Preservation of Cultural traditions

Cultural andEconomic value

of career

Extended family Systems needs

Support FOR SEPARATION

Lack of communityresources

Current economic

needs

Decision-Making Process

Opposition toSEPARATION

Am

biv

ale

nce

Am

biv

ale

nce

Affectively charged attachment schemas

““My baby is now 9 months, I'm My baby is now 9 months, I'm afraid that baby will forget about afraid that baby will forget about us. Seeing her grow up, every day, us. Seeing her grow up, every day, I feel I can't be separated from the I feel I can't be separated from the baby. I'm feeling that the baby and baby. I'm feeling that the baby and I are attached together. I would I are attached together. I would feel really bad (if the baby had to feel really bad (if the baby had to go to China), if it has to be, then it go to China), if it has to be, then it has to be, but I would feel very has to be, but I would feel very bad”bad” (Sue) (Sue)

Affectively charged attachment schemas

““The relationship would be The relationship would be blocked; I would feel guilty and blocked; I would feel guilty and self-blame, it's the responsibility self-blame, it's the responsibility of the parents to be with their of the parents to be with their babybaby” (Lee)” (Lee)

Affectively charged

attachment schemas

Acculturation and educational benefits

Nuclear family biasRational objections

to separation

NEW CULTURE

OLD CULTURE

Preservation of Cultural traditions

Cultural andEconomic value

of career

Extended family Systems needs

Support FOR SEPARATION

Lack of communityresources

Current economic

needs

Decision-Making Process

Opposition toSEPARATION

Am

biv

ale

nce

Am

biv

ale

nce

Acculturation and educational benefits

“Losing out in the new culture”

““The language barrier when they The language barrier when they

come back to here. It is sometimes come back to here. It is sometimes hard for them to speak English so hard for them to speak English so the child can communicate with the child can communicate with the others…. they [also] have to the others…. they [also] have to learn to study” (Hui).learn to study” (Hui).

Affectively charged

attachment schemas

Acculturation and educational benefits

Nuclear family biasRational objections

to separation

NEW CULTURE

OLD CULTURE

Preservation of Cultural traditions

Cultural andEconomic value

of career

Extended family Systems needs

Support FOR SEPARATION

Lack of communityresources

Current economic

needs

Decision-Making Process

Opposition toSEPARATION

Am

biv

ale

nce

Am

biv

ale

nce

Nuclear family bias

““I'm strongly opposed to sending I'm strongly opposed to sending the baby back, have to be the baby back, have to be separated. No one can replace separated. No one can replace the parent.” (Zhi)the parent.” (Zhi)

Mitigating and compensatory Mitigating and compensatory factorsfactors

(Developmental knowledge) (Developmental knowledge)

““[I would send her] for three years. [I would send her] for three years. But she will come back here before But she will come back here before [she is] 4 years old.”[she is] 4 years old.” (Jen) (Jen)

““When we are separated we will When we are separated we will continue to have contact on continue to have contact on telephone and the internet.” (telephone and the internet.” (LynnLynn))

““We will use the webcam” (We will use the webcam” (ConnieConnie))

Affectively charged

attachment schemas

Acculturation and educational benefits

Nuclear family biasRational objections

to separation

NEW CULTURE

OLD CULTURE

Preservation of Cultural traditions

Cultural andEconomic value

of career

Extended family Systems needs

Support FOR SEPARATION

Lack of communityresources

Current economic

needs

Decision-Making Process

Opposition toSEPARATION

Am

biv

ale

nce

Am

biv

ale

nce

ConclusionsConclusions

The custom of trans-national parenting The custom of trans-national parenting of satellite babies exists at the interface of satellite babies exists at the interface of globalization and parent-child of globalization and parent-child relationshipsrelationships

An examination of parents’ decision-An examination of parents’ decision-making about separating from their making about separating from their infants reveals complex layers of rational infants reveals complex layers of rational considerations that are suffused with considerations that are suffused with ambivalence and often resignation.ambivalence and often resignation.

ConclusionsConclusions

Parents who have one foot in the old and Parents who have one foot in the old and one foot in their new culture appear to one foot in their new culture appear to use familiar models of roles and traditions use familiar models of roles and traditions flexibly in the service of economic need. flexibly in the service of economic need. Meanwhile, cultural, collectivist claims Meanwhile, cultural, collectivist claims clearly keep pace with attachment and clearly keep pace with attachment and other psycho-biological needs of child and other psycho-biological needs of child and parent, and often override them. parent, and often override them.

ConclusionsConclusions

These claims may be adaptive, These claims may be adaptive, productive and protective productive and protective

As clinicians, we have very little, and As clinicians, we have very little, and incomplete information on which to incomplete information on which to base our interventionsbase our interventions

ConclusionsConclusions

It is clear that a multi-systemic cost/ It is clear that a multi-systemic cost/ benefit ratios should be considered benefit ratios should be considered when clinically addressing practices when clinically addressing practices that are considered harmful by Western that are considered harmful by Western standards, and that research needs to standards, and that research needs to identify and define both these benefits identify and define both these benefits and costs in a socio-cultural context. and costs in a socio-cultural context.

Parent-child Separation

Parent-child Separation

Thank you!Thank you!