THE EFECTS OF COMPLEX TRAINING PROGRAMS ON JUMPING HEIGHT IN NOVICE VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS NOOR AIWA BINTI ROSMAN : KOD PENYELEDIKAN: 09-09-06-07 DAPENA UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS
THE EFECTS OF COMPLEX TRAINING PROGRAMS ON JUMPING HEIGHT IN NOVICE VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS
NOOR AIWA BINTI ROSMAN :
KOD PENYELEDIKAN: 09-09-06-07 DAPENA
UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Research Management Centre (RMC) University
Pendidikan Sultan Idris for funding this research project. I would also like to thank En
Asmadi Ishak who allowed me to conduct this study on his students, and for the
guidance in conducting the training sessions. Without these students this project
would never have been accomplished.
My sincere appreciation to all colleagues in FSS who were very helpful and
concern with the progression of this research. Thank you also to all FSS staff for
providing me with all the support needed during this project.
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ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk melihat kesan latihan yang berbeza terhadap ketinggian lompatan. Subjek terdiri dari pelajar Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (15 perempuan dan 13 lelaki). Subjek secara rawak telah di bahagikan kepada 3 kumpulan iaitu kumpulan pliometrik (PT), kumpulan latihan bebanan (WT) dan kumpulan latihan kompleks atau balistik (CT). Kesemua kumpulan latihan ini telah di berikan program latihan untuk tempoh 8 minggu untuk meningkatkan kuasa otot kaki. Kernahiran motor yang telah di ukur adalah ketinggian lompatan dengan menggunakan Kistler Quattro Jump sebelum dan selepas tamat menjalani latihan. Ujian ANOVA satu hala telah di gunakan untuk analisa data. Keputusan menunjukkan tiada perbezaan yang signifikan untuk kuasa kaki bagi ketiga-tiga kumpulan latihan, juga tiada perbezaan yang signifikan pada subjek perempuan.
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of different training program on jumping height. Subjects were selected from students enrolled in the first semester in Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (15 females and 13 males). These subjects were randomly assigned to three training groups. The plyometric group (PT), weight training group (WT) and complex or ballistic training group (PT). All three groups undertook an 8-weeks training program designed to develop explosive power in the lower extremities. Motor ability that was measured was jumping height using the Kistler Quattro Jump apparatus before and after the training program ended. A one-way ANOVA was used to compare the jumping heights of the subjects. There were no significant differences found in jumping heights among the males for all the training methods practiced for absolute jump height (p> 0.05) and neither there were any significant difference between the female groups.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRAK
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Historical Background of Volleyball
1.2 Statement of Problem
1.3 Purpose of the Study
1.4 Hypothesis of the Study
1.5 Delimitations of the Study
1.6 Significance of the Study
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Plyometric Training
2.2 Weight Training and Resistance Training
2.3 Complex Training
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Design of the Study
3.3 Subjects
3.4 Protocol
3.4.1 Anthropometric Assessment
3.4.2 Vertical Jump
3.5 Statistical Analysis
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
4.1 Bio-demographics
4.2 Vertical Jump
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Bio-demographics and Explosive Power
5.2 Conclusion
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
Appendix A 8 Weeks Training Program Schedule
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LIST OF TABLES
4.1.1 Means and standard deviations of age (years), height (cm) 16 and body mass (kg) in young novice male volleyball players
4.1.2 Means and standard deviations of age (years), height (cm) 16 and body mass (kg) in young novice female volleyball players
4.2.1 Descriptive statistics for vertical jump (cm) in young male 17 novice volleyball players.
4.2.2 Descriptive statistics for vertical jump (cm) in young male 17 novice volleyball players.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Historical Background of Volleyball
Volleyball is not only played for competition but also for recreation. This
sport can be played anywhere including open area such as park or on the
beach. It is a team non-contact sport that will reduce the chances of getting
injury and fun to play. It was first introduced in a year of 1895 at Springfield,
Massachusetts by Professor William J. Morgan a YMCA physical educator as
a recreational sport. The game was called Mintonnette when it was initially
invented which took some of characteristic from tennis and handball. Later in
1896 the game became known as volleyball and the game became spread
around the country to various YMCAs.
Canada was the first country outside the United States that adopted
volleyball in 1900. The first World Championship was held in 1949 for men
and later for women in 1952. Now the, sport is popular in Europe and Brazil,
Russia together with China in addition to United States.
Dick (2002) stated that tactical, psychological and physical
preparations are the top priority in order to improve performance in prestigious
sports. The quality of movement, mastery of skills and reduced chances of
getting injured can be improved by having an optimum physical fitness. This
cannot be achieved without proper continuous training. Generally physical
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fitness can be divided into two components: health based physical fitness and
motor control. Health based physical fitness comprised of cardiovascular
endurance, muscular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility and body
composition whilst motor skill involved power, agility, balance, coordination,
reaction time and speed. Systematic, planned, and efficient training program
will help to enhance an individual physical fitness.
Ability to jump is one of the vital criterions in volleyball to return the
ball to the opponent's side of the net or spike the ball so it will move quickly
down to the ground on the opponent's side. Jumping either laterally or
vertically is two different movements whereby it must be trained and acquired
by a volleyball player (Puhl, Casa, Fleck & Van Handel, 1982).
Due to some changes in the rules especially in the scoring system and
the function of the libero, it offers new scope of research among the coaches to
consider new techniques that can be applied during the match (OSJ, 2001).
One of the most prominent was the strategy of attacking and defending which
requires muscles of the lower limb to produce explosive power. Puhl et al.
(1982) and Kroon (2000) found out that the average number the players jump
during the match of 5 sets is between 80-120 times either during offending or
defending.
Ercolessi (1999) stated that in modern volleyball, anthropometric
profile is an advantage and having the players to jump high is the principal part
that needs to be emphasised. Jump height for a server is between 34.5-35.5 cm
while for the blocker is between 32.0-33.5 cm. The action of serving and
blocking are dominated by explosive movement in relation to the ability of the
players to jump vertically.
Wilmore and Costill (1988) expressed that strength is a vital factor in
every movement that involves muscle utilization. In any physical activity,
muscle strength function is to perform tasks such as jumping, throwing,
kicking and also sprinting.
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Fox and Mathews (1981) explained that strength is the ability of the
muscle or groups of muscle to overcome resistance to produce force or work.
On the other hand Bompa (1999) stated that strength is the capacity of the
muscle to produce force contrary to resistance. Therefore muscle strength
should be one of the priorities for coaches to arrange a training program in
order to achieve maximum performance.
Selye (1956) stated, General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) enlightened
about the three phases in which the body will react towards stimulus. Firstly
after the body received stimulus, it will bring about lethargy and temporary
deterioration of performance. This is due to the recognition and identification
of a threat following stress. The perception of being pressured will trigger the
brain to send biochemical messages to certain body parts. As a result,
physiological responses such as hyperventilation, hypertension and increased
muscular contraction will be affected. The second phase is resistance whereby
the body adapts to the stimulus (training). In this stage, the individuals'
potential to modify themselves towards environmental demands will intensify
above normal requirements. Adjustment to this stimulus will have an effect on
performance. Exhaustion is the third stage in GAS in which the body systems
are able to adjust in a proper way to any stimulus exposed in the future.
Power is important in volleyball. Power can be built either through
increasing speed of movement while moving an object or increasing your
strength or a mixture of both techniques. Training for power includes doing
exercises that build up fast-twitch muscle fibers (Smith, 1987). Strength in
fast-twitch muscles can be developed by putting greater stress on the muscle
than it is used to.
The stretch reflex works in response to muscles being stretched prior to
a movement in which muscles that are stretched at a greater and faster rate will
generate greater potential for enormous contraction (Seeley, Stephens and
Tate, 2007). Overload is carried out either by lifting heavy weights with low
repetitions or by lifting heavy weights at a high speed of implementation
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(Smith, 1987). Alternatively in plyometric training, overload of a fast twitch
muscle can be achieved by the speedy elongation of the muscle as a result of a
change of direction. This will engage more muscle fibres thus greater tension
of muscle contraction.
Volleyball as an Olympic sport is known around the world. Although it
is played professionally in many countries, some coaches still agree to
traditional methodology in resistance training program either plyometric
training solely or weight lifting. Experimental studies in elite team sport
athletes are very hard to carry out due to ethical issue that might influence their
potential of the players selected (Kraemer, 1997).
Training approach to improve working capacity of explosive muscle in
the lower limb can be achieved through scientific and systematic training
program. A combination between speed and muscular strength produce power
whilst explosive power can be obtained through working muscle against speed
of resistance (Bompa, 1999). Effective training program can develop explosive
power efficiently.
1.2 Statement of Problem
The problem of the research was to ascertain whether or not a complex training
regimen alone has a more significant result on leg power compared to the
plyometric and strength training separately over 8 weeks time period.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to compare three training methods on jump
height in novice volleyball players.
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1.4 Hypothesis of the Study
There is no significant difference in jump height of novice volleyball players
following 8-weeks of different training methods.
1.5 Delimitations of the Study
Within the framework of this study, the influence of the trainers on the
implementation of the training program could not be controlled logistically.
Nevertheless, the training program was monitored closely in every training
session. No attempt was made to control for the food intake of the subjects
during the period of the study. No effort was also made to control for any
psychological, socio-cultural or other correlates believed to play a role in the
relationship between training and motor abilities. Any result concerning this
study shall not be generalised to any population.
1.6 Significance of the Study
In certain sports it is very important to be faster or more powerful In today's
set up, coaches are required to search for an efficient and successful method in
the least amount of time to optimize physical improvement. This study may
help the coaches to implement a time-efficient training regime since no one
training method can be distinguished as the best one. The development of a
new form of training may assist in recognizing modifications in program
patterns for developing power in individuals and due to the lack of a scientific
basis of training programs in Malaysia, this study is a beginning to change this
situation.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Scientific research on plyometrics and weight training has been well established in the
world. The techniques and procedures were also being practiced by most of the
sportsmen to increase performance. Recently the theory of ballistic or complex
training came about and people are still interested to search for the best part of that
system.
2.1 Plyometric Training
Plyometrics can be classified as exercise that trains the fast muscle fibres and the
nerves that trigger them and reflexes with a diversity of movements, such as jumping,
hopping and bouncing which preferably are arranged into a solid training program
(Ebben, 2007). On top of this, the main problems in implementing a plyometric
program are perhaps choosing the correct exercises and advancement of intensity.
Extensive data are available on the effects of plyometrics training on explosive
power. Stojanovic and Kostic (2002) conducted a study on 33 volleyball players who
have been training between 4 to 6 years. This research was carried out for 8 weeks.
The purpose of training was to develop power for the vertical jump in the
experimental group by using a plyometric training model. As for the control group,
they completed the technical-tactical training. The results revealed that there was a
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statistically relevant difference in the increase of the vertical jump in the experimental
as compared to the control group.
Weighted and unweighted plyometric training was studied in 14 strength
trained females by Durham, Shimp-Bowermen, Adams, Berning, Kipp & Fabian
(2001). Four weeks of training was performed by both control and experimental
groups. Over the four weeks the weighted group increased added resistance from 20-
40% 1 repetition maximum (TIM). Depth jumps, split squats and double-leg hops were
performed. They found that both groups increased in number of jumps, average jump
height and also peak jump height. No change was found in power output and fatigue
index. No significant difference was found in any variables between the two groups
studied.
The effects of four weeks of plyometric versus weighted plyometric training
on vertical jump in 14 strength trained females were investigated. Two groups of
seven were formed with the plyometric group performing depth jumps, split squads
and double leg hops with body weight twice a week. The weighted plyometric group
performed the same exercises with the attachment of a weight equal to 20% of 1 RM
in the first week and 40% of 1 RM in the fourth week. Both groups performed 3 x 6
squads (85% 1 RM) one day per week after plyometric training. However, the results
showed no significant difference though both groups improved vertical jump (Adams,
Shimp-Bowerman, Berning, Durham, Sevene-Adams & Curtin, 2001).
In another study, young male soccer players aged between 12-13 years were
divided into two groups that is jump training and control groups in which the jump
training consisted of specific plyometric training, including jumping, hurdling, and
skipping. They trained three times per week for 10 weeks. The results showed
improvement in the squad jump, countermovement jump, repeated bound jump and
standing long jump in the experimental group (Diallo, Dore and Van Praagh, 2000).
Female division 1 volleyball players participated in a post-season plyometric
training program study done by Messner, Guyer, Holder & Skelton (1999). The
training was conducted twice a week for eight weeks. No changes were found in the
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number of strength factors for the quadriceps or hamstrings muscle groups and no
improvements in vertical jumps were recorded either. The only improvement found
was increased in range of motion for dorsiflexion in both legs.
2.2 Weight Training and Resistance Training
Many resistance training programs aimed at increasing muscular power classically
show a high proportion of weightlifting or plyometric exercises (Baker, 1994). In a
study by Baker (2005), 7 combinations of methods to execute power were used
depending on distance covered and speed of movement. Power exercises are those that
require acceleration for foil range of movement thus producing high velocities and
power outputs. On the other hand, strength exercises are not only workouts that
involve heavy resistance and high force but it also includes explicit phases of
deceleration. A change in upper body power over a 4-year period in a group of 12
professional rugby league players showed improvement.
The effects of a short-term plyometric and resistance training program on
fitness performance in boys aged between 12-15 years old was done by Faigenbaum et
al. (2007). A 6-week training program of combined resistance training and
plyometrics or resistance training alone was conducted. The resistance training group
performed stretching exercises followed by resistance training while the other group
carried out plyometric exercises apart from the same resistance training program. A
training duration of 90 minutes was provided to each group to complete the task.
Participants were tested on the vertical jump, long jump, medicine ball toss, 9.1 meter
sprint, pro-agility shuttle run and flexibility. There were significantly greater
improvements in the long jump, medicine ball toss, and pro-agility shuttle run time
following training. This led to the recommendation that adding a plyometric training
component into a resistance training program would be helpful to increase
performance.
Heavy resistance training together with vertical jump training is a well-
documented practice (Tricoli, Lamas, Carnevale and Ugrinowitsch (2005); Caruso et
al. (2008); Mihalik, Libby, Battaglini and Murray, (2008); Stanganelli, Dourado,
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Oncken, Mancan and da Costa, (2008). But information regarding its combination
with Olympic Weightlifting exercises is still scarce. For that reason Tricoli, Lamas,
Carvenale and Ugrinowitsch (2005) carried out a study which was done on thirty-two
young men. They were divided into three groups which consisted of 12 subjects in the
weightlifting group, 12 subjects in the vertical jump group and 8 of them as controls.
The training program for weightlifting included 3 x 6 RM high pull, 4 x 4 RM power
clean and 4 x 4 clean and jerk. The vertical jump training program comprised 6 x 4
double-leg hops, 4 x 4 alternated single-leg hurdle hops, 4 x 4 single-leg hurdle hops
and 4 x 4 40-m drop jumps. As supplementary exercise, both groups performed 4 x 6
RM half-squats. Training volume was increased after 4 weeks and with the total of 8-
week training program. The findings showed that the weightlifting group improved
significantly in 10-m sprint speed, countermovement jump, and in squad jump
compared to the vertical jump group. No significant changes in the control group were
found. It can be concluded that the Olympic weightlifting training program appeared
to lead to more improvement in the performance of physically active subjects.
The effects of 5 weeks of eccentrically loaded and unloaded jump squat
training in experienced resistance-trained footballers during the strength-power phase
of a 15-week periodized off-season resistance training program was studied. Forty-
seven male college football players were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups. Jump
squat exercise using both concentric and eccentric phases of contraction were done in
one group (CE), while the other group carried out squat jump exercise using the
concentric phase only. The third group comprised the controls (CT). Between the
groups, no significant differences were found in power, vertical jump height, and 40-
yard sprint agility. However, significant differences between the CE and CT groups
were observed in Delta 1 RM squats and Delta 1 RM power clean.
Contradictory to the research mentioned earlier, Weiss, Fry, Wood & Melton
(1998) found that vertical jumps were not improved by machine-based heavy
resistance training either in the deep squats or shallow squats training regime which
was conducted in novice lifters over eight weeks of training.
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Likewise, Young, Wilson & Byrne (1999) compared the effects of vertical
jumping performance and leg extensors qualities in males. Three groups were formed,
namely a control group, a maximum rebound height group (DJ) and a maximum
rebound and minimum ground contact group (DJCT). The drop jump training was
conducted at heights of 30, 45, 60, and 75 cm. 72-90 drop jumps per week were
performed for six weeks. The DJCT group showed greater improvement by 20% in
reactive strength. However, this difference did not translate into vertical jump
performance. No significant difference was found in the DJ group.
2.3 Complex Training
Complex training interchanges resistance training and plyometric exercises that are
biomechanically similar in nature to sports movements and contained in the same
training session (Libby, 2006).
Newton, Kraemer and Hakkinen (1999) investigated the effects of ballistic
training on the vertical jump in highly trained elite volleyball players during pre-
season preparation. Sixteen male players participated in the study. They were
randomly divided into control and experimental group after completing a series of
tests which consisted of the standing vertical jump and reach, and jump and reach
from a three-step approach. The vertical jump test was performed on a Plyometric
Power System and force plate to measure power, force and velocity during jumping.
Athletes were required to complete volleyball on-court training together with a
resistance training program. The treatment group needed to accomplish 8 weeks of
squat jump training on top of the training program mentioned earlier. The control
group carried out squat and leg press exercises at 6 RM. The results illustrated a
significant improvement by 3.1% in the standing vertical jump and reach and 5.1% in
the jump and reach in the three-step approach. It was also concluded that an increase
in overall force output during jumping and increase in rate of force development were
resulted in increased jump height.
Ebben (2002) examined the effect of a warm-up on the upper squat, back
squat, loaded jumps and truck jumps on the performance of the countermovement
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jump. He found that no significance effect was seen when all the subjects were
combined. However, when the males were analysed separately, jump distance was
greater after performing the snatch as a weightlifting warm-up. This suggested that
specific exercises may have an effect on subsequent jumps.
The effects of a complex training and detraining program on selected strength
and power variables in early pubertal boys were examined. The boys were randomly
assigned to experimental and control groups. Training was planned three times per
week for twelve weeks, consisting of dynamics constant external resistance and
plyometrics. Complex training was related to minor improvements in peak and mean
power during training. No significant increase was observed in the control group.
There was an increase in dynamic strength by 24.3-71.4% but a slight improvement in
40-m sprint running, basketball chest pass and vertical jump test performance was
observed in the experimental group (Ingle, Sleap & Tolfrey, 2006).
Fagan (2000) conducted research to differentiate the effectiveness of
maximum power in ballistic training from maximum strength training on physical
performance. A two-phase periodized training program progressing from strength into
power improvement for ten weeks was designed. Subjects were tested at pre-, mid-
and post-training in which both groups carried out plyometrics during the second
phase of training. Both groups showed improvement in stair climbing power and squat
strength. The ballistic training group was also observed to increase in the static jump
and peak cycle power compared to a prior training program. This implies that ballistic
and strength training merged with plyometrics was helpful in improving lower body
power and strength in trained subjects.
Summary
The principal thought that has inspired this study is based on the findings of power
development. There are many studies which compare resistance and plyometric
training separately to ballistic training but few compare different types of combination
training designs.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter contains procedures and means that will be used to gather information,
facts and figures regarding height, weight and explosive power of novice volleyball
players. All the data gathered will be used to analyze and discussed further in the next
chapter.
3.2 Design of the Study
The design of the study was experimental. All subjects were randomly assigned into
three training programs. ANOVA was used to determine any significant differences
between consecutive squat jump performances. Result will be statistically significant
at the 0.05 level.
3.3 Subjects
Subjects (15 females, 20-25 years; 13 males, 21-30 years) were selected from
members of weight training classes enrolled in semester one at the Universiti
Pendidikan Sultan Idris. They were randomly assigned to three groups, namely weight
training group (WT), plyometric training group (PT) and ballistic training group (BT).
Each group was given a program designed for an intervention period of 8 weeks with
three sessions of three hours per week. The training programs were closely monitored
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throughout the eight weeks by he instructor. Informed consent was obtained from the
students prior to conducting the research.
3.4 Protocol
Each group was given a program divided into three parts. Pre-test was done before
they started the training program. 8 weeks training program was designed before
conducted the post-test. The conditioning phase introduced specific fitness
components and also the adaptation process to the program that was being done. The
students had undergone a general conditioning phase prior to the specific training
program, such as muscular strength and endurance, flexibility and cardiorespiratory
endurance. The program was progressive in its set-up. Each week was characterized
by an increase in sets or repetitions to produce low ground contact (<80) to develop
leg strength. Intensity of weight training group was manipulated by varying the
percentage of individual repetitions maximum conducted during the pre-test. As for
plyometrics, the height of the box was increased every two weeks by 15 cm (6 inches).
They started the training with a low intensity for 2 weeks. Work-rest intervals were
also manipulated throughout the training regime. As the training intensity increased,
the work-rest interval will be increased as well. 3-5 minutes work-rest interval were
given throughout the training program. All the training methods used were based on
training principles described by Earle and Baechle (2004).
During the second phase of the training session (week 4), the intensity was
increased to moderate intensity whereby the students had to complete this exercise for
two weeks and the third phase with the higher intensity.
The weight training group had to perform the clean and jerk, half squat, dead
lifts and power clean. The plyometric group performed the combination of the depth
jump, box jump lateral box push offs and also jump in place. While for ballistic
training, the exercise comprised the depth jump, box jump, half squat and power
clean.
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The weight training group started with 45% of individual repetition maximum
for all the exercises that they performed. The intensity then increased 5 % each week
to 50% in week 2, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75% and 80% as the training progressed
every week. For plyometrics, the height of the jump box was set according to the
manufacture's standard height. They started with 30 cm (12 inches) and then
proceeded to 45 cm (18 inches), 60 cm (24 inches) and 75 cm (30 inches). As for the
ballistic training group, a combination of both training regimes (moderate and high)
were used as a transitional period before they underwent high intensity training,
according to the intensity mentioned earlier on.
3.4.1 Anthropometric Assessment
Height (m) was measured by using a Lafayette stadiometer (Lafayette Instrument Co.
USA, Lafayette, IN, USA) weight (kg) was recorded by using a digital weighing scale,
OMRON Body Fat Analyzer Scale (Model HBF-356). Subjects stood bare-footed on
the weighing scale with sports attire. Height and weight were taken three times (unless
the first two measurements were the same) and the median used for statistical analysis.
3.4.2 Vertical Jump The vertical jump was measured using a Kistler Quattro Jump (Type 9290 AD),
CH8408 Wintherthur, Schweiz. After a sufficient warm-up, the subject stood on the
center of the force plate with the feet flat, the body straight and hands on the waist.
From a stationary position, the subject took off with two feet with no
preliminary steps or shuffling. As they jump, the angle of the knees was not
controlled. The subject then leaped up before take off as high possible and the height
of the jump was recorded automatically using the software specifically for that
machine. Two attempts were allowed with 1-minute break before the next jump to
obtain the best performance. The best height of the jump was used for statistical
analysis.
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3.5 Statistical Analysis
Before treatment of the data, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine
normality of the distribution of the dependent variables. Skewness and kurtosis were
also assessed.
One way ANOVA was used to analyse subject's age, height and weight and to
determine the differences in jumping height between and within groups over time.
Equality of error variance was assessed by the Levene's Test. The level of
significance for the analysis was set at 0.05.
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
4.1 Bio-demographics
Tables 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 display the descriptive statistics for age, height and body mass
in the plyometric, weight training and the complex training groups for both males and
females. The distributions for age was normal (p > 0.05) and not skewed or kurtotic
for all groups. The error variance for age was equal across groups (p=0.519).
Table 4.1.1
Means and standard deviations of age (years), height (cm) and body mass (kg) in young novice male volleyball players.
Plyometric Training Weight Training Complex Training
Age (years) 25.33 ±1.52 24.25 ±3.94 24.17 ±3.06
Height (cm) 169.67 ±5.86 168.13 ±1.31 170.83 ±7.89
Weight (kg) 61.53 ±7.00 63.25 ± 9.77 67.03 ± 8.71