The Dunedin Causeway. Archaeological Investigations at the Wall Street Mall Site, Dunedin. Archaeological Site I44/469

The Dunedin Causeway

Archæological Investigations at the Wall Street Mall Site

George Street, Dunedin

Archæological site I44/469

Archæological Authority No. 2007/354

Report on Archæological Investigations

for

Dunedin City Council

P.G. Petchey

Southern Archæology Ltd.

2009

Southern Archæology Ltd.

P.O. Box 6331

Dunedin

New Zealand

ISBN 978-0-473-16923-7

Cover illustration: The causeway timbers on 27th June 2008.

The Dunedin Causeway: Archæology of the Wall Street Mall

1

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements....................................................................................................3

Part I Introduction & Background ...........................................................................4

Introduction................................................................................................................4

Description of Project ................................................................................................4

Legal Description.......................................................................................................4

Historical Background ...............................................................................................6

General History..........................................................................................................6

Deka/Wall St. Site History.......................................................................................10

The Site in 2007 .......................................................................................................16

Previous Archæological Investigations....................................................................17

Part II Archæological Investigation .......................................................................18

The Timber Causeway .............................................................................................20

Description of Timber Causeway & its Context......................................................25

The Causeway......................................................................................................25

Occupation layers overlying the causeway..........................................................29

Drainage Trenches ...................................................................................................33

Trench 1 ...............................................................................................................33

Trenches 1A & 1B ...............................................................................................35

The Limestone Path (Feature 1)...........................................................................37

Trenches 1D & 1E ...............................................................................................39

Trench 2 ...................................................................................................................40

Trench 3 ...................................................................................................................41

Oil Tank Removal................................................................................................42

Crane Shaft & Escalator Pit .....................................................................................43

Escalator Pit .............................................................................................................44

Lift Shaft Pit & Adjoining Areas ............................................................................45

Features 10 & 10a ................................................................................................45

Southern Area of Site...............................................................................................47

Section 40 (Area C) .................................................................................................48

Section 41 Rubbish Deposit.....................................................................................52

Part III The Artefactual Material..............................................................................55

Glass.........................................................................................................................56

Methodology ........................................................................................................56

Discussion of Glass Assemblage .........................................................................57

Section 41 rubbish deposit ...................................................................................57

Area C ..................................................................................................................59

Lift Shaft ..............................................................................................................59

Crane Shaft...........................................................................................................60

Escalator Pit .........................................................................................................60

Causeway .............................................................................................................60

Trench 1A & 1B...................................................................................................60

Bottle Types .........................................................................................................62

Bottle Top Foils .......................................................................................................68

Ceramics ..................................................................................................................69

Ceramic Pattern & Forms ....................................................................................70

Makers’ Marks .....................................................................................................78

Unidentified & Pattern Marks..............................................................................81

Discussion of Ceramics Assemblage ...................................................................83


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Clay pipes.................................................................................................................85

Makers’ Marks .....................................................................................................85

Decorated Pipes ...................................................................................................85

Porcelain Pipe ......................................................................................................85

Summary of Clay Pipes .......................................................................................86

Metal ........................................................................................................................87

Matchboxes ..............................................................................................................87

Tin Cans ...................................................................................................................88

Tin-plate Plates ........................................................................................................90

Nails .........................................................................................................................91

Tools ........................................................................................................................92

Harness.....................................................................................................................94

Personal & Household Items ...................................................................................96

Clothing & Textiles................................................................................................100

Woven Bags .......................................................................................................103

Footwear ................................................................................................................106

Discussion of Footwear......................................................................................109

Timber Artefacts ....................................................................................................110

Mosaic Pavement ...................................................................................................111

Faunal Material ......................................................................................................113

Summary of Faunal Material .............................................................................115

Botanical Material..................................................................................................116

Summary of Botanical Material.........................................................................118

Part IV Discussion ..................................................................................................119

Timber Causeway ..................................................................................................121

Deposits over Causeway........................................................................................121

Section 41 Rubbish Deposit...................................................................................122

Section 40 (Area C) ...............................................................................................123

Crane Shaft & Escalator Pit ...................................................................................123

Lift Shaft (Features 10 & 10a) ...............................................................................124

Trench 1A, 1B & 1C..............................................................................................124

Trench 2 .................................................................................................................125

Trench 3 .................................................................................................................125

References..................................................................................................................127

Photographs........................................................................................................129

Appendix A................................................................................................................130

Glossary of terms & abbreviations ........................................................................130

Appendix B ................................................................................................................131

Bottle classifications from Bedford (1986)............................................................131

Appendix C ................................................................................................................134

Artefact catalogue (On Disc) .................................................................................134


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Acknowledgements

A very large number of people have assisted with this archæological investigation, both on

site and behind the scenes. In particular I would like to thank the excavators, particularly

those who braced the mid-winter wet mud during the excavation of the causeway. Maria

Butcher, Jason Gay and Jenepher Glover worked for weeks in some extremely trying

conditions in mud, rain and snow. Also in the mud at various times were Sheryl McPherson,

Hayden Cawte, Elise Allen, Andy Brown, Carmen Sarjeant, Matt Carter, Bill Edwards and

Ed and Diana Gonzales-Tennent. James Robinson kindly directed excavations while I was

away overseas.

On site Dave McKenzie of the Dunedin City Council, and Blair McGill and Neale Davis of

Naylor Love managed the overall project, and liaised with the archæologists whenever a new

area was available for investigation.

The New Zealand Historic Places Trust issued the archæological authority under which the

archæological investigations were undertaken, and worked with the Dunedin City Council to

ensure that the archæological programme was properly managed. Matt Schmidt and Owen

Graham of the Trust both did a considerable amount of work behind the scenes.

Dilys Johns of the National Conservation Laboratory for Wet Organic Archæological

Materials at the University of Auckland carried out the conservation work on the causeway

and woven bags, and provided general conservation advice. Rod Wallace of the Anthropology

Department at the University of Auckland carried out the timber identifications from the site.

Dr. Ralph Allen assisted with the identifications of other botanical material. Catherine Smith

of the University of Otago carried out fabric identification. Laboratory analysis of the

artefacts from the site was carried out with the help of Maria Butcher, Jason Gay, Sheryl

McPherson and Anna Willis. The Hocken Library gave permission to reproduce historic maps

and photographs. The artefact collection from the site will be held by the Otago Settlers

Museum.

Finally, the Dunedin City Council funded the archæological excavation and the conservation

of the timber causeway, and through Otago Settlers Museum will continue to conserve the

causeway timbers and artefact collection from the site.


4

‘Wall Street’ Development

Report on Archæological Investigations

P.G. Petchey

Part I Introduction & Background

Introduction

In 2009 the Dunedin City Council opened the new ‘Wall Street’ mall on the site of the old

‘Deka’ building on George Street in Dunedin. The Deka building was constructed in the late

1960s for Woolworths (N.Z.) Ltd., and at that time all earlier buildings were demolished and

the site was cleared. An archæological assessment (Petchey 2007a) indicated that earlier

archæological material might still survive beneath the 1960s building, based on experience of

investigations at other nearby sites, particularly the nearby Farmers site on George Street

(Petchey 2004). An archæological authority for the development was issued by the New

Zealand Historic Places Trust (No. 2007/354), and archæological investigations were

undertaken by Southern Archæology Ltd. of Dunedin.

The site proved to be rich in archæological features, and in particular a number of wet

anaerobic deposits were found that contained large amounts of well-preserved organic

material. The most notable of these was the timber causeway (archæological site I44/469)

found near the middle of the site. This was a 12 metre long causeway that was probably laid

down in the 1850s or early 1860s to cross a particularly muddy area. Found nearby were three

bags woven from a natural leaf (Z10590, 10591 and 105921). Other material included well-

preserved fabrics, horse harness and tools. Structural features included a limestone path,

several shallow basements and the remains of a late nineteenth/early twentieth century mosaic

shop entrance. This report details all of the material and features that were found on the site,

and attempts to place them in an historical context within early Dunedin.

Description of Project

The Wall Street mall is a multi-story retail and commercial development, with its main façade

and public entrance on George Street, but with other entrances on St Andrew and Filleul

Streets. Construction started in September 2007, and the mall was completed in mid-2009.

The new building was constructed on shallow raft and beam concrete foundations, with

deeper excavations only for drains, lift and pump shafts, and for a tower crane that was used

during construction and then dismantled and removed. There is no basement.

Legal Description

The proposed development is within Block XX City of Dunedin; this block is bounded by

George, St. Andrew, Filleul and Hanover Streets. In terms of the original town survey, it

covers all of Sections 42, 70 and 71, and parts of sections 40, 41, 43, 69 and 72, Block XX,

City of Dunedin. The area of the mall development, with modern cadastral boundaries, is

shown in Figure, and the section numbers are shown in Figure 2. Throughout this report the

original section numbers are used, as these relate to the historical activities on the site.

1 The Z-numbers were allocated by the Ministry of Culture & Heritage under the Protected Objects

Act.


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Figure 1

The location of the Wall Street Mall in central Dunedin. The site is marked in black.

Figure 2

Part of Block XX Dunedin,

showing section boundaries

(solid lines) and numbers,

and the extent of the

Deka/Wall Street site

(dashed lines).


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Historical Background

General History

The Otago settlement was a joint venture between the New Zealand Company and the Lay

Association of the Free Church of Scotland, which purchased 144,600 acres of land in coastal

Otago in 1844. The intention was to establish a Wakefield class settlement, where the

community would have two main classes, a land-owning capitalist class, and a wage-earning

working class. The head of Otago Harbour was selected as the site for the main town in 1844

by the Company surveyor, Frederick Tuckett. Charles Kettle and his assistants Robert Park

and William Davidson carried out the main survey in 1846 (McDonald 1965: 1-4). The town

was named “Dunedin,” the Gaelic form of Edinburgh.

The town survey had to take into account the topography of the chosen site, and it was

certainly not possible to comply with the Company’s wishes that it emulate the plan of

Edinburgh. The layout adopted by Kettle had a main road running roughly north-south across

the head of the harbour, this being George Street (at the north end) and Princes Street (at the

south end). In the middle, where the road names changed, was the ‘town square,’ the Octagon

(although not so named at the time). Just to the south of the Octagon was Bell Hill, which

divided the low-lying flat ground at the head of the harbour in two. On the north side of Bell

Hill was “a swampy flat…interposed between the hills and a rather indeterminate shoreline”

(McDonald 1965: 2). A swampy tidal inlet ran in from the harbour to the area bounded by

Great King Street, Cumberland Street, Moray Place and Hanover Street (see Figure 3).

Figure 3

The site of the Wall Street Mall in relation to Kettle’s original town plan, the tidal inlet

and the site of the 2003 Farmers archæological excavations.


7

The first two ships carrying settlers, the John Wickliffe and the Philip Laing, arrived in March

and April 1848. A makeshift barracks was built to house them, but the settlers were soon

making efforts to construct new homes. Initially huts of scrub and bushes were built for

temporary accommodation, while more permanent structures were put up. There had been

several sawyers on the first ships, and they soon set to work felling trees and supplying timber

(Wood 1997: 57). Those materials that were to hand were used, which included timber and

clay with thatched or shingled roofs. One settler, James Adams, even used standing trees to

build his house, running string lines for the walls through a clump of Mapau trees, keeping

any trees that were on the lines. He noted that there was a difference of two feet in the gables,

but as ‘no-one could see all four corners at once, he was the only one to know it’ (Wood

1997: 57).

Dunedin’s early growth was concentrated along Princes and Rattray Streets on the south side

of Bell Hill, in the area now known as the Exchange. Ballots for land in the new settlement

had been drawn on 21 April 1848, and very few settlers chose ground north of Stuart Street

(McDonald 1965:13). The bulk of Bell Hill was a considerable hindrance to northward

expansion, and the swampy northern ground did not encourage settlement. Nevertheless,

some did choose to live there, as the unclaimed sections provided rent-free space for

squatters. Figure 4 shows the north Dunedin area in 1861, with a scattering of buildings,

remnants of bush, areas of flax, and the tidal inlet (with the tide out).

Figure 4

North Dunedin from View Street in 1861. The ‘swamp’ is in the middle distance. In the

background is Pelichet Bay (now reclaimed and the location of Logan Park). The Wall

St/Deka site is to the left of this view. (Hocken Library)

Figure 5 shows the view immediately to the left of Figure 4, and includes the area where the

Wall St. Mall development would be built in 2008. It can be seen how development was

slowly getting underway along the line of George Street, but that most buildings were small

and modest. The actual site of the 2008 development is partly obscured by a house on Stuart

Street, but enough is visible to show that in 1861 the area was undulating and covered with

flax.


8

Figure 5

The North Dunedin flat from View Street in 1861, immediately to the left of Figure 3.

Stuart Street runs horizontally through the middle of the view. The Wall St/Deka site is

behind the house on the left just across Stuart Street. (Hocken Library).

As Dunedin grew, problems of drainage and effluent and rubbish disposal soon began to

emerge. In wet weather roads turned to quagmires, and the term “Mud-edin” was coined

(Wood 1997: 80). Complaints were voiced about the “stagnant swamps, putrid pools,

loathsome heaps of excrement, polluted streams and disgusting cesspools,” the swamp (with

its “thick green slime”) on the northern flat coming in for a considerable amount of attention

(Wood 1997:62, 76). The rapid expansion of Dunedin that occurred with the 1860s gold

rushes only exacerbated the situation. Finally the swamp was filled in using material from

nearby excavations, work being largely finished by 1869 (Wood 1997: 78).

In the 1860s and 1870s the rapid expansion of the town saw increased building north of Bell

Hill, and George Street was lined with commercial premises of all descriptions. The nature of

the businesses reflected the fact that this was no longer a frontier town, with jewellers and

paperhangers present alongside storekeepers and coal merchants. However, back away from

the main thoroughfare, there was still much open ground, and the swamp still existed until the

end of the decade. But by the 1870s the tidal inlet had been filled and almost completely built

over, a December 1874 panorama of Dunedin (Figure 6) showing the areas between George

Street, Great King Street and Cumberland Street fully occupied with business premises and

small cottages.


9

Figure 6

North Dunedin in 1874, after the flats had been reclaimed and built up during the

economic boom created by the Otago gold rushes. George Street is to the left and Great

King Street to the right. Part of Moray Place can be seen in the foreground. The

Deka/Wall Street site is upper left centre. (Hocken Library)

By the 1880s a number of imposing commercial buildings had been built fronting George

Street, with yards and workshops behind. One of these was the A. & T. Inglis building, which

later became the Farmers buildings, and was the subject of a major redevelopment in 2003,

which was accompanied by an archæological investigation programme (Petchey 2004).


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Deka/Wall St. Site History

The more detailed history of the Deka/Wall St. site can be described using a combination of

Dunedin City Council records (valuation rolls and rates books) and a series of detailed

insurance plans of city blocks dated 1888, 1892 and 1927. The plans for Block XX (including

the Deka/Wall Street site) are reproduced in part here as Figures 8, 9 & 10. Figure 7 shows

the section numbers, and is to the same orientation as the insurance plans (north to the right).

Figure 7

Part of Block XX, showing the section

boundaries and numbers, together with the

Deka/Wall St. development site. Note that

this presents the same information as Figure

2, but reset to the same orientation as the

insurance plans below.

The earliest records for Block XX are the 1857

valuation rolls. At that time part of the area

fronting St. Andrew Street was occupied, by

David Hutchinson, who owned the land along

with John Curle. Hutchinson had a ‘dwelling

house and garden’ on the property. The balance

of the site was owned by William Wilson,

Thomas Edmonston and Denis Heenan, but was

unoccupied. The following year a similar

situation continued, but in 1859 Sections 42 and

43 were occupied by George Mathew, and

Section 71 by Denis Heenan. Sections 69 and 70 continued to be unoccupied in 1860 and

1861. Unfortunately there is then a break in the surviving records, and it is not until 1875 that

the DCC records recommence. This gap covers the key years of the gold rush, when

development of this area increased markedly, and all of the sections became occupied.

However, these early records do confirm that prior to the goldrush the area was only sparsely

occupied, with large open areas present.

In 1875 all of the sections had been occupied, although as the 1888 insurance plan (Figure 8)

shows, there was still much open space between the buildings in places. Sections 40 and 41

were occupied by a number of small houses: it is likely that these were 5 terraced houses

facing St. Andrew Street (again see the 1888 insurance plan), and 6 very small houses down

an alley to the rear. Jas. Curle owned most of these properties, but they were occupied by a

number of different tenants. Importantly, all of the George Street frontage was occupied, in

one case (part Section 71) by a Chinese, Chin Ching. These George Street occupancies were

mainly commercial (shops) to the front, with houses to the rear of the sections. Across the

centre of the site, in Sections 41 and 42, A. Fulton had a factory, timber yard and premises,

including a house. This indicates that as well as residential and retail activity, there was also

commercial manufacturing occurring in the same area.

This pattern, once established, appears to have continued for a considerable time. The DCC

Valuation Books fortunately also record occupations of the occupiers (in most cases). In 1876

along George Street the roll recorded a herbalist (replaced by a fruiterer), a bootmaker,

builders (Eaton & Co, apparently having taken over A. Fulton’s premises), a carpenter, a toy

shop2, storekeepers, a baker, another fruiterer, a broker and another bootmaker. In many cases

these are recorded as a ‘shop and dwelling,’ suggesting that the business owner lived in the

2 The handwriting is sometimes hard to read, and mistakes in reading the entries may be present.


11

same building, but in several cases a ‘house to rear’ was indicated. A number of workshops

were also present behind the shops.

The actual layout of the site and location and size of the buildings present is clarified

somewhat by the insurance plans, which recorded in detail the actual structures on the site.

The earliest known plan was produced in 1888 (Figure 8).

Figure 8

Part of 1888 insurance plan of Block XX, with area of the proposed Deka/Wall Street

development marked (Note that north is to the right, with George Street to bottom of

page). “H” indicates a dwelling house. (Hocken Library)

At this date the George Street frontage consisted of a series of two story buildings, mostly

shops and ‘prem’ (premises). Most of section 42 was an open yard, with a house fronting

Filleul Street. At this date these two sections were owned and occupied by A. Cornwall,

butcher, although they had earlier been a timber yard. The St. Andrew Street and Filleul

Street frontages were occupied by dwelling houses (marked with an ‘H’ on the plan), Filleul

Street at the time being a residential rather than commercial street. The row of terraced houses

on Section 40 facing St. Andrew Street were still owned by John Curle, who had owned the

land in 1857. Most of the neighbouring Section 41 was owned by James Curle. Between them

these two men had 11 houses on the two properties, and although they are both also listed as

occupiers, the valuation roll indicates that the houses were let monthly, suggesting that the

houses were let to tenants on short term leases or rental.


12

A second snapshot in time is provided just four years later by the 1892 insurance plan (Figure

9). At this date the site had changed little from four years earlier. However, the commercial

occupants were marked, and along George Street are Neil Chemist, Stokes & Son, Frost

Photographer, Hendry Tailors, Lawrence Butcher, the Drapery Supply Association, Bank of

Australasia and Collins Boots. Another bootmaker was located on St. Andrew Street. The

Filleul Street section (section 42) was still an open yard, and the building on the street

frontage appears to be marked as vacant. The Filleul/St. Andrew corner was occupied by a

number of small and very small houses (marked ‘D’ for dwelling on the 1892 plan).

Figure 9

Part of 1892 insurance plan of Block XX with area of the proposed Deka/Wall Street

development marked (George Street to bottom of page). “D” indicates a dwelling house.

(Hocken Library)

By the turn of the century the overall picture remained much the same, although the

properties owned by John and James Curle had been purchased by Bendix Hallenstein

(merchant), along with much of Section 72 on the George St./St. Andrew St. Corner. By 1909

this corner was owned by William Penrose, who built his large department store in that year.

This building is still (2009) standing, occupied by Starbucks Coffee and State Insurance.


13

The next insurance plan was drawn in 1927 (Figure 10), and shows Penrose’s store on the

George St. corner, and the majority of Sections 40 and 41 (outside the Deka/Wall St area) had

been cleared of their small houses and two factory buildings erected instead.

Figure 10

Part of 1927 insurance plan of Block XX with area of the proposed Deka/Wall Street

development marked (George Street to bottom of page). (Hocken Library)

The rest of the site still consisted of a collection of small buildings, some of which were

present in 1888. The other main change had been on the southern half of Section 71, which

was now occupied by Woolworths Department Stores, replacing a large number of smaller

structures (Neil Chemist and Stokes & Son on the 1892 plan). This is significant, as it is the

expansion of this business that led to the clearance of the site in 1967 for the erection of a

new, much larger, Woolworths department store (later to become Deka).

Otherwise, in 1927, Section 42 on Filleul Street was still mainly open, and was evidently

being used as a yard for a number of small businesses associated with the building trades,

namely a plumber, two painters and a builder. There were also several garages. By this date

the nature of Filleul Street had begun to change, and commercial premises were replacing

dwelling houses.


14

The low-altitude aerial photographs of the city flown every ten years from 1947 for the DCC

allow another look at the area in some detail. The 1947 aerial (Figure 11) shows that although

the George and St. Andrew Street frontages were completely occupied by large

commercial/retail premises, Filleul Street and the middle ground in the block remained

largely residential. In particular, several reasonably sized houses and gardens, including large

trees, were located behind the shop buildings.

Figure 11

Detail of 1947 aerial photograph, to the same orientation as Figures 8 to 10.

(Dunedin City Council)

In 1967 the site was partly redeveloped by Woolworths (N.Z.) Ltd. Plans held by the Dunedin

City Council show that the George Street occupants at that date had been The Lamb Skin

Centre, Elliot’s Hairdressers, the Disabled Servicemen’s Shop, Windsor Furs and

Woolworths. The Filleul Street frontage (all of section 42) was simply a sealed car park.


15

Figure 12

George Street in 1958, showing the shop frontages that were replaced in 1967. The

Penrose’s Building (directly behind the trolley bus) is still standing, but the series of

buildings back towards the photographer were demolished, and their site is now (2009)

occupied by the Wall Street Mall. (Evening Star photograph).

The site has therefore had a mixed history of residential, retail and commercial use, with the

commercial/retail use slowly gaining ascendancy until 1967, when the site was completely

redeveloped into a retail complex. Prior to the goldrushes of the 1860s there was slow

development, with just a few houses being built in the 1850s, but otherwise the area consisted

of unmodified open ground. With the economic boom of the goldrush the George Street

frontage was quickly occupied by a series of small shops, while St. Andrew St. was occupied

by shops at its eastern end and terrace housing at its western end. Filleul St was also largely

residential, while the area in the middle of the block consisted of open yards, small service

buildings and some houses. As the archaeological evidence discussed later has shown, this

intensification of use was accompanied by a period of ground build-up, in order to create a

high, drier, more level area. Much of the clay fill probably came from the cutting of the

Filleul Street roadline. Over time the area became more strongly commercial, particularly

with the construction of the Dominion Manufacturing Co. dress factory one the corner of

Filleul and St. Andrew Streets and the erection of William Penrose’s new department store,

but some residences and gardens survived in the middle area until the mid-twentieth century,

particularly in the area immediately to the north of the Deka/Wall St. development. The 1967

redevelopment brought about a complete change in the nature of the area, but also sealed

older archaeological deposits that were revealed with the 2007-2009 redevelopment.


16

The Site in 2007

Immediately prior to the start of the redevelopment work in 2007, the site was occupied by

the Woolworths department store building that had been erected in 1967. Still known as the

‘Deka’ building after the store that was the last main occupant, it was latterly occupied by

Paper Plus (stationers and booksellers) and a series of short-term lessees. The building itself

had a modernist light metal front, which was out of keeping with the Victorian and Edwardian

facades that typify George Street. Its immediate neighbour was the old Penrose’s Department

Store building, now occupied by Starbuck’s Coffee and State Insurance.

Figure 13

The George Street frontage of the Deka building prior to its demolition in 2007.

Figure 14

The St. Andrew Street frontage in 2007, prior to demolition work starting. The 1960s

building with the brick panels was largely replaced.


17

Previous Archæological Investigations

The site of the Farmers department store redevelopment a short distance away on the other

side of George Street (see Figure 3) was the subject of an archæological investigation in 2003

(Petchey 2004). This found a well-preserved and rich archæological assemblage dating from

the 1860s and 1870s, encapsulated beneath later building activity. This site had been at the

edge of the infamous ‘swamp,’’ and flax and rubbish from the shoreline was found. The site

was sloping down towards the harbour, and generally it was found that the lower parts of the

site had been filled, and in some areas contained rich archæological deposits, while the higher

parts of the site (fronting George Street) had been cut down and contained little of

archæological interest. The Meridian Mall development in the same block as the Wall Street

development involved excavation to considerable depth, but no archæological investigations

were carried out.

Further south, archaeological investigations have been carried out at the site of the old

Dunedin Gaol (Petchey 2002), the site of an old biscuit factory on lower Moray Place (Hamel

2004) and the Countdown Supermarket carpark (Hamel 2008) that is on the old shoreline of

the inlet. All of these investigations have found considerable evidence of past activity and the

development of Dunedin, the Countdown Supermarket excavation being notable for also

recovering timbers preserved in wet anaerobic conditions.


18

Part II Archæological Investigation

The archæological investigation into the Deka/Wall Street site was not carried out in a single

event, but progressed gradually as construction progressed. This was because the construction

contractors did not wish to excavate the whole site at once, as the disturbed ground would

then make any construction activity difficult, especially in wet weather. The archæological

work was thus carried out in two main periods and a series of shorter stages. While a

pragmatic necessity, this approach did make the archæological investigation somewhat

disjointed. This was particularly the case in the area to the south-west of the site, where a

series of underpinning holes were dug to allow concrete foundations to be poured to support a

a neighbouring building. This area was archæologically rich, but was dug in a series of

disjointed small excavations. However, the discussion below attempts to present the work in a

cohesive fashion, although the descriptive and slightly random area designations that were

used on site have been retained throughout the report to ensure that the field notes, catalogue,

artefact bag numbers and descriptions and the report itself remain consistent.

The two main archæological investigations were at the start of the project (September 2007),

when one of the main service trenches (Trench 1)3 was dug, and at the end of the earthworks

in June 2008 when the timber causeway was found. Ironically, the causeway was found

during what was expected to be the last on-site archæological work, in one of the last areas of

the site to be developed. In between these two events numerous site visits and small

excavations were undertaken, and a great deal of artefactual material was recovered while

working alongside the earthworks contractors on site. Despite the scale of the overall

development, some archaeological material remains on site, as excavations were limited to

those areas required for construction, with the exception of the timber causeway that was

more completely exposed and a small extra area around a limestone path (Feature 1 in

Trenches 1A and 1B).

The archæological excavation work itself was undertaken in several ways. In most cases work

simply involved monitoring during bulk excavation, with the recovery of any artefatual

material that was exposed, and more careful cleaning and recording of any features found. In

some places areas were then opened up by hand excavation to expose more significant

features. The mains areas of such detailed excavation were Trenches 1A and 1B, where a

limestone path was revealed, and the timber causeway, which was entirely excavated by hand

once most of the clay overburden had been removed by machine.

The archæological areas and features discussed below are shown in Figure 15, the overall site

plan. Detail plans of individual features are presented in the text. The original legal

description for each main area of excavation is given in the text, as this allows reference back

to the early owners and occupiers of each section, as outlined above in the History section.

This cadastral information is also referenced in the Discussion section below.

The timber causeway and its excavation are discussed first, because it was probably the oldest

feature to be found, and because of the general interest in this part of the site. Following that

the rest of the site is discussed. Thirdly there is a discussion of the artefactual material (Part

III of the report), and lastly a general discussion of the overall findings (Part IV).

3 Note that the trench numbering given here is unique to the archæological work.


19

Figure 15

Overall site plan showing the locations of the main excavation areas and features. The

relationship between the excavated areas and the original town survey is shown in

Figure 16 below.

Figure 16 (Left)

The original surveyed

sections, with the Deka/Wall

St. site shown by dashed lines.


20

The Timber Causeway

The timber causeway was a ca. 11 metre long

causeway constructed from bush-cut timbers and

laid across a boggy depression at the edge of the

North Dunedin flat. It was the last feature to be

excavated at the site, but is probably the oldest

feature that was found and attracted a great deal of

media attention, and is therefore described first.

The causeway was located in the south-east corner

of section 42 Block XX Dunedin, although it is

likely to have been built informally before the legal

sections were fenced as it does not lie in relation to

any formal boundaries or properties.

The causeway was initially found during what was intended to be the last archæological

excavation on the site in June 2008. A small excavation was opened up, and a buried cultural

soil horizon was identified about 1 metre below the modern ground surface. The artefactual

material from this layer is discussed below, described as ‘Occupation layers overlying

causeway.’

When this soil horizon was dug through, a small section of what were obviously deliberately

cut and laid timbers was found in one corner of the unit (Figure 17). Because of the interest of

this feature, and the fact that it clearly extended further into the baulk, the decision was made

to extend the excavation approximately 1.5 metres to the north (Figures 18 & 19). This

extension found that the causeway continued, and a section was then found 11 metres to the

south-east in a service trench. After discussions between DCC, Historic Places Trust and

Naylor Love, the decision was made to excavate the full accessible length of the causeway

(Figures 20 & 21).

Figure 17

The first exposure of the timber causeway on June 26th 2008. Note the dense clay fill

over the causeway that produced the anaerobic conditions that preserved the timbers.

Scale is 0.5m long.


21

Figure 18

Work in progress extending the causeway excavation on June 27th 2008, showing the

muddy conditions that had to be contended with. From left: Jason Gay, Maria Butcher,

Jenepher Glover.

Figure 19

The causeway after the extended area had been excavated on June 27th 2008. At this

point the decision was made to excavate the entire feature.


22

The overburden (up to 1 metre thick) was removed in bulk by a hydraulic excavator, exposing

the occupation layer on top of the silt and clay that covered the causeway. This silt and clay

was then excavated by hand. Once fully exposed the causeway was photographed and drawn

to scale. Whenever the causeway was to be left for more than a day without any work

occurring, it was flooded to protect the timbers from deterioration. When it was being worked

on it was regularly sprayed to keep it wet.

Figure 20

Bulk excavation of

the overburden

over the timber

causeway. The

tarpaulin is

protecting the

already-exposed

section of the

causeway.

Figure 21

Work in progress on the excavation of the entire length of the timber causeway, view

from the roof of the partially-completed Wall St. mall building.


23

Figure 22

The same view as Figure 21 after the causeway had been completely exposed.

Discussions were then held to decide how to permanently deal with the causeway. The two

options were retention and conservation on-site, or removal for conservation off-site. A start

was made on on-site preparation, involving sheet-piling off a section of the causeway, but

ultimately the conservation advice was to remove most of the timbers for off-site treatment,

with some left permanently in the ground beneath the development. Accordingly, all of the

timbers to be removed were numbered on the plan, and each timber was labelled with a

numbered tyvek tag. The timbers were then lifted, with some having to be cut through to

release them. At this stage it was found that at the muddiest western end of the causeway

there was another set of bearers laid beneath the main longitudinal timbers. These were

deeply embedded in the wet mud. The final timbers were lifted on August 15th 2008.

Once lifted the timbers were immersed in water in a large tank before conservation treatment

started. This is currently (2010) underway in Dunedin, under the direction of Dily Johns of

the Anthropology Department, University of Auckland. The process involves the

impregnation of the timber with PEG (polyethylene glycol) solution prior to gradual drying

out. Once this treatment is completed, it is likely that part of the conserved section will go on

display in the Wall Street Mall, and a larger part will be housed in the Otago Settlers

Museum.


24

Figure 23

Plan of the timber causeway.


25

Description of Timber Causeway & its Context

The Causeway

The timber causeway is constructed from timbers cut from local bush, and laid down in a

rough crib structure. The lowest section of the causeway, at the north-western end, was

constructed in deep mud, and had three layers of timbers: several large cross-members, three

longitudinal runners, and then the corduroy timbers on top. The balance of the causeway

simply has the main runners and corduroy. All of the timbers were axe-cut, and no nails or

other fastenings were used. Some of the runners had notches cut into their top surface to hold

the corduroy timbers.

The timber used was a mixture of local timbers. Timber identifications were carried out by

Rod Wallace (University of Auckland). The most common was kanuka (Kunzea ericoides),

followed by mapau (Myrsine australis), with Olearia , Pittosporum, putaputaweta

(Carpodetus serratus), mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus) and rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) also

present. These were all part of the forest cover that the first European settlers to Dunedin

found covering the lower hillslopes (Allen 1994: 49). Sizes ranged from 150mm diameter for

some of the largest timbers down to small twigs. Beneath and between some of the logs were

flax (Phormium tenax) leaves, indicating that the causeway had been laid across flax-covered

ground.

Figure 24

The excavated causeway with a 2 metre string grid set out.

The causeway was excavated over an area of approximately 11 metres by 4 metres, running

from the north-west to the south-east. At neither end of the excavation was the actual end of

the causeway found (the excavation area was constrained by surrounding construction), but

from the layout that was observed, it is unlikely that it ran much further. It appears to have

been built across a particularly muddy swale at the base of the hillside that bounds the North

Dunedin flat. Figure 25 to 29 show the causeway in some detail.


26

Figure 25

Oblique view of the causeway taken from a man-cage suspended beneath the tower

crane. Looking from the west, north is to the left.


27

Figure 26

Oblique view of the central section of the causeway. The ceramic drain (top left) had

been partially cut through the causeway timbers at some stage.

Figure 27

Detail of the lowest part of the causeway, where it crossed the muddiest area. Note that a

greater number of heavy timbers packed closely together were used here than elsewhere

in the structure.


28

Figure 28

A close up of some of the causeway timbers immediately after their first exposure,

clearly showing their well preserved axe-cut ends.

Figure 29

Detail of the southern end of the timber causeway, after the top timbers (top of picture)

had been partially cut away, exposing the bearers beneath. Scale is 0.5m long. The small

white squares on the timbers are number tags. The remains of flax leaves can be seen in

the mud to the mid-right of the view.


29

Occupation layers overlying the causeway

Section 42, Block XX, Dunedin (rear of section)

As mentioned above, the timber causeway was found beneath a well-defined buried

nineteenth century occupation sequence approximately 1 metre below the modern ground

surface. This sequence had at least four definable phases, with a build up of material of

approximately 10mm to 20mm between each phase (Figure 31). The uppermost surface

contained a lot of organic material, with grass, sticks and some artefacts (Figure 30). This

overlay a darker looser organic layer, also with some artefactual material (a jug, a boot and a

large dowel). Below this was a mottled orange/grey clay layer, which overlay a cleaner grey

clay (the silty clay fill that covered the causeway).

Figure 30 (Left)

The uppermost surface of the occupation

sequence. A branch with twigs is lying on

the surface below the scale, and the small

test pit at the top left shows the underlying

dark organic layer. Scale is 0.5m long.

Figure 31 (Right)

Excavation of surfaces exposed in digger

trench on June 26th 2008. The surfaces

have been ‘peeled’ back for this view,

with the uppermost surface removed, the

second surface to the rear, and lower

(earlier) surfaces in the middle and close

to the camera. The causeway was found

in the top right section of this unit after

another 150mm of soil was removed.


30

Figure 32

Partial ceramic jug lying on the second (very dark organic) layer. Scale is 0.5m long.

When these surfaces were removed, the causeway was found about 100mm to 150mm lower,

in a fine grey clay/silt matrix. As described and illustrated above only a small section of the

causeway was exposed at this stage, and the excavation was greatly expanded to expose the

entire structure. The grey silt/clay matrix was found across the entire causeway, and is shown

in section in Figures 33 to 35.

Figure 33

General view of the section over the causeway, southern baulk. The grey clay and dark

occupation surface over the timbers is well defined, overlain by clay fill, brick rubble fill

and modern gravel fill. Scale is 0.5m long.


31

Figure 34

Close-up detail of the clay/silt layer over the timber causeway. There is a very clear dark

horizon on the top of the grey mottled clay over the timbers, indicating that this was an

exposed ground surface for some time. This is discussed in some detail in the text. The

scale is 0.5m long.

Figure 35

Section along the southern baulk of the causeway excavation

This grey clay layer contained some artefactual material, although it is notable that the very

rich artefactual deposits that were found to the south (see discussion below, Section 41

Rubbish Deposit) were not present here. Within the grey clay were several totara

(Podocarpus totara) timber roof shingles, a black bottle base a strange rubber item, shaped at

one end into a dog’s head, and a loose nail. This general lack of artefactual material in the

clay suggests that it was deposited reasonably rapidly, and that there was generally little

intensive activity in the area, indicating a pre-goldrush date of construction. The roof shingles


32

were all unused, and had therefore probably been dropped while being transported to a house

under construction, confirming an early date for the causeway. Early photographs of Dunedin

show a plethora of shingle roofs, but by the 1870s more permanent materials such as

corrugated iron and slate were more common. How the grey clay was laid down is not clear,

but it does appear to have been deliberately deposited, as it is reasonably even in consistency

and coverage. As can be seen in Figure 34, there is some mottling and swirling apparent in

the section, possibly indicating some sorting and/or mixing while wet.

Underlying the causeway was clean clay, with no artefactual material. Flax leaf fibres were

trapped beneath and between the timbers, indicating that the causeway was laid down through

an area of flax bushes, which is supported by the 1860s photographs of the area (Figure 5).

Examination of the 1888 insurance plan of this area (Figure 8 above) shows that the site of

the causeway excavation was covered by a two-storey stable by that date, indicating that the

cultural deposits described above pre-date that stable building. This is discussed further below

in the Discussion section.


33

Drainage Trenches

Three long, deep trenches were dug across the site at the start of the project (Trenches 1, 2

and 3). These were to carry the main drains from the overall complex out to the main sewers

beneath George Street. The three trenches ran east-west across the site (see Figure 15), and

were 2 metres wide and approximately 1.8m deep at their eastern ends, sloping up gently

towards the west. They were utilised for the archæological investigation to allow the overall

site stratigraphy to be examined, and they also encountered a number of archaeological

features. Each trench ran in a different legal section: Trench 1 was in Section 69 Block XX,

Trench 2 was in Section 70, and Trench 3 was in Section 71.

Trench 1

Trench 1 was excavated at the northern end of

the site, parallel to the northern boundary. It ran

through Section 69 Block XX Dunedin. Five side

extensions (Trenches 1A to 1E) were dug to

investigate particular features or areas that were

revealed in the main trench. The most significant

feature exposed in these trenches was a

limestone path (Feature 1) that was exposed in

Trenches 1A and 1B (Figures 39 and 40), but

there were also several wall foundations, a brick

floor or surface and a timber-lined drain. Trench

1C provided information for the cross-section

drawings, but revealed no structural features.

Figure 36

Section drawing of north baulk of Trench 1 prior to excavation of side areas. West is to

the left (0m).

The general stratigraphy (Figure 36) consisted of clay and rubble fill overlying a buried

occupation layer that in turn overlaid clean clay. The original ground surface descended

towards the west, where there probably is a buried stream course. The sequence of land filling

can be determined from the section drawing: there was initial occupation on the original soil


34

surface (upon which the Limestone path, Feature 1, was laid); later the lowest area was filled

with clay (0 to 12 metres on Figure 36); and finally the whole area was built up with mixed

fill.

At a distance of 35 metres from the George Street boundary (at 1 metre on Figure 36) an old

timber lined drain (Feature 5) was found in the base of Trench 1. This crossed the trench line,

and so its start and end could not be determined, but it was probably associated with attempts

to drain water into the stream course that once existed here (see discussion below under

‘Crane Shaft Pit’).

Figure 37

Timber-lined drain (Feature 5) exposed in the bottom of Trench 1. Scale is 0.5m long.


35

Trenches 1A & 1B

Trenches 1A & B were side extensions to trench 1, and were initially excavated to investigate

a limestone path (Feature 1, discussed in detail below), and were extended to examine the

nature of the buried occupation surface associated with the path. The occupation layer was

dark organic soil that also contained a great deal of artefactual and organic material, as well

as clinker, ashes and charcoal. Trench 1A was extended 4 metres to the north, and revealed a

number of placed stones and bricks that appear to have been rough piles for a timber

structure. It is of note that these piles were not dug into the old ground surface at all, and they

were constructed from bricks that had earlier been used in a chimney, as some were soot-

stained on one surface. It is also of note that the stratigraphic sections (Figures 36 & 41)

suggests that the original ground surface was descending to the west and north, probably into

the possible old stream bed discussed above. The Crane Shaft excavation (discussed below)

also found evidence of this stream course. At the very northerly extent of Trench 1A a pit

containing well preserved flax leaves and some artefactual material was found (Feature 4).

Figure 38

Trench 1 (right) and Trench 1A (left), with the limestone path (Feature 1) running

vertically through the picture. Brick piles for a building are visible in the middle and left

of the view. Note the very dark organic nature of the buried soil horizon (exposed in the

middle of the view), and the mixed yellow clay and rubble overburden visible in the rear

baulk.


36

Figure 39 (Above)

Trench 1A, showing the limestone path

and brick piles.

Figure 40 (Left)

Trench 1B, 3 metres to the west of

Trench 1A, showing the continuation of

the limestone path.


37

Figure 41

Cross-section through Trench 1A (left) Trench 1 (centre) and Trench 1C (right).

The Limestone Path (Feature 1)

The limestone path was situated immediately beside Trench 1, and was traced for a distance

of approximately ten metres (although its full length was not determined). It was exposed in

Trenches 1A and 1B, with a 3 metre unexcavated baulk left between them.

The path itself consisted of a narrow (approx. 0.5m wide) formation that consisted of offcut

slabs of limestone. The thickness of the blocks varied greatly, and some had worn down

and/or broken up in use (see Figures 42 and 43). In most places the blocks were simply laid

directly on a bed of clinker and ash, although this was possibly scattered about generally

when the path was laid, and became trodden in elsewhere. In one place in Trench 1B some

stone blocks had also been placed under the paving stones (visible in Figure 44). The paving

stones appear to have been offcuts from a mason or stoneworker, as they are random shapes,

but generally have cut edges.

Figure 42

Detail of limestone path (Feature 1) exposed in Trench 1A. Scale is 0.5m long.


38

Figure 43

Detail of limestone path (Feature 1) exposed in Trench 1B. This image was taken to

illustrate the curve worn in the path through long use. Scale is 0.5m long.

Figure 44

A view into trench 1B, after part of the limestone path had been lifted. The blocks under

the path (right) and the clay fill over the old ground surface can be seen. The scale is

0.5m long, and is resting on the buried ground surface. To the right of the scale is a test

pit dug into this old soil.


39

Trenches 1D & 1E

Trench 1D was excavated to investigate a stone wall foundation, and Trench 1E investigated

a brick paved floor and concentration of leather offcuts.

The remains of several wall foundations (Feature 2) were found near the George Street

frontage. One alignment ran alongside the edge of Trench 1, and one was cut through by

Trench 1. Part of this cut alignment was investigated in Trench 1D. This exposed a rough

foundation line, but the surviving section was only traced for a distance of 1.3m (Figure 45).

These walls were from shop buildings that fronted George Street that were possibly built in

the 1860s or 1870s.

Figure 45

Section of stone wall foundation (Feature 2) exposed in Trench 1D. Scale is 0.5m long.

Trench 1E was located 4.5m to the west of

Trench 1D. It exposed an area of brick floor

(Feature 5) and an associated shallow but dense

deposit of leather offcuts.

Figure 46 (Left)

An area of brick floor (Feature 3) exposed in

Trench 1E. Scale is 0.5m long.

As it is known that both a drapery and a

bootmaker had premises in this area in the

nineteenth century the leather offcuts could be

associated with one of these businesses.


40

Trench 2

Trench 2 was parallel to Trench 1, and of similar

dimensions. It ran east-west approximately

through the middle of the site, within Section 70

Block XX Dunedin. At the George Street end of

the trench an old topsoil was exposed in the

trench sections immediately below modern sand

fill, suggesting that when the site was

redeveloped in 1967 this old soil horizon was

exposed and possibly partially skimmed off.

Below the soil was clean yellow clay.

Two small rubbish concentrations were found.

Feature 6 was a small concentration 11.5 metres

from the George Street boundary, and included ceramics, bone and glass. Feature 7 was a

concentration of ceramics 13.5 metres from George Street. Neither concentration was large,

and it is not clear whether they were primary or secondary deposits. It is likely that they were

small rubbish pits or rubbish accumulations in depressions that were truncated in the late

1960s when the site was developed for Woolworths (NZ) Ltd.

A brick foundation wall was found 22.5 metres from George Street (at 16m on Figure 47). It

measured 1.1m wide, and was laid on a 0.1m thick bed of concrete. Nearby the trench cut

through a brick septic tank that measured 2.2m long by 1.1m wide and 1.1m deep. Note that

Figure 47 does not show this structure, as it was in the south baulk.

Figure 47

Section drawing of north baulk of Trench 2. West is to the left (0m).


41

Trench 3

Trench 3 was parallel to Trenches 1 and 2, and

ran east-west across the site 16 metres south of

Trench 2, within Section 71 Block XX Dunedin.

The main features encountered by this trench

were two filled-in shallow cellars or basements.

The topsoil horizon that was present in Trenches

1 and 2 was largely absent in this trench, it

having probably been cut away in 1967 or

earlier.

One cellar (Cellar 1) was immediately adjacent

to the George Street frontage (the front wall was

set back 230mm from the footpath edge). It measured 11.7 metres long (back from the street)

and 4m wide. It was constructed of unreinforced concrete with some noticeably large lumps

of stone in the mix. The floor was 2.1m below the footpath level, and was crushed rock in a

tar slurry. The inside face of the front wall had a sand and lime plaster finish, while the other

three walls were simply painted white.

This cellar had been filled with demolition rubble, probably from the building that once stood

over it. This demolition was probably part of the 1967 redevelopment of the site. Amongst the

rubble was a broken-up mosaic pavement, similar to those that can still be seen in some

Dunedin shop doorways (such as in the entrance to the Evening Star building on lower Stuart

Street). Part of this mosaic was recovered for partial reconstruction, and is discussed in detail

below in Part III Artefactual Material.

The second cellar (Cellar 2) was 22.2 metres back from the George Street frontage. It was

5.75m long, but its width was not exposed during the site excavation. It too had concrete

walls, but the floor was 0.4m higher than that in Cellar 1. The concrete walls stood to a

maximum height of 0.65m. It was filled with clay, rubble and sand.

Figure 48

View of part of Trench 3, with the concrete wall of Cellar 2 visible below the digger.


42

Oil Tank Removal

On November 21st 2007 an underground oil tank

was removed from the site, beyond the end of

Trench 3 at the rear of Section 71 Block XX

Dunedin. Most of the ground in the vicinity of

this tank had been disturbed, by the original

installation of the tank and by the 1967

redevelopment of the site. Two small rubbish pits

were recorded (Features 8 and 9), although their

shape was hard to define, and they may have

been related or intercut. Feature 8 was a small pit

that contained some timber, and was dark and

water-logged. Feature 9 was partially timber

lined, and contained glass, fabric and fish bone. The boards from the base of the pit appear to

have been from the ends of a barrel, as they were semi-circular with a chamfered edge.


43

Crane Shaft & Escalator Pit

A large pit for the foundations of the tower crane

that was to be used during construction was

excavated on September 19th 2007, at the rear of

Section 70 Block XX Dunedin. This pit

measured 5m by 5m, and quickly encountered

archæological material. Just below the existing

(2007) ground surface an old soil surface was

exposed (Layer 1), together with some bottle

glass and a timber beam. Further excavation

revealed a deeper soil horizon (Layer 2), sloping

down towards the north. It quickly became

apparent that the excavation had encountered the

edge of a filled stream course, with one bank having been exposed. The old ground surface

contained a very dense concentration of artefactual material (laid down as a sheet deposit),

together with a great deal of flax and organic matter. In common with other parts of the

overall site, anaerobic conditions associated with the levelling of the ground using clay fill

had preserved a great deal of the organic material. A 40mm thick layer of plant material was

present over the original ground surface.

Figure 49 (Left)

Section of west side of Crane

Shaft. This shows the buried

cultural deposits overlying the

stream bank mud deposits, with

clean natural clay at the bottom.


44

Escalator Pit

The escalator pit was excavated on August 15th 2007, immediately adjacent to the Crane

Shaft. The excavation measured 5m by 2m, and revealed a very dense sloping deposit of

broken bottle glass overlain by a layer of clay fill, and then a layer of mixed gravel fill

(Figure 50). The glass appears to have been simply dumped down a bank in reasonably large

quantities. The sloping ground surface is a continuation of that found in the Crane Shaft, and

is probably an old stream bank. However, the escalator pit excavation was not as deep as that

for the crane, so the deeper organic layers that were probably present at depth were not

exposed.

Figure 50

Side of the escalator pit excavation (NE baulk), showing the bottle glass dump (right

half of picture, descending to the left into the water).


45

Lift Shaft Pit & Adjoining Areas

The Lift Shaft pit, approximately in the middle

of the site at the rear of Section 71 Block XX

Dunedin, was excavated on November 27th 2007.

Again, this involved the monitoring of bulk

excavation by a hydraulic digger. The excavation

measured 5.5m by 3m, and revealed a shallow

cellar floor that had been backfilled with a lot of

artefactual material (Feature 10). Three days

later a beam foundation trench was excavated 1

metre to the north of this pit, and on December

3rd another excavation was made linking the two

areas (Lift shaft pit extension). This found a

concentration of artefactual material within the

cellar (Feature 10a), including tools and harness parts.

Features 10 & 10a

Feature 10 was a brick paved cellar floor 1.4m below the modern (2007) ground surface. It

had been filled to a depth of 0.7m with a mixture of broken black bottle glass and bricks and

grey clay. There were several distinct concentrations of black glass, in a layer of up to 250mm

thick. The black bottle glass was all typical of the 1870s-1880s period, suggesting that this

feature was filled at a relatively early date, although because of the patchy deposition in

association with heavy clay fill it is possible that the glass was in secondary deposition.

Over the clay & glass layer was 400mm of mixed rubble fill, including bricks, sand, clay,

glass and a set of iron window bars. It appears that this material was probably deposited

during the 1967 redevelopment of the site. Over this layer was 0.3m of modern fill, probably

laid down in 1967.

Figure 51 (Left)

Detail of the brick floor (Feature 10)

exposed in the Lift Shaft pit excavated

on November 27th 2007. Note the layer of

grey clay overlying the bricks, in turn

overlain by mixed fill.

The brick floor had been laid on natural

clay, and when it was removed, a timber-

lined drain was found beneath it (Figure

52). This ran from the north-west to the

south-east corners of the excavated area,

and was 170mm deep and 240mm wide.


46

Figure 52 (Right)

Detail of the timber drain found below the brick floor in the Lift Shaft pit.

Further excavation on December 3rd extended to the west, and located the western extent of

the cellar, and found a concentration of artefactual material in the north-western corner fill of

the cellar (Feature 10a). This included horse harness, tools, a peg wrapped with copper wire

and quantities of wood shavings.

The beam foundation trench to the north of the Lift Shaft pit produced only a small amount of

artefactual material, although it was notable that natural clay was struck at a shallower level

than the brick floor (Feature 10), meaning that the edge of the shallow cellar was somewhere

between the Lift Shaft and the beam trench.


47

Southern Area of Site

The southern-central area of the site effectively consisted of the area between the Great Taste

Restaurant building and the Penrose’s building (west to east) and from the Crane Shaft

excavation to St. Andrew Street (north to south). This is the eastern (rear) parts of Sections 40

and 41 of the original survey of this town block, and it was found during excavation that this

area, and in particular the rear of Section 41, contained a very rich midden deposit dating to

the late nineteenth century. The small parts of Sections 71 and 72 included within this area

yielded very little archæological material.

Figure 53

Plan showing the relationship between the

Southern Area of excavations and the

original town sections.

Excavations in this area were extremely

disjointed because of the nature of the overall

construction schedule. The main excavation

events were the excavation of a series of

underpinning holes along the Great Taste

Restaurant wall (Nov 07 to Feb 08), a main

north-south trench (Area C digger trench, 15-

17 Dec 07), and a series of areas to the north of

this trench (Grid 12 rubbish area, F-G 10-12, 12, 18 March 08). This disjointed approach

meant that the overall nature of this part of site was recorded in a very piecemeal way, but in

the discussions below the excavations have been combined into two major areas: Section 40

(Area C); and Section 41 rubbish deposit.

The south-western boundary of the site was against the wall of an existing building, currently

the ‘Great Taste’ restaurant. This wall required underpinning to ensure its stability, and this

was carried out between November 2007 and February 2008. The process involved digging a

series of 1.5 m wide by 2m holes (although some extended further out from the wall) against

and beneath the base of the wall and pouring new concrete foundations. Eventually a new

supporting foundation for the entire wall was constructed, without ever having had more than

a 2m length of wall unsupported during the work. Each of these underpinning holes was

monitored. The first three holes were recorded as underpinning holes 1 to 3, with subsequent

holes recorded as Areas D1 to D8, then Areas 7, 8, 9 and 10. Adjacent areas were then

excavated out from the wall line, and these found continuations of the same cultural deposits

found in the underpinning holes.

The general stratigraphic sequence of this overall area appears to have been fairly simple.

About 0.5m to 0.7m of mixed fill (brick rubble, sand, gravel, clay) overlay 0.2m to 0.5m of

clay fill, which in turn overlay a cultural horizon created by the late nineteenth century

occupation of the site. The clay fill over this horizon created an airtight seal, which when

combined with the wet ground conditions, created the anaerobic conditions found there. There

were, of course, many minor variations to this sequence, and numerous other features such as

a stone wall foundation, a number of posts, and a buried barrel (probably a barrel latrine), that

were dug into or through these main layers. Of particular note was that fact that cultural layer

from St. Andrew Street north for approximately 20 metres was largely defined by a dense but

relatively thin (40mm to 250mm) layer of wood chips (the Section 40 Block XX features

described below), while from about 28 metres north from St. Andrew Street there was a

thicker and very rich rubbish deposit that included glass, ceramics, tin cans, fabric, harness

and plant material (the Section 41 Block XX features described below).


48

Section 40 (Area C)

Section 40 Block XX Dunedin

This is the eastern part of what was originally

surveyed as Section 40 Block XX Dunedin.

Archæological investigations in this area were

carried out in a number of stages. These involved

the excavation of a series of underpinning holes

along the Great Taste restaurant wall (which

continued into the neighbouring area (Section 41)

and the excavation of a large trench (Area C

Digger Trench).

A major feature of this area exposed in both the

underpinning holes and the main trench was a

buried layer of woodchips and shavings. This

layer started about 6.75m north of the St. Andrew Street boundary, and continued to about 21

metres from this boundary. A sample was identified as totara (Podocarpus totara), and some

manuka or kanuka bark was also present.

In the underpinning holes a bluestone wall foundation (Figure 54) was found running north-

south parallel to the Great Taste Restaurant wall. This started 2.3m north of the St. Andrew

Street boundary, and continued for about 8 metres. It was constructed of large stone blocks,

was approximately 440mm thick, and 1 metre deep. It was constructed within mixed fill, and

so had been constructed after the site had been built up some time after the first period of

occupation.

Figure 54

S e c t i o n d r a w i n g o f

underpinning excavation D3,

showing the bluestone wall

foundation, clay fill, and layer

of woodworking detritus.

On the edge of underpinning hole D3 there was an intact buried wooden barrel (see Figure

55). This measured 0.9m high and 0.55 max. diameter. It contained mixed fill and rubble in

the top and dark wet soil fill with artefactual material (glass, fabric, sheet metal) in the

bottom. It was probably a barrel latrine that had been filled with rubbish and then rubble

when it ceased being used.

The Area C Digger Trench (Figures 55 and 56) was dug on December 15th and 17th 2007.

Initially a 2 metre wide trench was dug on a north-south alignment in the area between the


49

Great Taste restaurant building and the Penrose’s building for a distance of about 20 metres.

This was later widened another 2 metres to the east for about half its length.

The trench exposed a buried occupation horizon at a depth of about 1.2m below the modern

ground surface, overlain by 2 main fill layers. This was the same general stratigraphic

sequence as exposed in the immediately adjacent underpinning holes (see Figure 57). The

main occupation horizon consisted of dark stained fragments of cut bark and wood (Figure

58) that formed a 20-50mm mat over the natural clay beneath. Amongst this wood material

were a small range of artefacts including glass, ceramics, metal and fabric. The southern

extent of this wood chip layer coincided with a row of wooden posts, that might represent the

rear of a building fronted St. Andrew Street. The wood chip layer continued to the north to

approximately 21m from the St. Andrew Street boundary, although it was disturbed in places

making this measurement difficult.

The clay fill over this wood chip layer was mottled and reasonably clean, although a few

artefacts and plant fragments were found in it. The general monolithic nature of this fill

suggests that it was placed on site in a single deliberate event, in order to raise and level the

area.

The top layer of fill was far more mixed, and included brick rubble and clay. It contained

multiple lenses of artefacts and appears to have been built up over a period of time.

Artefactual mater ia l

included glass, ceramics,

fabric and metal, including

a small cricket badge ‘The

All-England’ (discussed in

detail in the Artefacts

section below), and a

cache of small iron candle

holders.

Figure 55

Plan of Section 40 (Area

C) showing features

associated with upper

cultural layer.

A number of posts and

post holes, together with

two stone wall foundation

lines, were identified

during the excavation of

the trenches. The main

alignment of posts was

north-south in the trench

extension, parallel to, and

approximately 8m east of, the Great Taste restaurant wall. Both stone wall lines (see Figure

59) ran west-east, approximately 8m and 14m north of the St. Andrew Street boundary.


50

Figure 56

Plan of Section 40 (Area

C) showing features

associated with lower

cultural layer (covered

with wood chips). Note

north-south row of post

butts.

Figure 57

Section drawing of Area C digger trench.


51

Figure 58

A general view of part of Area C

Digger Trench, showing the wood

chip cultural horizon exposed. The

ranging poles are 2m long. (Photo:

James Robinson)

Figure 59

Remnant stone wall line in Area

C digger trench. Scale is 0.5m

long. (Photo: James Robinson)


52

Section 41 Rubbish Deposit

Section 41 Block XX Dunedin

This feature was dug in a somewhat disjointed

way over some three to four months. The first

excavations were the underpinning holes along

the Great Taste restaurant wall (Underpinning

Holes 1 & 3, Area D5, Areas 8 & 9). Then the

‘Grid 12 rubbish area’ was excavated in two

visits, followed by the immediately adjacent F-G

10-124 area. It occupied the rear (east) of Section

41 Block XX Town of Dunedin. The main

feature was a very dense deposit of artefactual

and botanical material in an anaerobic context.

Stratigraphically it appears to have been a

continuation of the occupation horizon (wood

chip layer) found in the Area C trench, although with a very different content. It occupied

much of the rear portion of section 41 that was within the Deka/Wall St. development.

The stratigraphy of this area (see Figure 60) consisted of a very rich artefactual layer that was

up to 200mm thick, lying on an undulating surface of clean clay. Overlying the rich artefact

layer was a 0.2 to 0.3m layer of relatively clean clay fill, which had been cut through in

places by service trenches. On top of this was a surface that had a small amount of cultural

material, which was in turn overlain by 0.6m of fill (gravel, rubble, sand, clay).

Figure 60

Section is side of excavation of F-G 10-12 area. The scale is 0.5m long. The very rich

cultural layer is the dark band 0.1m to 0.2m above the base of the excavation.

4 ‘Grid 12 and F-G 10-12’ refer to the locations of the excavations in relation to the grid on the

construction plans for the project.


53

Figure 61

View of section in Underpinning Hole 3. To the top is the concrete beam of the

foundations of the neighbouring building. The scale (0.5m long) is pegged to the baulk

just above the base of the very rich cultural layer (4 in Figure 62).

Figure 62 (Left)

Cross-section drawing of Underpinning

Hole 3. The rich cultural deposit is

shown as (4) Dark cultural soil.

The ground was very wet, and the presence of clay both above and below the cultural deposit

had created the anaerobic conditions that preserved some artefacts and botanical material in

excellent condition. This deposit appeared to be a large sheet deposit; a layer of cultural

material deposited across a relatively flat surface, rather than placed in a pit or depression.

The general matrix was very wet and black and had a distinctive odour as a result of the

anaerobic conditions. The contents of this deposit included glass, ceramics, shoes and boots,

tin cans, tin plate offcuts, fabrics (wool, cotton and silk), harness leather, together with three

woven natural fibre bags. Botanical material included complete branches and tree fern fronds

and trunks, some of which had clearly visible cut marks that showed that they had been cut

down only a short time before the area was filled with clay. The matrix included ash and

clinker together with wood chips. The details of this material are discussed in Part II

Artefactual Material.


54

Figure 63

One of three woven natural fibre bags found in F-G 10-12, at the time of discovery.

Scale is 0.5m long.


55

Part III The Artefactual Material

The excavation of the Deka/Wall St. site recovered a large amount of artefactual material. All

items were bagged on site and then taken to the Southern Archæology laboratory for cleaning,

identification and cataloguing. The exceptions to this were the three woven bags that were

stored in water in refrigerators prior to being taken to the Conservation Laboratory at

Auckland University, and the causeway timbers which were immersed in tanks in a Dunedin

City Council store in Bauchop Street, where they are presently (2010) undergoing

conservation treatment under the direction of Dilys Johns.

Material was sorted into basic categories based on material (glass, ceramics, metal,

wood/botanical, faunal, fabric), with some sub-categories based on form and use (clay pipes,

metal matchboxes, childrens’ marbles, personal & household items, shoes). Each category

was catalogued within a discrete number sequence.

Catalogue number sequences:

10001- Glass

15001- Metal

20001- Ceramics

25001- Tin cans

30001- Fabrics

35001- Miscellaneous timber artefacts

40001- Household items

45001- Matchboxes

50001- Stone (limestone path & slate)

55001- Clay pipes

60001- Shoes

65001- Miscellaneous items

70001- Harness

75001- Worked wood

80001- Personal items

85001- Botanical

90001- Faunal

95001- Nails

In the discussion below the catalogue numbers quoted relate to this database.


56

Glass

Methodology

The glassware from the Deka/Wall St. site was overwhelmingly from bottles, although

drinking glasses, window glass, lamp glass and some moulded ornamental glass (possibly

from lamp reservoirs) also present. Some glass children’s marbles were found, and are

discussed separately. Most glass items were fragmentary, although numerous complete bottles

were found, including two perfume bottles with their stoppers still in place and contents

partially intact.

At the excavation and preliminary sorting stage, fragments from the bodies of bottles were

discarded unless they bore embossing, the final identification and quantification of the bottles

being based on tops and bases. Basic identifications and descriptions (particularly of neck

form) were based on personal experience and the use of material from Bedford (1986, 20-23),

here reproduced in Appendix B. Calculation of MNV numbers were based on two counts;

tops and bases, the greater of each count for each type of bottle within an excavation unit

being quoted. Fragmentary tops and bases were counted to the nearest 20th using a concentric

circle chart divided into 20 segments (Smith 2004, Fig. 6.2). In practice the base count almost

invariably was greater, probably due to the more robust nature of bottle bases when compared

to tops, leading to higher rates of recovery on site. The MNV for the overall Deka/Wall St.

assemblage, including all glass vessel types, was 407 vessels (base count). However, some

areas were only sampled during excavation (such as the dumped glass in Feature 10), so the

actual number of vessels on this site was much higher.

Association of bottle form and colour with contents has often involved a degree of

assumption in the analysis of New Zealand historic archæological assemblages, this “folk

taxonomy” being a problem that Smith (pers. comm.) has commented on. In the absence of

labels or embossing, many relatively common bottle types have acquired ‘common names,’

such as “black beer” and “ring seal beer” (the latter also referred to as “champagne” bottles).

However, examples of bottles that have been found with labels have shown that while these

terms can often be correct, these bottles could also hold other contents. A partial ‘alcohol

type’ bottle found at the St. Peter’s Vicarage site in Queenstown bore a label for ‘Superior

Lime Juice’ (Petchey 2007b: Figure 64), underlining the need for caution.

Nevertheless, the discussion below does make certain assumptions about bottle form and

contents, not least because this involves what has become a standard terminology, and is

consistent with the illustrations in Appendix B. For some bottles, particularly a number of

condiment vessels and specific patented aerated water bottle designs, there is no doubt about

contents and use. Examples are the Worcester sauce bottle (Appendix B; p), which is still a

recognisable design in use today, ornate salad oil bottles (Appendix B; q & r), and Codd’s

patent aerated water bottle with internal marble stopper (Appendix B; s).

Dating of bottles is generally based on manufacturing technology and known dates of design

patents, such as the Codd patent mentioned above (patented in 1872, (Tasker1989: 60)), with

additional information supplied by embossing and/or label remnants identifying either the

bottle manufacturer or the supplier of the contents (such as chemists or pickle manufacturers).

A particularly useful date marker is the transition from a hand-applied neck form to machine-

made necks, which generally happened around the turn of the twentieth century.

Descriptions of basic colours such as blue, green and clear are straightforward. Aqua bottles

are clear with either a blue or green tint. ‘Black’ bottles are common in assemblages that pre-

date c.1880-1890, and appear black at first glance but are actually a dark amber or green

when held against a light source. ‘Milk’ glass is opaque white. Most of the assemblage was

black, aqua, green or clear.


57

Discussion of Glass Assemblage

As stated above, there was an MNV of 407 vessels recovered from the Deka/Wall St. site.

The glass assemblage was dominated by bottles, and in particular alcohol bottles, which

formed the largest group in most excavation areas. Other glass vessel forms included drinking

glasses, oil lamp parts and candle holders. Window glass and mirror glass were also present,

although they do not figure in the MNV calculations.

The largest glass collection was from the Section 41 rubbish deposit (combined areas of Grid

12, F-G 1-012, Underpinning Holes 1 & 3, D5, Areas 8 & 9). A total MNV of 172 was

counted in this combined area, although this area was sampled only, and so the actual number

of bottles that were present would have been greater. The next largest assemblages were the

Lift Shaft (Feature 10 & 10a) (MNV=59), The Crane Shaft (Layer 1 MNV=29, Layer 2

MNV=30), and the Escalator Pit (MNV=27). It should be noted that assemblages from the

Lift Shaft and the Escalator pit were both highly fragmented and limited samples only were

recovered, so the true number of bottles present in each of these areas would have been

greater. However, the overall relative composition of each assemblage will be correct.

Each excavation area is discussed first below, then the overall types of bottles and glassware

are discussed and illustrated.

Section 41 rubbish depositSection 41 Block XX Dunedin

The Section 41 rubbish deposit was a single large sheet deposit that was securely sealed

beneath clay fill, and is therefore of some interest as it should represent the consumption

pattern of the residents of the immediate area (Section 41 Block XX). The numbers of vessels

recovered from this assemblage are given in Table 1.

Bottle type/shape MNV (Tops) MNV (Bases)

Round black (beer & whiskey) 43 79

Round green 11 11

Case gin 11 15

Salad oil 10 12

Pharmaceutical 3 10

Wide mouth jar 8 4

Drinking glass 1 7

Worcester sauce 4 6

Oval 5 5

Round brown 4 2

Hamilton patent (torpedo) 1 3

Cobalt blue round 3 3

Perfume 2 2

Round clear 1 -

Pill or essence 1 -

Vinegar 1 1

Square - 1

Rectangular 1 1

Bell shaped - 1

Oil lamp - 1

Table 1. Glass vessel MNV counts for the Section 41 deposit.


58

As can be seen, alcohol bottles, and those that were likely to have contained alcohol (round

green bottles), dominated the assemblage, with up to 106 bottles present out of the 172

vessels (62% of the assemblage). Of note is the fact that most of these were ‘black’ bottles,

which are typical of the period prior to ca.1880, after which time green ‘ring seal beer’ bottles

became more common. The next most numerous class was table bottles (salad oil, Worcester

sauce, vinegar), with an MNV of 19 bottles present. Some of the wide neck jars (MNV=8) in

the assemblage are likely to have held pickles or salt, and could therefore be included in this

category.

Pharmaceutical bottles from this area included 6 aqua blue bottles embossed “B. Bagley,

Chemist, Dunedin.” B. Bagley’s chemist shop was situated on George Street, and his

advertisements stated that the company had been established in 1862 (Otago Witness 16 Oct.

1875: 2). Bagley died in 1895 (Otago Witness 31 March 1898: 36). The 3 cobalt blue bottles

could be included in the pharmaceutical category, as this type of bottle was generally used for

castor oil and other medicinal contents.

Of particular note were two small clear glass perfume bottles embossed “Piesse & Lubin,

London.” These two bottles had ground glass stoppers that were still in place (and could not

be removed), and some contents remained apparently unadulterated.

Figure 64

The two Piesse & Lubin London perfume

bottles from Section 41.

Overall the Section 41 deposit contained a typical nineteenth century mixture of bottles, the

manufacturing technology and bottle types present indicating a deposition date of prior to ca.

1880. Alcohol bottles were the most numerous, as has been found on many similar sites. At

the nearby Farmers site alcohol bottles made up 50% to 82% of each area assemblage.

Farmers Area C was associated with a row of small working class cottages and had an MNV

of 161 bottles, of which 80 (50%) were alcohol-related, 44 of these being black beer/whiskey

bottles (Petchey 2004). The Deka Section 41 deposit also appears to be associated with a

series of small working class cottages, and the pattern found there is broadly similar to the

Farmers Area C assemblage, with a preponderance of black beer/whiskey bottles (MNV=79).


59

Area CSection 40 Block XX Dunedin

This area had a noticeably smaller glass assemblage than the neighbouring Section 41. The

total bottle MNV was just 45, of which 7 were found in the buried barrel in Underpinning

Hole D3. The Main trench contained 14 bottles, 9 in the fill layers (Horizon 1), and 5 on the

buried ground surface (Horizon 2). The combined bottle assemblage for this area is given in

Table 2.

Bottle type Trench H1 Trench H2 Underpin etc Barrel

Black beer/whiskey 3 3 12 1

Round alcohol 2 2 2 1

Wide mouth bottle/jar 2 - 1 1

Salad oil - - 2 -

Worcester sauce - - 1 -

Pharmaceutical - - 2 2

Hamilton patent (torpedo) 1 - - -

Rectangular - - 1 -

Round small - - - 1

Oval small - - - 1

Screw top jar - - 1 -

Drinking glass 1 - 1 1

Table 2. Glass vessel MNV counts for Area C (Section 40 Block XX)

The most common bottle type found was the black beer/whiskey bottle, of which 19 examples

were identified. Most were found in the underpinning hole and sewer trench excavations

along the Great Taste restaurant wall. Most other bottle types were found in only small

numbers, although the overall mix of types is indicative of a domestic assemblage, with

condiments (salad oil & Worcester sauce), pharmaceuticals and wide mouth bottles/jars all

present. The glass assemblage from this area also included widow glass and mirror glass

fragments.

Lift Shaft

The Lift Shaft had a reasonably large glass assemblage (MNV=59), but this was almost

entirely made up of black beer and whisky bottles (MNV=58), with just one square

green/black bottle. As already stated, only a sample was taken, and the actual assemblage was

much larger. The glass was very fragmented, with only one complete bottle present. The

assemblage was contained in the fill of this feature in distinct concentrations, and was

possibly redeposited. It was probably associated with alcohol consumption nearby, but it is

not possible to make any definite statements due to the possible redeposition of the material.


60

Crane Shaft

This excavation found reasonably large glass assemblages in two distinct layers. Layer 1

contained a MNV of 31 bottles (including 8 complete), and Layer 2 contained a MNV of 34

bottles (including 3 complete).

Bottle type/shape Layer 1 MNV Layer 2 MNV

Round black (beer & whiskey) 18 14

Round green 5 4

Case gin 4 4

Wide mouth 1 3

Salad oil 1 4

Ring seal beer 1 -

Cobalt blue round 1 1

Moulded vase - 1

Poss. Hamilton (torpedo) - 1

Square - 1

Blake - 1

Table 3. Glass vessel MNV counts for the Crane Shaft excavation.

The overall nature of the assemblages in the two layers was very similar, with black alcohol

bottles being most common in both, followed by round green and case gin being next most

numerous in both cases. Salad oil bottles were slightly more common in Layer 2. The

predominance of black bottles, with just one green ring-seal beer bottle present, suggests a

date of deposition prior to ca. 1880. All of the bottles had hand-applied tops, again supporting

a pre-1900 date for the whole assemblage.

Escalator Pit

The Escalator Pit assemblage appeared to be in general a single dump of broken bottles,

although there were several distinct concentrations within the excavation. This glass had been

dumped down a slope, almost certainly an old stream bank that was also exposed in the Crane

Shaft and in the Trench 1 section. Only a small sample was taken from this assemblage in

order to assess its nature, as its size could not be determined as it extended beyond the

excavated area. The assemblage was highly fragmented, and contained no complete bottles. It

was dominated by black beer/whiskey bottles (MNV=26), with a few ring-seal green bottles

(MNV=2) and one case gin bottle (MNV=1).

The manufacturing technology of the bottles indicated a date of deposition prior to ca. 1880.

The assemblage was dominated by the black glass bottles typical of this period, with applied

tops and domed or conical kick-ups, some with pontil marks. One base bore the maker’s mark

of ‘Cooper & Wood, Portobello.”

Causeway

The timber causeway had one black beer/whiskey bottle base sitting on top of the timbers.

Trench 1A & 1B

The area excavated by Trenches 1A and 1B contained a MNV of 18 bottles, plus fragments

from a drinking glass, a lamp glass, plate glass and some very fine white glass (extremely


61

fragmented). Alcohol bottles were again well-represented, with 3 black beer/whiskey bottles,

2 case gin bottles, and 4 round green bottles that possibly held alcohol. There were 3

rectangular bottles, 2 small round clear bottles (all of which may have been used for

pharmaceutical products), one Worcester sauce, one probable salad oil and one blob-top

aerated water bottle. All of the bottles were of nineteenth century manufacture.


62

Bottle Types

The bottles discussed above were all typical of the late nineteenth century, prior to about 1880

or 1890. The major diagnostic feature of this period is the hand-applied bottle top, but also

typical is the wide variation in size and shape even amongst bottles of the same general type.

This is because they were hand-made, and lack the regulatory of machine-made bottles that

became common in the early twentieth century. This irregularity in bottle shape can be seen

in Figure 65. The basic bottle types recovered from the Deka/Wall St. site are illustrated

below, using complete (or in a few cases, reconstructed) examples.

Figure 65

Selection of small black beer and

whiskey bottles from the Deka site.

These display the typical variation

in shape seen in hand-made

nineteenth century bottles,

particularly the misshapen bottle

on the far left. This assemblage is

typical of the period prior to ca.

1880. From left: D10072b;

D10023a; D10024a; D10081e;

D10072c; D10081a; D10072d.

Figure 66

Large black beer and whiskey

bottles. Again, minor variation in

size and shape can be seen. These

are typical forms found on sites

dating to the 1860s and 1870s.

From left: D10003g; D10081d;

D10002a; D10003h.

Figure 68

Black glass bottles. From left:

D10072e Partial paper label “Cod

Liver Oil.”

D10072f Similar to D10072e.

D10081c Round long neck. 3 piece

mould.

D10088b Round section. 3 piece

mould.


63

Figure 69

Case gin bottles. From left:

D10003e (Pig snout)

D10003d (Cone collar)



Pig-snout gin bottles are typical of the

1860s, while cone collars are typical of

the 1870s.

Figure 70

Round section bottles. All with hand-

applied topd. From left:

D10008e Small ring-seal-beer.

D10004a Green dip-mould.

D10072i Green dip mould.

D10003c Aqua green 3 piece mould.

Figure 71

‘Torpedo’ aerated water bottle.

D10086a.

This form of bottle was in use

throughout the nineteenth century.

Figure 72

Wide mouth bottles. From left:

D10079e

D10079d

D10033a


64

Figure 73

Small salad oil and Worcester

sauce bottles. From left:

D10035a

D10084d Fluted.

D10072h

D10008c ‘Lea & Perrins

Worcester Sauce.’ In use from

ca. 1840 until the present day.

D10089b Plain Worcester sauce.

Figure 74

Typical nineteenth century salad

oil bottles. On left spiral

embossed necks; on right

dimpled bodies. From left:

D10072g

D10037b

D10036a

D10004b

D10093a

D10003a

Figure 75

Household or pharmaceutical

bottles (unembossed). From left:

D10037a Rectangular household

or pharmaceutical

D10079c ‘CBK’ on base.

D10004c

D10088a


65

Figure 76

Pharmaceutical bottles. From

Left:

D10008a Davis Vegetable

Painkiller.

D10008b Barry’s Tricopherous

for the Skin and Hair. New

York. (Late 1840s to ca. 1906).

D10019a Fellows & Co.

Chemists, St. John. N.B.

D10080a B. Bagley, Chemist,

Dunedin. (1862-1895).

D10057d Davis Vegetable

Painkiller.

Figure 77 (Right)

Cobalt blue bottles. From left:

D10034a

“Granular Citrate of Magnesia. Bishops.”

D10003b

Castor oil bottle. Partial bottle top foil.

D10042a

“Granular Citrate of Magnesia. Bishops.”

Figure 78 (Left)

Pressed glass vase or tall glass. 80mm high (base

missing). D10073a.


66

The glass assemblage was dominated by bottles, and in particular alcohol bottles, which

formed the largest group in most excavation areas. Table 4 shows the minimum numbers for

the most commonly occurring bottle types in each of the main excavation units with good

primary context.

Area MNV Black beer Case gin Other alcohol Condiment Pharm. Other

Trench 1A&B 18 3 2 4 2 5 2

Section 41 172 79 15 11 16 10 41

Section 40 45 19 - 7 3 4 12

Crane Shaft 65 32 8 9 5 2 9

Lift Shaft 59 58 - - - - 1

Escalator pit 29 26 1 2 - - -

Table 4. Numbers of bottles in main classes in the main excavation units.

As can be seen, alcohol bottles dominated all areas, particularly the Lift Shaft and Escalator

Pit. But in the areas associated with residential activity (Section 40, Crane Shaft), the mixture

of bottle types is comparable to other historic sites, such as the Farmers assemblage.

However, it should also be remembered that alcohol bottles would have been subject to rapid

use (often in a single sitting, in exactly the same way that a bottle of beer is drunk today)

followed by recycling or discard. A similar situation would have existed for aerated water

bottles. Other types of bottles, such as sauces, pickles and medicines, would have been

subject to a much slower rate of consumption. An apparent preponderance of alcohol bottles

is not necessarily evidence of heavy consumption of alcohol, simply a difference in

consumption patterns for different bottled consumables.

Condiment and pickle bottles were well-represented, and may be under-estimated in the

above discussions due to the fragmented nature of the assemblage. They were certainly

present in significant numbers in Section 41, which was the sealed primary domestic midden

assemblage.

Similarly, pharmaceutical bottles were found in significant numbers in some excavation units.

The common occurrence and sometimes frightening ingredients of some Victorian patent

medicines is well documented (see Tasker 1989: 71), and a number of the potent Davis

Vegetable Painkiller bottles were found. There were several bottles from a local chemist on

George Street, B. Bagley, although the contents of these is not known. A paper label on a

rectangular black glass bottle showed that it contained cod liver oil (see Figure 68), while

another similar bottle had no label but can be assumed to have had the same contents.

The two perfume bottles (Figure 64) from Section 40 were of interest, as they add to the

domestic nature of the assemblage. The contents of both have nearly been used up, but some

remains tightly sealed by the ground glass stoppers.

All of the glassware recovered showed typical nineteenth century manufacturing technology,

with hand-applied tops being ubiquitous. A reasonable number of complete bottles were

found, and they all showed typical nineteenth century characteristics. These included bubbles

and imperfections in the glass, wrench marks in the neck, uneven shapes, pontil scars, and

one, two and three piece mould lines. It is of note that only a few examples of the common

“ring seal beer’ (or “champagne”) bottle were found. This type is extremely common in New

Zealand historic sites that date to after ca.1880, indicating that most of the Deka/Wall St.

assemblages were deposited prior to this date.


67

In general, the bottle assemblages from all of the main excavation units were typical of the

latter half of the nineteenth century, prior to ca. 1880-1890. The Section 41 and Crane Shaft

assemblages appeared to be domestic in nature, with a predominance of alcohol bottles, but a

presence of many other vessel types as well, including table bottles such as sauces and

pickles. The Lift Shaft and Escalator Pit assemblages consisted almost entirely of black

beer/whiskey bottles, and were therefore more likely to have been associated with some more

commercial activity.


68

Bottle Top Foils

Bottle top foils are sections of thin lead sheet wrapped over the corked necks of various

bottles to indicate that the bottle has been sealed and not opened, and were often embossed

with maker’s names and trademarks. These have been discussed as a potentially very good

date marker on historic sites as they are disposed of at the time of use and are not subject to

re-use or curation (Nayton 1992: 75-91). A number of well-preserved foils were found at the

Deka/Wall St. site, although all of the foils recovered were on bottles that had been broken

without being opened first, meaning the foils were intact and in place over the cork.

Two companies were represented amongst the foils, although there were multiple examples of

each. These two companies were J.T. Morton of Leadenhall Street, London, and the Wellpark

Brewery, Dunedin. The Morton tops were on a mixture of salad oil bottles and long-neck

cobalt blue bottles, while the Wellpark tops were on black beer bottles.

There were 8 foils embossed “J.T. Morton, London, 104, 105 & 106 Leadenhall St.” Five

were on spiral-neck salad oil bottles, and 3 were on cobalt blue bottles. All were from the

Section 41 rubbish deposit. JT Morton was a London provision merchant.

Figure 79

Bottle top foil on a broken spiral-neck salad oil

bottle. “J.T. Morton, London”

D10078b, from F-G 10-12 (Section 41) rubbish

scatter.

There were 6 foils embossed “Wellpark Brewery, T.” Again, all were found in the Section 41

rubbish deposit. John and Robert Tennent established a brewery and distillery in Glasgow in

the 1770s, and later took over the adjacent brewery of William McLehose, renaming it Well

Park Brewery. The brewery remains in production today. Foils from this brewery have been

found on other archaeological sites in Otago, including the Farmers site (Petchey 2004: 50)

and the Waikouaiti Hall (Petchey 2008).

Figure 80

Bottle top foil on a broken beer bottle.

“Well Park Brewery”

D10078c, From F-G 10-12 (Section 41) rubbish

scatter.


69

Ceramics

There was a reasonably large ceramics assemblage recovered from the Deka/Wall St. site,

with 1,750 fragments being counted, producing an MNV of 212 although this is certainly a

large under-estimate, as many vessels were represented by single fragments and were not

included in the basic MNV counts.

The assemblage from each excavation unit was sorted individually, by body type, body form

and pattern. An attempt was made to reconstruct all vessels for which a substantial number of

fragments could be found, and MNV counts were made based firstly on these reconstructions,

and then on the remaining fragments based on form, pattern etc. Many vessels were

represented by only a single fragment, and these were not included in the MNV counts given

in the catalogue database. In the discussions below the MNV counts have been refined further

from those given in the catalogue by using the excel database to sort body and pattern types

within each feature (once the entire assemblage had been analysed), allowing otherwise

uncounted fragments to be included in the analysis. Date determinations were made using

makers’ marks, and these are discussed below separately.

The two largest assemblages (based on numbers of fragments present) were the Section 41

rubbish deposit (NISP5=393) and the Crane Shaft excavation (NISP=374).

The Section 41 assemblage was made up largely of domestic vessel forms, and had a basic

MNV count (base on initial lab analysis) of 116 vessels. Artefact types included plates,

bowls, cups, jugs, stoneware bottles, a salt cellar and cosmetics jars. Plates were the most

numerous vessel, with 198 fragments from 55 items. This included 21 white (and white with a

gold band) plates, 8 Asiatic Pheasant and 5 Blue Willow. Stoneware bottles were the next

most common, 15 being represented, including 5 small ink bottles. There was a minimum of

12 cups, 4 ashets and 2 jugs.

The Crane Shaft assemblage also consisted largely of domestic vessels. Once again, plates

were the most common, with a minimum of 23 present, 10 of which were Blue Willow

pattern. There were a minimum of 5 bowls, 5 stoneware bottles (including 1 small ink bottle),

4 chamber pots, 3 cups and 2 mugs. One of these mugs bore the legend in cursive gold script

“A Present for a Good Girl.”

Within the Trench 1 assemblage (NISP=217 fragments), most ceramics found in a secure

context were from Trenches 1A and 1B (NISP=134). This material included plates

(MNV=11), bowls/cups (9), stoneware bottles (4), jugs (3), as well as a teapot and a child’s

toy plate. Feature 3 in Trench 1E contained a child’s toy teapot, although this is probably

coincidental. This feature also contained a camel figurine (illustrated below). Once again, this

assemblage appears to be a domestic collection, possibly associated with domestic residence

behind the commercial premises that fronted George Street when this area was developed.

The Trench 2 assemblage was very small, with just 104 fragments from three main contexts.

Feature 6 contained 3 plates (2 Marigold, 1 Blue Willow), 2 cups and a teapot. Feature 7

contained 1 cup and 1 plate, both in a flow blue design. The west end buried soil horizon

contained 4 plates, 2 cups and a stoneware bottle. This assemblage is too small to draw any

conclusions, although it is notable that Blue Willow and Marigold patterns were both well-

represented.

The Section 40 (Area C) assemblage contained 348 fragments. The disjointed nature of the

excavations meant that the ceramics assemblage was analysed in numerous small section,

5 NISP= number of individual specimens, or number of fragments.


70

which has reduced the accuracy of the MNV counts somewhat. Overall, the most common

vessel type in this area was plates (MNV=28), including plain white, Blue Willow, Rhine,

Asiatic Pheasant and Rouen patterns. Other vessel types were cups (MNV=5, but this is

probably an underestimate), bowls (5), stoneware bottles (4), jugs (2) and a chamber pot and

egg cup. Also present was a small chicken figurine, possibly a child’s toy. The barrel in D3

within this area contained single fragments of five vessels: a bowl, 2 plates and an

unidentified item.

The material overlying the causeway (including the initial excavation and the later clearing

off of the causeway) contained 253 ceramic fragments, representing a minimum of 72 vessels.

Once again plates were the most common (MNV=26), followed by bowls (8), chamber pots

(7), stoneware bottles and jugs (both 6), cups (5), jars (4), ashets (3), flowers pots and

cosmetic jar lids (both 2) and serving dishes (2). Of note was a partial plate that bore an early

version of the ‘Advance Australia’ coat of arms, with ‘South Australian’ also included in the

incomplete design. Overall this assemblage appears to be domestic in nature, but was

deposited at a low concentration (these fragments were recovered from an area of

approximately 8m by 12m). None of this material was in the fill immediately overlying the

causeway, but rather was on and above the occupation surface above the causeway.

Ceramic Pattern & Forms

The Deka ceramics assemblage contained a typical late Victorian mixture of vessel types and

patterns. Plates, bowls, jugs cups, serving dishes and stoneware bottles were common. The

patterns represented in the collection were predominantly ornate under-glaze transfer print

(UGTP) designs or plain white ware. However, two pieces of what appear to be hand-painted

Oriental porcelain were also found.

The most common vessel type were plates, with at least 86 being identified. Cups and bowls

were the next most common, with a combined total of 35 (it is sometimes difficult to

differentiate between cups and small bowls in a fragmented assemblage). Stoneware bottles

were the next most common (MNV=20), although it is likely that they are well represented in

the counts because they are very robust and survive well in the archæolgical record, and when

they are broken it is usually into fewer fragments than earthenware vessels. While most of the

vessels could be classed as table or kitchen ware, there were also several other types. A

number of ointment and cosmetic jars were found, one of the latter having an ornate UGTP

deign on the lid. There were also a number of items that were probably associated with

children including a plate with a scene from Uncle Tom’s Cabin on it (Figure 91), a toy teapot

and a baby’s bottle.

The patterns represented in the Deka/Wall St. assemblage were a typical late nineteenth

century mix. Patterns such as Blue Willow (MNV=25), Asiatic Pheasant (MNV=12), Rouen

(MNV=6), Chelsea Sprig (MNV=6) and Rhine (MNV=3) are well represented, and are

almost ubiquitous in historic ceramic assemblages from Otago. Other patterns were

reasonably common, including Triumphal Car and Albion. Other named patterns included

Scinda, Marigold, Belmont and Bouquet, and there were numerous un-named designs. In

general, the patterns were typical late nineteenth century UGTP designs, with floral and

scenic patterns the most common. However, plain white was the most common ceramic body

finish (MNV=30).

There were also a number of less-common and unusual designs in the assemblage. One

earthenware plate bore a UGTP early version of the Australian ‘Advance Australia’ coat of

arms (Figure 92). As mentioned above, there were also two fragments of hand-painted

vitrified plates that appear to be of Chinese manufacture (Figures 93 and 94). It is interesting


71

to compare them to examples of English-made chinoiserie,6 the most common of which is

Blue Willow (Figure 81). Also of note are two partial cups that have hand-lettered over-glaze

script in gold paint. One includes “Dunedin,” and the other is “A present for a good girl.”

Both are illustrated below (Figures 95 and 96).

Below are illustrated the main patterns represented in the assemblage (generally shown on

plates), and then some of the more unusual and hand-painted designs, followed by images of

the variety of vessel forms. Lastly, the identifiable makers’ marks and pattern marks are

illustrated.

Figure 81

Three ‘Blue Willow’ plates.

From left: D20019b (Trench 2); 20017l (Crane Shaft); 20017j (Crane Shaft).

Figure 82

Two ‘Asiatic Pheasant’ plates.

Left: D20004b (Section 41); Right: D20001b (Trench 1A).

6 Chinoiserie designs are European decorations inspired by oriental sources, particularly Chinese.


72

Figure 83 (Left)

‘Rouen’ plate fragment.

D20044b (Section 40). ‘P.B. & Co.’ maker’s mark.

Figure 84 (Right)

‘Chelsea Sprig’ small plate.

D20022a (Trench 1E)

Figure 85 (Right)

‘Rhine’ square serving bowl.

D20054a (Over causeway)

Figure 86 (Above)

‘Triumphal Car’ small

plate. D20055a (Over

causeway)

Figure 87 (Right)

Two ‘Belmont’ plates.

D20015b and D20015c

(both Section 41). Both

plates have ‘Pinder

Bourne & Co’ maker’s

mark.


73

Figure 88 (Left)

Two ‘Bouquet’ plates.

D20011a; D20004a (both

Section 41). Plate on

right has makers mark

“P.B. & Co.”

Figure 89 (Right)

Two ‘Marigold’ plates.

D20019a and D20019a

(both Trench 2).

Figure 90 (Left)

‘Scinda’ plate. This is an example of ‘flow-blue,’

where the deep blue colour bleeds into the

surrounding white. D20017c (Crane Shaft). Has

‘D&S’ maker’s mark.

Figure 91 (Right)

A small plate with a UGTP design

showing a scene from ‘Uncle Tom’s

Cabin.’ D20015a (Section 41).


74

Figure 92 (Left)

Early form of the ‘Advance Australia’ Australian

coat of arms on a white plate. Note the addition

of ‘South Australian’ on the bottom, possibly

relating to script on the missing section at the

top. D20055b (deposit over causeway).

Figure 93 (Right)

Fragment of hand-painted vitrified ceramic, almost

certainly of Chinese origin. The scene appears to be

several pagodas or other buildings in a garden setting.

Note the similarity between this design and the

English chinoiserie Blue Willow design. 53mm high.

D20011h (Section 41).

Figure 94 (Left)

Fragment of hand-painted vitrified ceramic, almost

certainly of Asian origin. The central scene appears to

be a person in an interior with a tiled floor and fabric

curtains or wall-hangings. 156mm high. D20052f (over

causeway).

Figure 95 (Right)

Section of vitrified cup. The overglaze gold hand-

painted script reads ‘…present… Dunedin.’ 68mm

high. D20047a (Section 41).

Figure 96 (Left)

Reconstructed white earthenware cup. Not visible in

the picture is the remnants of hand-painted gold

script ‘A Present for A good Girl.” 86mm high, 83mm

max. dia. D20018d (Crane Shaft).


75

Figure 97 (Left)

Two teacups, with typical

Victorian UGTP designs. Left:

D20039a; Right 20006a (both

Section 41).

Figure 98 (Right)

Small serving bowl with a brown un-named

UGTP design. D20003a (Trench 1A).

Figure 99 (Left)

Plain white earthenware kitchen bowl. D20034b

(Section 40).

Figure 100 (Left)

Earthenware salt cellar with a UGTP Blue Willow

design. 126mm high. 20008a (Section 41).

Figure 101 (Right)

Cream earthenware water jug. 235mm high.

From layers overlying causeway. D20051a.


76

Figure 102 (Left)

Vitrified body relief moulded jug with blue

detailing. D20042a (Section 40).

Figure 103 (Right)

Earthenware

eggcup with black

UGTP rim design.

63mm high.

D20041a (Section

40).

Figure 104 (Left)

Plain white earthenware cosmetics jar and

lid. D20007a (Section 41); D20017p (Crane

Shaft).

Figure 105 (Right)

Earthenware cosmetics jar lid with UGTP

design. D20063 (Section 41).

Figure 106 (Left)

Sections of three earthenware

ointment jars. On the left and

right are the commonly found

‘Holloways Ointment.’ From

left: D20032b (Section 40);

D20025c (Trench 1); D20015d

(Section 41).


77

Figure 107 (Left)

Selection of stoneware

bottles, representing the

range of types found on

the Deka/Wall St. site.

From left: ink, blacking,

beverage, ink, beverage.

D20010a; D20010b;

D20010c; D20010d;

D20010e. All from

Section 41.

Figure 108 (Right)

Vitrified camel figurine with missing head.

60mm overall length. D20022b (Trench 1E).

Figure 109 (Left)

Vitrified miniature teapot, probably from a child’s toy

teaset. 34mm high. D20022c (Trench 1E)


78

Makers’ Marks

Many, but by no means all, ceramic vessels bear a maker’s mark on the base. This mark can

contain information about the manufacturer, the pattern name, the date of the design

registration, the date of manufacture, or any combination of these. There were a number of

complete maker’s/pattern marks in the Deka/Wall St. assemblage, as well as a number of

partial marks that could not be attributed to a manufacturer. Reproduced here are the makers’

marks that were recorded in the site (in alphabetical order). Table 5 (in the Ceramics

Discussion below) summarises the date ranges for each excavation areas based on the

identified makers’ marks. Figures 110 A to Z show the marks.

Figure 110 A) J. & M.P. Bell & Co. Ltd., Glasgow Pottery,

Dobbies Loan, Glasgow. This company operated from 1842

until 1928, but the use of the “J. & M.P.B. &Co” initials

dates to ca.1850-70 (Godden 1991: 66). ‘Triumphal Car’

pattern name on a plate with blue UGTP design. D20055a.

A similar mark is on D20017f.

B) J. & M.P. Bell & Co. Ltd. On Blue Willow plate.

D20017k.

C) Joseph Bourne, Bourne’s Pottery, Denby, Derbyshire.

The addition of ‘Codnor Park’ relates to the period 1833-

1861. ‘& Son was added from about 1850, suggesting that

this bottle dates to the period ca.1833-1850 (Godden 1991:

89). On a brown stoneware bottle. D20021b. Similar marks

without ‘Codnor Park’ were also found.

D) Samuel & John Burton, New Street, Hanley,

Staffordshire Potteries. 1832-1845 (Godden 1991: 119)

Impressed mark. On a small plain white bowl with

scalloping. D20017q.

E) W.T. Copeland (& Sons Ltd), Spode Works, Stoke.

Staffordshire Potteries. 1847 to present day. Formerly

Copeland & Garrett (1833-1847), formerly Spode (c.1784-

1833). This mark used ca. 1847-1867 (Godden 1991: 171).

On a Blue Willow plate. D20021d


79

F) Anchor motif. Possibly W. Davenport & Co., Longford,

Staffordshire Potteries. C.1793-1887 (Godden 1991: 189-

190). Has date stamp for 1864. D20045a.

G) Thomas Dimmock (Jnr.) & Co., Staffordshire (tentative

identification). This manufacturer operated from 1828 until

1850, from a series of locations in Staffordshire (Godden

1991: 208). On earthenware vase or chamber pot with

brown UGTP floral basket pattern. D20006.

H) D & S. Dimmock & Smith, Tontine St. Hanley,

Staffordshire Potteries (1826-1833 and 1842-1859). (Godden

1972: 146; 1991: 209). ‘Scinda’ pattern name on flow-blue

plate. D20017c.

I) E & H. Possibly Eardley & Hammersley, Tunstall,

Staffordshire Potteries (1862-1866). (Godden 1972: 146;

1991: 227). ‘Chantilly’ pattern name on earthenware jug

base. D20053a

J) T. Field, Potter, Sydney. Impressed mark on stoneware

bottle.

K) H & C. There are several possibilities for this mark,

including Harding & Cockson (1834-1860), Hope & Carter

(1862-1880), Hulme & Christie (1893-1902) (Godden 1972:

149). On Blue Willow plate. D20006.


80

L) Pinder, Bourne & Co., Nile Street, Burslem,

Staffordshire Potteries. January 1862-1882. Purchased by

Doultons in 1878, but title retained until 1882 (Godden

1991: 495). ‘Belmont’ pattern name on earthenware plate.

D20015c

M) Pinder, Bourne & Co. ‘Bouquet’ pattern name.

D20004a

N) Pinder, Bourne & Co. Impressed mark. On several plain

white vessels. D20008b (chamber pot?), D20007b (plate).

O) Pinder, Bourne & Co. ‘Rouen’ pattern name on

earthenware plate. D20044b.

P) Pinder, Bourne & Hope. Burslem, Staffordshire

Potteries, 1851-1862. Subsequently Pinder, Bourne & Co.

(Godden 1991: 495). Impressed mark on Blue Willow plate

fragment. D20005.


81

Q) Possibly Thomas Cone Ltd., Alma Works, Longton,

Staffordshire Potteries. 1892- (Godden 1991: 165). ‘Cable’

pattern name on plate fragment. D20053b.

R) Turner, Goddard & Co., Royal Albert Pottery,

Tunstall, Staffordshire. This company operated from 1867-

1874 (Godden 1991: 625). On small white plate. D20006

S) Wood, Challinor & Co., Well St. Pottery, Tunstall,

Stafford Potteries. (1860-1864) (Godden 1991: 684).

‘Asiatic Pheasant’ pattern mark on earthenware plate.

Unidentified & Pattern Marks

T) Pattern name ‘Marigold.’ On small earthenware plate.

D20019a. See Figure 89.

U) Pattern name ‘Rhine.’ On small earthenware plate.

D20011c. See Figure 85 for Rhine pattern.

V) Pattern name ‘Java.’ On small earthenware bowl.

D20031a


82

W) Registration diamond of the 1842-1867 pattern. The year

letter (top corner of diamond) is missing. On earthenware jug

or vase. D20011j

X) British ‘Dieu et Mon Droit’ crest UGTP mark, and

‘Opaque Porcelain’ impressed mark. On plate with

‘Advance Australia’ crest. D20055b. See Figure 92.

Y) Partial UGTP mark. On ‘Asiatic Pheasant’ patterned

earthenware plate. D20004.

Z) Partial UGTP mark on ashet rim. D20039b.


83

Discussion of Ceramics Assemblage

The ceramics recovered from the Deka/Wall St. site can be described as a late nineteenth

century domestic assemblage. The vessel types identified were predominantly earthenware

plates, cups, bowls and serving dishes, and stoneware bottles. Many patterns were found in

the site, and after plain white the ubiquitous Blue Willow, Asiatic Pheasant, Rouen and

Chelsea Sprig were the most common. Blue Willow and Asiatic Pheasant were the most

reproduced blue printed earthenware pattern in the 19th century, manufactured by numerous

makers (Halfpenny 1994:67). In general, the assemblage was dominated by earthenwares in

plain white and with ornate UGTP designs in blue, green, brown, grey, violet and red.

Within each major excavation area discussed above the overall mixture of ceramic vessels

appears to be domestic. There was no evidence of commercial breakage being dumped. This

supports the historical information, which indicates that although this town block was

occupied during the nineteenth century by a number of commercial premises (many fronting

George Street), there were also numerous residences of various sizes.

Dating can be based on stylistic features and maker’s marks. Only one design registration

diamond was found, and this was missing a key figure so could not be dated. The maker’s

marks that could be positively identified spanned the years 1826 to 1892 (or 1882 if the

unsure identification of the Thomas Cone maker’s mark is excluded). Table 5 summarises

these dates by excavation area.

Provenance Makers’ mark Date range

Section 40 Pinder, Bourne & Co 1862-1882

Section 41 J. Bourne & Son, Denby Pottery 1850-

Section 41 Pinder, Bourne & Co 1862-1882

Section 41 Pinder, Bourne & Hope 1851-1862

Section 41 Wood, Challinor & Co 1860-1864

Section 41 Thomas Dimmock (Jr) & Co 1828-1850

Section 41 Turner, Goddard & Co 1867-1874

Section 41 T. Field, Potter, Sydney

Section 41 W. Davenport & Co. (?) 1864 (date stamp)

Crane Shaft Dimmock & Smith 1826-1833, 1842-1859

Crane Shaft J. & M. P. Bell & Co 1850-1870

Crane Shaft Pinder, Bourne & Co 1862-1882

Crane Shaft S. & J. Burton, Hanley 1832-1845

Over causeway J. & M. P. Bell & Co 1850-1870

Over causeway Eardley & Hammersley (?) 1862-1866

Over causeway Thomas Cone (?) 1892-

Trench 1A J. Bourne & Son, Denby Pottery 1850-

Trench 2 Copeland late Spode 1847-1867

Trench 2 Joseph Bourne, Codnor Park Pottery 1833-1850

Trench 3 J. & M. P. Bell & Co. 1850-1870

Table 5

Summary of identified makers’ marks sorted by excavation area, showing date ranges.

Makers shown with a question mark (?) are not certain identifications.

The date ranges for each area are generally quite similar, and with the exception of the unsure

Thomas Cone identification, all areas could have been occupied in the 1860s. The largest

identifiable collection of marks came from the Section 41 assemblage, amongst which the


84

latest establishment date is 1867, therefore providing a terminus post quem (TPQ) of 1867 for

that assemblage. The Crane Shaft assemblage has a TPQ of 1862.

In addition, no vessels were found with the country of origin included in the marks, making it

likely that all of these items pre-date 1891, when the McKinley Tariff Act in America

required all imported goods to be so labelled (Godden 1991: 11). Therefore, the overall

ceramics assemblage can be firmly placed in the period prior to ca.1890, and possibly even

ten years earlier.

The origin of the ceramic vessels is also of interest. Although New Zealand did have a

ceramics industry in the nineteenth century, and the Britannia Pottery near Milton was in

operation by 1871 (Henry 1999: 22), the vast majority of ceramics were imported. Many of

the identified makers from the Deka/Wall St. site were from the English Staffordshire

potteries, which is a pattern common in New Zealand historic sites. At the Mechanics

Institute site in Auckland 26 maker’s marks were identified, of which 24 were from

Staffordshire companies, the other two being from South Wales and Derbyshire (Macready &

Goodwyn 1990: 20). However in a number of Otago sites Scottish ceramics have been found,

especially from the Glasgow maker J. & M.P. Bell & Co. At the Farmers site in Dunedin 9

marked vessels attributed to Staffordshire makers, 3 to other English potteries, while 5 vessels

were from J. & M.P. Bell & Co. (Petchey 2004: 42). At the Deka/Wall St. site 25 marks were

identified,7 of which 16 were from Staffordshire, 3 from Derbyshire, 4 from Scotland (all J. &

M.P. Bell & Co.) and 2 were Australian. This presence of Scottish ceramics in Otago sites

might be evidence of continuing ties between Dunedin’s Scottish settlers and their homeland.

Overall, the ceramics assemblage is evidence of domestic occupation of the site from the

period of the gold-rush boom of the 1860s through to the 1880s or 1890s. As well as the usual

table wares there were also a number of childrens’ toys, suggesting that some of the

households on the site had small children. Evidence of links with the wider world can be seen

in the largely English make-up of the ceramics assemblage, by the presence of the Scottish

ceramics, and by the plate bearing the Australian coat of arms (although the plate was

probably made in England).

7 Seven of these were for a single company, Pinder Bourne & Co.


85

Clay pipes

Clay pipe fragments were recovered from Trench 1A & 1B, the Crane Shaft, Feature 10a,

Area C, Section 41 and over the causeway. All were broken, and the MNI count was made by

using the joint of the stem/bowl as a landmark. This gave a MNV 10 across the entire site.

Four maker’s or model marks were recorded, and three pipes had decorated bowls.

Most clay pipes found in historic archæological sites are unfired white earthenware, but one

bowl from the assemblage was made from white porcelain, had a hinged brass lid, and had an

over-glaze portrait of a man.

Makers’ Marks

Makers’ marks were found on only 4 clay pipe fragments.

A ‘Davidson, Glasgow’ pipe (bowl and partial stem, D55007) was found in the Crane Shaft,

Layer 1. Thomas Davidson & Co. (Caledonian Pipeworks) operated from 1863 until 1910

(Oswald 1975: 205; Prickett 1994: 65).

A ‘Wm. C. Wood, Glasgow’ pipe (bowl and partial stem, D55008, Figure 112) was found in

the Lift Shaft excavation (Feature 10a). Oswald (1975: 206) lists William C. Wood of

Glasgow as being in production between 1857 and 1875. The bowl of this pipe was also

stamped “Garibaldi Pipe” on the area facing the smoker. Another “Garibaldi Pipe” bowl

(D55015) was found in the material overlying the timber causeway, but the stem was missing,

and so no maker’s mark could be associated with it. This pipe design was presumably named

after the Italian patriot Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882).

A bowl and partial stem (D55014) also from the material over the causeway had a partial

mark that possibly read “L. Fiolet.” Louis Fiolet was a pipe manufacturer in Satin Omer,

France. His mark was registered in April 1876, but had then already been in use for 43 years

(Hammond 1988: 86).

Decorated Pipes

Two decorative relief moulded pipe bowls were recovered (Figure 111), although

unfortunately neither bore manufacturers marks. One was a bowl with a moulded

basketweave pattern (D55013), from the Section 41 rubbish scatter. The other was a partial

bowl and stem with a moulded design on the bowl/stem join, and a vine motif around the

bowl (D55011), from Section 40 (Area C). Decorative pipes were popular for many years,

and numerous makers produced many hundreds of variants.

Porcelain Pipe

One painted porcelain pipe bowl (D55001) was found in the fill over the timber causeway.

This had an over-glaze hand-painted portrait of a man, and a hinged brass lid (Figure 113).

Such pipes first appeared in Germany in about 1760. These pipes consisted of three pieces: a

long, narrow upright bowl with a very short stub of a stem; and long mouthpiece, and a Y-

shaped junction piece. Between about 1800 and 1850 they were commonly hand-painted on

the smooth bowl, but after that time they were generally decorated by transfer print (Scott &

Scott 1996: 10-11).


86

Figure 111 (Left)

Relief-moulded pipe bowls. Top: D55013

(Section 41); Bottom: D55011 (Section 40).

Figure 112 (Right)

Clay pipe manufactured by

Wm. C. Wood. Overall length

88mm. D55008 (Lift Shaft

extension).

Figure 113 (Left)

Porcelain pipe with hand-painted portrait and hinged

brass vented lid. The subject of the portrait is not

known, although it could be Captain William Cargill.

122mm high. D55001 (Above causeway).

Summary of Clay Pipes

The clay pipe assemblage from the Deka/Wall St. site was

small, but some general observations can be made. The

variety of pipe styles and makers together with extensive

evidence of use on the fragments (particularly blacking in

the bowls) suggest that the assemblage represents use and

discard, rather than shop breakage. In common with other

clay pipe assemblages reported on from New Zealand

historic archæological sites, Scottish, and in particular

Glaswegian, pipes dominate, although the sample size from

the Deka/Wall Street site was too small to explore this

further.

The date range of the identified manufacturers is consistent with the site being occupied in the

period between the 1860s gold rushes and the 1890s.

Gojak & Stuart (1999: 43) make the statement that “clay pipes have a very clear association

with lower socio-economic status,” and this agrees with other information regarding the site,

particularly the historical account that concludes that a number of working-class cottages

were in the area. The porcelain pipe would have been a much more expensive item, but it was

not associated with any definable single deposit, but rather was found in an area of clay fill on

the very edge of the causeway excavation.


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Metal

There were numerous metal items found at the Deka/Wall St. site. The majority of these were

iron, and included a wide variety of objects including tools, tin cans, matchboxes, iron

buckets, nails, various brackets and offcuts, and a number of items that remain unidentified.

These are discussed below sorted into a number of categories, base on useage.

Matchboxes

Matchboxes are potentially very useful for dating historic assemblages, as they were typically

used rapidly and then discarded. They are commonly found on historic archæological sites

throughout New Zealand, although their preservation can vary due to their lightweight

tinplate construction. Many of the Deka/Wall Street matchboxes had been reasonably well

preserved in wet but anaerobic conditions, and several well preserved boxes without lids were

found in addition to those discussed below.

Twelve matchboxes were recovered from the Deka/Wall St site, of which six had embossed

lids that were sufficiently intact to identify. One matchbox was in the Crane Shaft excavation

(layer 1). This was a J. Palmer & Son box, dating to the period 1865-66 (Johns 1998: 82). In

Trench 1B there was a Bell & Black box, dating to c. 1875 (Johns 1998: 105).

The Section 41 deposit (the series of underpinning holes along the south-west boundary of the

site and the adjacent large rubbish scatter F-G, 10-12) contained 7 boxes, of which 4 could be

identified. These were two R. Letchford & Co of London boxes (1860-65), a well-preserved

George Dowler’s box (1865-1870) and a J. Palmer & Son box (1868-1870s, a later type to

that found in the Crane Shaft) (Johns 1998: 83, 88, 90-91).

Figure 114 (Left)

Top: Bell & Blacks, D45002 (Trench 1B).

Bottom: Palmer & Son, D45001 (Crane

Shaft).

Figure 115 (Below)

George Dowler’s Patent Wax Vestas.

D45005 (Section 40)

Overall the matchbox assemblage indicates activity in the general area in the period between

ca. 1860 and ca. 1875, which is a date range that agrees well with the suggested development

of the area during and after the goldrushes of the 1860s.


88

Tin Cans

Tin cans were in common usage in the late nineteenth century, but their preservation in

archæological sites is very variable. They are generally poorly preserved in sites that are

damp and well aerated, and in many cases are only represented by red/brown (rust)

discolouration. They can be reasonably well preserved in very dry sites, such as in Central

Otago, but it is rare to find them in good condition with legible labels. At the Deka/Wall St.

site a number of cans were found in such a condition, due to the wet anaerobic conditions that

also preserved timber and fabric items.

Tin can manufacturing technology underwent a number of changes throughout the nineteenth

century, and tin cans can be used as useful date markers. A tin can is essentially consists of

three main elements: one piece of tinplate rolled to form the body, with two end caps

attached. The process to form stamped can ends was patented in 1847, and lapped side seams

were the dominant seam type until 1888 (Rock 1984: 102). Rolled double side seams were

being commercially produced by the 1890s (Rock 1984: 105).

Figure 116 (Left)

Rectangular tin can. 117mm by 96mm by

35mm.

‘Albert & Cie’ (Albert & Co.).

D25009 (Section 41).

Figure 117 (Right)

Rectangular tin can.

‘Cuisson a l huile d’olive pure’ (Cooked

in pure olive oil).


Figure 118 (Left)

Intact tin can from Section 41 assemblage. The

label is printed directly onto the metal.

‘John Tainsh’s Blackcurrant Jam, Hamilton.’

90mm high, 74mm diameter.


Twenty-nine tin cans from the Deka/Wall St.

assemblage were sufficiently intact to allow some

or all details to be recorded. Of these 17 were from

the Section 41 rubbish deposit. 16 were round, 10

were rectangular, 1 was oval, and 1 was

fragmentary. All had basic lapped and soldered

seams, and thus all probably pre-date the 1890s.

This assemblage is unusual in that it is a nineteenth

century collection within which several tin cans were intact enough to not only allow


89

examination of the manufacturing technology, but also retained legible printed labels. Four

rectangular tin cans and one round can had legible, or partially legible, labelling. The four

rectangular cans all once contained sardines in olive oil, while the round can contained

blackcurrant jam. One tin came from Trench 1A (sardine tin, D25001), while the other four

all came from the Section 41 assemblage (D25009, 25010, 25014 and 25015).

The blackcurrant jam tin (D25015, Figure 118) was exceptionally well preserved. The label

read “John Tainsh’s Blackcurrant Jam, Hamilton.” John Tainsh was a confectioner and biscuit

manufacturer in Larnarkshire, Scotland. He began business as a grocer and provisions

merchant in Hamilton in 1841, left the town in 1848, and returned in 1850 when he began

baking biscuits and manufacturing jam and marmalade (Hamilton Advertiser, 30 Aug. 2007).

In general, the tin can assemblage suggests a pre-ca.1890 date for the site, and is evidence of

the importation of tinned foodstuffs from Britain and Europe. The jam tin shows that it was

not just staples being consumed on the site, particularly in the Section 41 deposit, which is

interpreted as a working-class domestic assemblage.


90

Tin-plate Plates

Of note in the Deka/Wall St. assemblage were five metal tin-plate table plates. Historic

archæological assemblages usually contain numerous ceramic plate fragments, but tin plate

plates are far rarer. Enamelled vessels are sometimes found, but these are protected against

corrosion by their enamelled surface. The anaerobic conditions that preserved items such as

the timber causeway at the Deka/Wall St. site also preserved a number of tin plate plates.

Five partial or complete plates were found, together with a tinplate rectangular dish, a tinplate

cup, and one enamelled plate. Most of these vessels came from the Section 41 deposit, with

just one plate coming from the Crane Shaft and one other plate and the enamelled dish

coming from the cultural layer above the causeway.

The dishes had evidence of use, with scratches on the bottom of the dishes. Because such

plates are rarely preserved due to their light gauge construction that would readily rust, it is

not possible to say how many would have been in general usage compared to ceramic plates

in nineteenth century New Zealand.

Figure 119

A tinplate plate from Section 41 rubbish deposit. D15428 (Section 41).


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Nails

Nails can be used to provide very approximate dates for historic period sites, as severalchanges in nail manufacturing technology occurred during the nineteenth century. Prior to1811 all nails were hand-made: in Britain and Europe production of nails was a huge cottageindustry in some areas. In 1811 the first nail-cutting machine started production, and by 1830factory-made nails were being produced in such quantities that traditional hand nail forgerswere suffering hardship. These machine-made nails were cut from flat strips of iron. Nails cutfrom wire began to be produced in the 1840s, and could be manufactured in very largequantities as machines could make more than 600 nails a minute. New Zealand madefurniture reliably dated to the 1850s and 1860s contains a mixture of both cut and wire nails(Cottrell 2006: 427-428). The early developments in mechanised nail manufacturing weremade in Britain, but by the middle of the nineteenth century there was also strong competitionfrom European and American manufacturers. In New Zealand most early nails were probablyimported, although there were probably a number of local manufacturers by the 1860s(Cotterell 2006: 428).

A total of 132 nails from the Deka/Wall St. site were well enough preserved to allow themanufacturing technology to be determined. Overall, there were 64 square and hammerednails, 39 square and hammered spikes (large nails over 3in long), 14 wire nails and 10horseshoe nails. Excluding the horseshoe nails this effectively makes a total of 103 squarenails and 18 wire nails overall. The areas where the greatest numbers of nails were foundwere Trench 1A & 1B, the Section 41 assemblage, the Lift Shaft excavation (Feature 10 &10a) and the Section 40 (Area C) assemblage. There were also some nails in the fill over thecauseway, and one nail found amongst the causeway timbers (a hand-made square nail). Thenail quantities and types for these main concentrations are given in Table 6 below.

Area Square nails Wire nails

Trench 1A & 1B 55 (86%) 9 (14%)

Section 41 14 (87.5%) 2 (12.5%)

Section 40 (Area C) 16 (73%) 6 (27%)

Lift Shaft (F.10 & 10a) 11 (100%) -

Above Causeway 4 (100%) -

Table 6. Nail types, numbers and percantages from main excavation units

As can be seen, square nails outnumbered wire nails in all areas. Averaged across the site, theoverall ratio of cut to wire nails is 85% to 15%. The dating of historic sites in New Zealandusing nail manufacturing technology has been attempted a number of times. Hamel (2002: 22-24) has suggested a tentative dating method for nails based on American sources, assuming asimilar pattern of consumption in New Zealand:

1850s First appearance of wire nails.Pre 1886 Cut nails dominate.1890 50% cut, 50% wire nails.1895 25% cut, 75% wire nails.Post 1895 Greater than 75% wire nails.

The overall (and each discrete area) nail assemblage from the Deka/Wall St. site has a clearmajority of square nails, which would suggest an occupation date prior to 1886 using Hamel’sdating.

Cottrell (2006: 428) discusses New Zealand made furniture from the late 1850s and early1860s that has a mixture of wire and sheet nails, and assuming the use of such nails infurniture manufacture reflects the use of nails in hut sites, this also supports a date ofoccupation of the Deka/Wall St. site in the 1860s.


92

Tools

A variety of hand tools were recovered from the Deka/Wall St. site. Most of these were iron,

and some were badly corroded, but in general their robust nature has meant that most remain

identifiable. Eighteen individual tools were identified, the most common type being files, of

which 7 were found. Other tool types were chisels, an axe head, a sharpening steel, a pair of

shears, and a possible wooden mallet head. The greatest concentration of tools was in Trench

1A & 1B, where seven tools (5 files, one chisel and a possible pair of metal shears) were

found. Table 7 show the tools that were found and their locations. Dimensions are given in

inches, as this is the system in which they were manufactured.

Cat. No. Provenance Description Dimensions

15005 Trench 1A Shears? Heavy duty 8”

15006 Trench 1A File 9 1/4” x 1”

15006 Trench 1A File 9 1/8” x 1”

15006 Trench 1A File 9” x 1”

15006 Trench 1A File 9” x 1”

15009 Trench 1A File 13 1/2” x 1 3/8”

15421 Trench 1A Chisel, wooden handle 10”

15433 Trench 1E File 10 1/8” x 1 1/8”

15015 Crane shaft File, ground to make

scraper or chisel

9 3/8” x 7/8”

15017 Feature 9 Double ended scraper 9 5/8” long

15020 Lift Shaft F10 Chisel 10 7/8’long, 5/12” blade

15020 Lift Shaft F10 Sharpening steel 13” long

15448 Feature 10a Axe head

15027 Section 40 (Area C) Pick head 14 1/2”

15029 Section 40 (Area C) Pneumatic drill bit? 16 1/2”

15450 Section 40 (Area C) Iron spike or wedge

15040 Section 41 Shears 14” long

35018 Section 41 Wooden mallet head

Table 7. Hand tools found at the Deka/Wall St. site

It is quite clear that some industrial activity was occurring in the area of Trench 1A and 1B.

The large number of files there is of note, and the clinker, ash and coke in the same area

suggests that some smithing or similar activity was occurring nearby. Many of the files in this

area were heavy rasps, such as could be used when shoeing horses (although there was no

other evidence of shoeing activity there).

In the Crane Shaft there was as single file, although this was interesting in that it had been

ground to be reused as a chisel or scraper.

The Section 40 (Area C) tools were of a different nature, being a pick head, heavy drill bit

and a wedge. These appear to be associated with digging or demolition work, and might relate

to the redevelopment and/or filling of this area. The pick shows very little sign of use.

Overall, the tools assemblage indicates that there was commercial or light industrial activity

occurring in places in the site. This is supported by the large number of woodchips found in

sections 40 and 41, and the historical evidence of workshops and a timber yard in the area.

This can be compared to the nearby Farmers assemblage, where similar handtools were

found, including a file, a blade from a carpenter’s plane and a drill bit (Petchey 2004: 66-67).


93

Figure 120

From top: reworked file,

D15015 (Crane Shaft);

chisel, 15020 (Lift Shaft);

chisel D15421 (Trench

1A); sharpening steel

D15020 (Lift Shaft).

Figure 121

From top: double ended

scraper, D15017 (Feature

9); shears, D15005

(Trench 1A).

Figure 122

Pair of shears from the

Section 41 assemblage.



94

Harness

A number of items of horse harness were found in the Deka/Wall St. site. These included

leather straps, chains, bits and parts of collars. Seventeen items of harness were catalogued,

from four excavation areas. The largest collection came from the Lift Shaft (Feature 10) and

the extension of that excavation (Feature 10a). The next greatest assemblage came from the

Section 41 rubbish deposit, with a few items from Section 40 (Area C) and one heavy strap

from the material above the causeway and one strap from Trench 1A. Table 8 lists the main

items found.

Cat. Number Provenance Description

D70002 Lift Shaft (F10) Section of horse collar

D70003 Lift Shaft (F10) Collar padding

D70004 Lift Shaft (F10) Leather collar sections

D70009 Lift Shaft (F10) Large iron buckle (2”)

D70011 Feature 10a Leather strap with holes

D70015 Feature 10a Curb bit

D70015 Feature 10a Internal frame for pack saddle?

D70005 Section 41 Leather strap with buckle

D70006 Section 41 Perforated leather strap

D70006 Section 41 3 leather straps joined by square ring

D70008 Section 41 Leather strap and buckle

D70013 Section 41 Curb bit

D70014 Section 41 Chain & swivel

D70007 Section 40 (Area C) Heavy leather strap & buckle

D70012 Section 40 (Area C) 2 lengths of chain with hook.

D70010 Over causeway Heavy leather strap

Table 8. Items of horse harness from the Deka/Wall St. site.

Figures 123 & 124 (Below)

Left: chain & curb bit (D70014, D70013) from Section 41. Right: curb bit (D70015) from

extension to Lift Shaft.


95

Horse harness is not uncommon on nineteenth century sites because of the central role the

horse played in transport in this period. The large amount of harness found in the Lift Shaft

excavation suggests that this area was associated with commercial activity in this area. The

1888 insurance plan of the area (see History section above) shows that there was a stable

present nearby at this date. The presence of collar parts and a heavy 2inch buckle suggests

that this assemblage is related to working horses that were pulling carts.

The Section 41 assemblage was also quite large, but appears to be more lightweight than the

Lift Shaft material, possibly indicating that this material was related to riding or pack horses.

Seven used horse shoes were also found on the site, six of them in Section 40 (Area C) and

one at the east end of the timber causeway. Trench 1A & 1B had some evidence of smithing

(ash, clinker, numerous hasp files), but no direct evidence of shoeing of horses was found,

particularly the very large numbers of used horse shoes that are usually associated with this

activity.


96

Personal & Household Items

There were a number of items that can be identified as personal and household items in the

Deka/Wall St. assemblage. These included items such as a comb, childrens’ glass marbles, a

cricketing badge, and an unusual partially-formed miniature dog figurine made from rubber.

Personal items included two bone toothbrush handles, a comb, and the leather parts for one

side of a pair of men’s braces. The two bone handles for toothbrushes both had maker’s

marks; one was made in Edinburgh (D80007 from the Section 40 area); and one was made in

London (D80006, from the Section 41 deposit). There were also a number of perfume bottles

(discussed above under Glass), and cosmetic jars (discussed above under Ceramics).

More unusual was a brass badge or buckle part with the image of a cricket batsman and

bowler, and inscribed “The All England” from Section 40 (Area C). The All-England Eleven

(AEE) was formed in 1846 by William Clarke as a touring team to play matches around

England. In 1864 the AEE (by then being run by George Parr) came to New Zealand and

played the Dunedin Cricket Club at their ground in February, after first playing Canterbury in

Christchurch (Ryan 2004: 43, 183; www.nzhistory.net.nz/culture/cricket-in-nz/why-cricket).

This badge almost certainly dates to this visit.

Figure 125 (Left)

Brass badge “The All England” (D80004) from

Section 40. 56mm by 50mm.

Items related to the presence of children include the

miniature tea set pieces already discussed in Ceramics,

and four marbles. Two of these marbles were glass and

two were clay. The unusual partially-formed dog

figurine might also have been made for a child. It was

found in the mud that encased the timber causeway,

and is a rubber rod 264mm long, with a dog’s head

formed at one end. The eyes were made from glass

beads.

Figure 126 (Left)

The partial dog figure formed from a

length of rubber rod. D80012, from

causeway. Detail of head below.


97

More general household items included wooden-backed scrubbing brushes, table knives and

forks, clothes pegs, wooden cotton reels, brass dressmaking pins and part of a pair of scissors.

Some of these items associated with dressmaking (the cotton reels, pins and possibly the

clothes pegs) are of interest, as they were probably associated with fabric offcuts from the

Section 41 rubbish deposit, and are likely to be related to the semi-commercial work of a

seamstress. This is discussed in more detail in the Fabric section below.

Figure 127 (Left)

Three clothes pegs from the Section 41

rubbish deposit. D40018.

There were also a number of lamps and other lights. In the nineteenth century the only light

sources after dark came from combustable sources. Candles and oil lamps provided light for

the first settlers, but also posed a fire hazard. A cluster of candle-holders was found in Section

40, and in the Section 41 assemblage a well-preserved candle lamp was found (Figure 129).

Parts of oil lamps were found in Sections 40 and 41, the Lift Shaft excavation, and the

material over the causeway (see Figure 130). Also in the Lift Shaft pit was a large gas lamp

(Figure 131).

A cache of 79 small iron candle holders (Figure 128) was found in Section 40 (Area C) in the

side of the main trench, with two more being found in the general fill. They were found in fill

material rather than on an occupation surface, indicating that they were discarded when the

area was being filled in.

Figure 128

Two examples from the large cache of candle holders found in Section 40 (Area C).


98

These candle holders are likely to have been dumped from a commercial premises, as it is

unlikely that such a concentration of identical items would have been found in a domestic

context. This type of candle holder were used by miners, as they were designed to be spiked

into a standing timber (such as a pit prop). This is presumably unsold stock that was dumped

sometime after goldminers ceased to be major customers. The brass candle lamp was a more

sophisticated method of utilising candle-power, while oil lamp parts are ubiquitous in

nineteenth century archæological contexts.

Figure 129 (Right)

Brass candle lantern (reconstructed) from

the section 41 rubbish deposit. D15424.

Figure 130 (Above)

Brass oil lamp burner.

In 1862 the Dunedin Gas Light and Coke Company was formed to manufacture coal gas for

town supply, the first gas being produced in May 1863 (Petchey 1997). The gas lamp found

on the Deka/Wall St. site was probably from a commercial property, as it was a large 4-burner

unit. It was marked ‘The Humphrey System, General Gas Light Co. Kalamazoo Mich.,’ with

a patent date of December 24th 1901. It is likely that it was in one of the George Street shops,

and was dumped in the sandy fill in part of the Feature 10 cellar during or before the 1967

Woolworths redevelopment.

All of the main nineteenth century lighting sources are therefore represented at the Deka/Wall

St. site. The contract between the small brass candle lantern (Figure 129) from the working

class houses on Section 41 and the large gas lamp (Figure 131) from the George St.

commercial premises is interesting, and again highlights the variation of building size, use

and affluence found within a small area.


99

Figure 131

Humphrey System gas lamp manufactured by the

General Gas Light Company, Kalamazoo,

Michigan. Overall height 620mm. The white

enamelled top would have been mounted against a

ceiling, and a glass globe would have been

suspended from the bottom of the white section.

The 4 burners are in the nickel-plated base

mechanism. D 15457.

Overall, the largest household assemblage came from the Section 41 rubbish deposit, with the

next largest coming from the neighbouring Section 40 (Area C). The Section 41 deposit is

interpreted as being associated with a cluster of small working-class cottages, and this

material supports that association. The mixture of items found there, such as lamp parts, and

clothes pegs, when taken together with items already discussed such as tin-plate plates and tin

cans for jam and sardines, all suggest that this is refuse from one or several households.

Domestic items found elsewhere on the site, sometimes in association with items of a more

commercial nature, illustrate how mixed early development was in Dunedin, with shop

owners often living on the premises.


100

Clothing & Textiles

A notable feature of the Deka/Wall St. site was the very well preserved fabric that was

recovered in some areas. The bulk of this came from the Section 41 rubbish deposit. The wet

anaerobic conditions in this area, with clay above and below, preserved some excellent

examples of wool and silk, although cotton was conspicuously absent (C. Smith, pers.

comm.). Whether this was an actual absence, or a quirk of preservation in an acidic

environment is unclear, although there was good preservation of other plant fibres that would

indicate that it is an actual absence of cotton fabrics. Other areas with preserved fabric were

the Crane Shaft and Section 40 (Area C), Trench 1A & 1B, and the layers overlying the

causeway.

The fabric and clothing assemblage from the Deka site is too small to examine issues offashion in any detail, but it is large enough to be able to comment on how it fitted into knownnineteenth century dress, for both men and women. The New Zealand Company in its NewZealand Journal advised new immigrants to bring certain types and quantities of clothes withthem. Males were advised to bring:

2 fustian jackets lined2 pair fustian trousers2 pair duck trousers2 round frocks12 cotton shirts6 pairs worsted stockings2 Scotch caps6 handkerchiefs1 pr boots with hobnails etc1 pr shoes

Females were advised to bring:

2 gowns or 18 yards printed cotton2 petticoats or 6 yards calico12 shifts or 30 yards longcloth2 ditto flannel or 6 yards flannel6 caps or 3 yards muslin6 handkerchiefs6 aprons or 6 yards check6 neckerchiefs1 pair stays6 prs black worsted stockings2 prs shoes1 bonnet

(Ebbett 1977: 12; 27)

While colonial women apparently continued to wear fashionable but impractical clothing,amongst men that worked outside a stereotypical ‘uniform’ of colonial New Zealand quicklyemerged; boots, moleskins, flannel shirt, jacket, and felt hat. In New Zealand and Australia allclasses that worked outside adopted this practical clothing; landowners and labourers alike,and the style did not change greatly over time. Women continued to labour in full lengthdresses and corsets for much of the same period.

The Deka/Wall Street assemblage illustrates some of these trends in Victorian dress. Asdescribed below (under Footwear), many heavy hobnailed boots were found, with somechildrens’ boots being almost exact copies in miniature of adults mens’ boots. A completeman’s felt hat was found in Section 41, this being the almost ubiquitous headwear of the


101

period, and very similar to an example found at the Farmers site in Dunedin (Petchey 2004:Figure 41A).

Figure 132

Man’s felt hat from the Section 41 assemblage. D30055.

Of particular interest was the collection of fabrics from Section 41. As stated above, this

contained a large number of wool and silk items, but cotton was conspicuously absent from

the samples tested. This is in contrast to the situation found at the Farmers site, where cotton

moleskin was common (Petchey 2004). What was most significant about the Section 41

assemblage is that it appeared to be at least in part the result of a seamstress’ operation. There

were numbers of offcuts, some of which were pinned together, along with wooden cotton

reels and dressmakers’ pins. The fabrics included ornate and plain silks and fine quality

coloured and patterned woollens, along with a fragment of black lace. These suggest that it

was good quality women’s clothing that was being manufactured. It is known (see above) that

this was a poor working class area, so it is likely that a resident woman was working as a

seamstress, providing services to a higher-class clientele. Sewing, either for private clients or

for a factory, was one of the few ways other than domestic service that working class women

could earn an income during the nineteenth century (Millen 1984).

Figure 133

Section of patterned

black silk fabric from

Section 41. This panel is

the offcut from a narrow

bolt, as it has two

selvedge edges, and the

patterning f inished

before it reaches the

lower edge. 510mm by

340mm. 20 inches

between selvedge edges.

D30029.


102

Figure 134

Two plain black sections of silk

that have been pinned and cut

together. Section 41 assemblage.

190mm by 130mm. D30026.

Figure 135

Fragment of black lace. Section

41 assemblage. Max dimension

150mm. D30041.

Figure 136

Cotton reels from the Section 41

assemblage. D40017.

Other fabrics from this assemblage might have come from garments, but were worn and

damaged. Overall it is a significant collection, and illustrates the variety and quality of fabric

that was present in Colonial Dunedin, the presence of which in a working class context is

evidence of the economic links between the working and higher classes in the town.


103

Woven Bags

Three bags woven from a natural monocotlydon leaf were found in the Section 41 rubbish

deposit. All three were in relatively good condition, due to the wet anaerobic conditions. Each

one was a single woven sheet folded once and stitched to form a bag.

Figure 137

One of the woven bags when first exposed in the Section 41 rubbish deposit. Scale is

0.5m long.

Figure 138

Detail of woven bag prior to conservation treatment.

Attempts to identify the fibre used have to date (2010) not been successful. Rod Wallace of

the Anthropology Department, University of Auckland, has studied them, and is of the

opinion that they are definitely not flax. Examination of the weaving style by Rua McCallum

of Kai Tahu has indicated that they are possibly of Maori manufacture. Because of this

likelihood the bags were registered with the Ministry of Culture and Heritage under the


104

Protected Objects Act, and have been assigned Z-numbers. Table 9 summarises the bag

dimensions, their catalogue numbers and their Z-numbers.

Catalogue number Z-number Width Length

30067 Z10590 630mm 450mm

30068 Z10591 510mm 700mm

30069 Z10592 480mm 700mm

Table 9

Woven bags from Section 41 assemblage.

The three bags were transported to the National Conservation Laboratory for Wet organic

Archæological Materials at the University of Auckland for conservation treatment. At the

time of writing (2010) this treatment is still underway. Once this is complete the bags will be

returned to Dunedin.

Figure 139

Woven bag after being unfolded during the start of conservation treatment at the

University of Auckland. D30068 (Z10591). Photo: Conservation Laboratory, The

University of Auckland.


105

The bags present a quandary at present, given that it has not been possible to definitivelyidentify their origin. If they imported, they are further evidence of the international trade thatDunedin participated in during the nineteenth century, when goods and people poured into theport. However, if they are of Maori origin, they are a rare surviving archæological example oftrade between Maori and Pakeha in nineteenth century Dunedin. The artefactual materialfound on historic sites of European occupation in Otago has been overwhelmingly British orEuropean in origin, or manufactured by European businesses.


106

Footwear

Boots and shoes were found in most areas of the Deka/Wall St. site. An overall MNI of 73

items was counted, although this certainly under-estimates the actual number present because

many boots and shoes were fragmentary and incomplete. Some items, mostly stout boots,

were intact and in generally good condition. The sizes of many of the shoes and boots were

very small by modern standards, and many of the shoes were markedly long and narrow.

Some had also been made on straight lasts, meaning that left and right were identical. In some

of these cases the pattern of wear showed on which foot an individual item had been worn.

A number of manufacturing techniques were present in the assemblage, with the sole-to-

upper joining method being observable in many cases, with nailing (with brass and iron

nails), wooden pegs and stitched welts being commonly used. The construction material was

leather throughout. One rubber galosh was found (D60013, from the Crane Shaft), and one

boot had a rubber sole, but this was found during the removal of a twentieth century

underground diesel tank, and could have been deposited when the tank was installed. Many

boots had hobnailed soles to increase their wear and grip, and in some cases the hobnailing

was applied in patterns (see Figure 144).

The largest assemblage of footwear came from the Section 41 rubbish deposit. This contained

a MNI of 40 items of footwear, plus numerous fragments of shoes/boots that were not

included in the MNI count. The assemblage included 20 boots, including a number of blucher

boots, which are commonly found in historic sites. Many of the boots had hob-nailed soles.

At least 6 elastic sided boots were present, together with 2 calf or knee boots, and one ankle-

boot with side lacing. A number of ladies shoes were found, including 4 with decorative wing

tips. One of these still had the remains of a partial cloth upper. There was also a small child’s

shoe, 154mm long.

The other areas excavated had much lower MNI counts, but this was partly due to the

fragmented nature of the material, as some had quite large numbers of shoe/boot parts.

Section 40 (Area C) had an MNI of 9, plus a further 5 in the D3 barrel. It is of note that of

these 5 items in a single contained context, none were from a pair. They were a small shoe, a

hobnailed boot, an elastic sided boot and two soles with incomplete uppers. The wider

Section 40 (Area C) assemblage included 3 boots, a lady’s boot or shoe, and a baby’s shoe.

The excavations over the causeway had an MNV of 8. This included 5 boots, 2 elastic sided

boots, and a child’s boot with a brass toecap. Trench 1A, 1B & 1E had an MNI of 1, but

included a number of leather offcuts and worn parts that suggest that some boot repair activity

was being carried out there.


107

Figure 140 (Left)

Man’s boot with heavy hobnailed sole.


Figure 141 (Right)

Man’s knee boot with hob-nailed sole.


Figure 142 (Left)

Man’s boot with toecap. D60047 (above

causeway).

Figure 143 (Left)

Man’s elastic-sided boot. D60047 (above

causeway).


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Figure 144 (Left)

Man’s boot, showing the pattern of

hobnails on the sole. D60020 (Section 41).

Figure 145 (Right)

Detail of man’s shoe, showing wooden pegs

used to attach sole to upper. D60017 (Section

41).

Figure 146 (Left)

Child’s shoe, with leather sole, wingtip

and counter. D60029 (Section 40, in

barrel).

Figure 147 (Right)

Child’s boot. D60045 (above causeway).

Figure 148 (Left)

Child’s boot. Note that this is an almost

exact copy of a man’s working boot in

minature. D60027 (Section 41).


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Discussion of Footwear

The footwear from the Deka/Wall St. site was a mixture of heavy, sensible working men’s

boots, lighter weight but more stylish boots, and town shoes. The styles of the footwear that

were found were typical of the late nineteenth century.

Swann (1982: 43) commented “the predominant footwear, as the British set out to conquer

the world, was naturally boots.” As with clothing styles (particularly for men), practical

footwear would have been important in a new country with rudimentary roads in the towns as

well as the country. As such, the presence of hobnailed working boots on the Deka/Wall St.

site is not surprising. The basic “Blucher” boot was a popular choice (Ebbett 1977: 37; see

also Swann 1982: Fig. 38a), with a number of examples found during the excavations.

Blucher boots were the second most common style of boots found at the Sky City Site in

Auckland, where they made up 16.5% of the total boots (Bioresearches 1995: 161). Parts of at

least 13 elastic-sided boots were also found, this being another popular style of the period

(Swann 1982: 45). This type of boot was invented by London shoemaker Joseph Sparkes

Hall, who presented a pair to Queen Victoria in 1837 (Mitchell 1997: 30).

Mitchell (1997: 30) commented “while men wore sturdy leather boots suitable for an active

outdoor life, women wore ankle boots, usually with cloth uppers, under long, full skirts which

made movement difficult and were impractical for anything other than an inactive life in a

domestic setting” (see also Swann 1982: 47). Life in the New World with undeveloped and

muddy roads would have been a challenge, and it is likely that some degree of practical

adaptation to the local environment went on, at least amongst the working classes. The

women’s shoes that were found were generally shorter and much narrower than the men’s

boots, and commonly had decorative elements such as stitched toecaps. The small number of

infant’s and children’s shoes is of interest. Parts of three child’s shoes/boots were found,

together with one baby’s shoe. As with items found in other artefact classes, this confirms the

presence of children living on the site.

The manufacturing technology displayed in the Deka/Wall St. footwear assemblage is also

typical of the second half of the nineteenth century. Pegged soles were an American

development that first appeared in England in the 1840s (Swann 1982: 39), and could have

come to 1860s Dunedin either with British immigrants or gold miners who had been in

California. Proficient sewing machines were developed in the 1850s, and were in use for

sewing leather for boots and shoes by the 1860s (Mitchell 1997: 34; Swann 1982: 39).

Shoes are commonly found in historic archæological sites, as the tanned leather survives well

in a reasonably wide range of conditions. Most of the Deka/Wall St. assemblage shows

evidence of considerable wear and repair, and the inclusion of worn-out footwear in general

rubbish deposits is therefore to be expected. At least two bootmakers are known to have

existed on the site, as the 1892 insurance plan shows ‘Lucas Bootmaker’ and ‘Collins Boots,’

and in one area at least (Trench 1B and 1E) there appears to be evidence of boot and shoe

repair.


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Timber Artefacts

There were a large number of miscellaneous timber artefacts recovered, especially from the

Section 41 deposit and Trench 1A & 1B, where damp anaerobic conditions preserved the

wood.

The most significant of these timber artefacts were four timber roofing shingles (D35010,

D35011) found over and to the east end of the timber causeway. These were split totara

(Podocarpus totara) with sawn ends. Their lengths were 412mm, 388mm, 387, and 345mm.

These shingles were unused, and had presumably been dropped in the mud as they were being

carried down from where they were cut and split in the forested hillside down to a building

site somewhere on the North Dunedin Flat. It is tantalising to suggest that this may have been

the reason why the timber causeway was built: to facilitate movement between the forested

slopes and building sites on the flat.

In Section 40 (Area C) beside underpinning hole D3 there was a complete wooden barrel

(D35013). This has probably been buried as a barrel latrine, and when it was full or became

disused some rubbish was dumped into it before it was filled in and covered over. The

wooden barrel staves were excellently preserved. They were 896mm (35 1/4”) long.

Bottle corks are commonly found on historic sites where bottle are present. Twenty-five corks

were found in the Deka/Wall St. site. The greatest number came from the Section 41 deposit

(15), 5 from Section 40 (Area C), 2 from the Crane Shaft, 2 from the Lift Shaft (F10) and 1

from Feature 9.

Several pieces of coconut shell were found, two in the Section 41 deposit, and one in the

Section 40 (Area C) deposit. These are likely to have come from the Pacific islands.


111

Mosaic Pavement

The mosaic pavement was found in a fragmented state in the fill of Cellar 1 in Trench 3

(Section 71 Block XX). It had almost certainly been broken up in 1967 when the site was

redeveloped by Woolworths (NZ) Ltd, and the rubble pushed into the old cellar. The

pavement consisted of a mosaic design created from 13/16” round and 6/8” square porcelain

tiles, each 1/4” thick. The main background was white, with brown borders, with the pattern

built up from green, brown, fawn, light brown and blue tiles. These were laid in a plaster bed,

on a concrete foundation. The whole pavement had been jackhammered up (a hammer hole

was identified amongst the fragments that were recovered) and dropped into the cellar.

The excavation was carried out by machine; hand excavation would have been impossible, as

the fill consisted largely of broken concrete. All of the mosaic parts that could be identified

were recovered, along with numerous single porcelain tiles that had broken away. Many of

the surviving lumps of mosaic tiling had cement smeared across the tiles, and so were barely

recognisable.

In the laboratory the surviving sections were cleaned up, and set up in a sand bed for partial

reconstruction. Some joining sections were identified, but in general the mosaic was too

fragmented and incomplete for actual reconstruction. However, it was intact enough for the

recurring patterns to be identified, and for a representative section measuring 1.1m by 1.2m to

be reconstructed in the sand bed. The largest surviving sections were set in the sand, and

individual tiles used to fill in the missing sections (Figure 149).

Figure 149 (Left)

Reconstructed mosaic

section from Cellar 1,

Trench 3. Scale is 0.5m

long.


112

The pattern was a recurring star or snowdrop motif, and is of a similar general type to a

number of mosaic shop entrances that survive in Dunedin. Few of these surviving examples

are identical, but many are similar in their general pattern. Sometimes the name of the

original business is also laid into the mosaic, and there is some evidence that this was the case

in the Deka/Wall St. example, but the remains were too fragmentary to interpret.

Figure 150 (Right)

Mosaic shop entrance on

Lower Stuart Street.

Figure 151 (Left)

Detail of mosaic entrance to

Bennu Restaurant on Moray

Place.


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Faunal Material

Faunal material was found in most features. The largest assemblages were in Section 40

(Area C), the Section 41 rubbish deposit, the Crane Shaft and Trench 1A & 1B. As is

common on historic sites, sheep (Ovis aries) and cattle (Bos taurus) bones made up a

significant proportion of the assemblage, with pig (Sus sp.), chicken (Gallus gallus) and

rabbit (Orycholagus cuniculus cuniculus) also present. Goose and paradise duck were

represented by single elements. Some fishbone was present, but this was very fragmentary.

There were also small number of shellfish, mainly tuangi cockle (Austrovenus stutchburyi),

and Bluff oyster (Tiostrea chilensis lutaria). Tables 10 & 11 give the NISP and MNI counts

for the main species in the main excavation areas.

Provenance Sheep Cow Chicken Pig Rabbit

Total NISP 288 135 16 7 3

Section 40 (C) 75 20 1 - -

Section 41 62 40 12 6 3

Trench 1A & 1B 53 8 - - -

Trench 1C 28 5 - - -

Crane Shaft 39 36 - - -

Lift Shaft 2 13 - 1 -

Over causeway 13 2 2 - -

Table 10

NISP counts for the main excavation areas. Note that each column will not add up to the

total given, because very small assemblages have not been included in the broken-down

data.

Provenance Sheep Cow Chicken Pig Rabbit

Section 40 (C) 4 3 1 - -

Section 41 6 2 1 2 1

Trench 1A & 1B 3 1 - - -

Trench 1C 4 1 - - -

Crane Shaft 2 2 - - -

Lift Shaft 1 5 - 1 -

Over causeway 1 1 1 - -

Table 11

MNI counts for the main areas

The Section 41 deposit had the largest assemblage, based on both NISP and MNI counts.

Sheep bones dominated the assemblage (NISP=62), with cow bones second most numerous

(40), then chicken (12), pig (6) and rabbit (3). The rabbit sample had no butchery marks and

is too small for any conclusions to be made. Chicken consumption is possible, but the chicken

bones did not show any butchery marks, so may have been associated with laying birds kept

for egg production. It is possible to state confidently that sheep, beef and pork consumption is

represented. Twenty-three cow bones, 14 sheep bones and 2 pig bones bore cut marks. Three

cow vertebra were unfused and cut longitudinally, indicating that young animals were being

slaughtered, with the carcasses being halved. There was also an MNI of 7 tuangi cockles and

18 Bluff oysters.

The Section 40 (Area C) assemblage was also large, and contained sheep (NISP=76) cow (20)

chicken (1) and goose (1). The chicken and goose samples are too small for comment, other

than to note their presence. Twenty-seven sheep bones and 7 cow bones had butchery marks.


114

Once again, sheep and beef consumption is suggested by this assemblage, with sheep the

most heavily consumed. The shellfish assemblage was quite small; there was an MNI of 9

tuangi cockles and 12 Bluff oysters. There were also two very unusual shells: a large

strombidae (conch) and a large volutidae. These would not have been gathered for

consumption on this site, and are likely to have been brought to the site as souvenirs or

curiosities from somewhere in the Pacific.

Figure 152

Large conch shell from Section 40 assemblage. 220mm along base. D90084.

The Trench 1A & 1B assemblage was also dominated by sheep bones (NISP=53), with cow

present in much lower numbers (8). There were also 8 tuangi cockles and 6 Bluff oysters.

Trench 1C also had a large number of sheep bones (NISP=28), but again a much smaller

number of beef bones (5). The proximity of trenches 1A & 1B and Trench 1C, together with

the similarity in the assemblages, suggests that these areas can be combined. Trench 1E had

just 3 sheep bones. Butchery marks were recorded on 20 sheep bones and 7 cow bones from

1A & 1B, 8 sheep bones and 4 cow bones from Trench 1C, and 1 sheep bone from Trench 1E.

Once again, this suggests domestic consumption of sheep and beef.

The Crane Shaft had a much more even distribution of sheep (NISP=39) and beef (36). This

can be further divided into Layer 1 (sheep=8, beef=7) and Layer 2 (sheep=31, beef=29),

showing that the majority of the assemblage was recovered from Layer 2 (the occupation

layer on the original ground surface), although the overall ratio between beef and sheep

remained the same between the two layers. A total of 8 sheep bones and 31 beef bones had

butchery marks. This collection suggests consumption of both sheep and beef, although a

higher meat weight of beef consumption is likely.

The Lift Shaft (Features 10 & 10a) assemblage was unusual, as it was generally a very small

collection (sheep NISP=2, beef=12), but this count included the bone cores of 9 cow horns.

These horns were still attached to skull fragments, but the rest of the skulls were not present,

neither were other cow body parts in any number. These horns are not the product of

domestic consumption, and do not appear to be associated with butchery, but it would have

taken some effort to smash the heavy cattlebeast skulls up.


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The occupation layer above the timber causeway contained sheep (NISP=13) beef (2) and

chicken (2) bones. This pattern is consistent with the neighbouring Section 41 deposit, with

sheep dominating the assemblage. Six sheep bones and one cow bone had butchery marks.

Summary of Faunal Material

The Deka/Wall St. faunal material is a relatively small collection, and is certainly much

smaller than that from the nearby Farmers site, but the faunal assemblages from both sites

were dominated by sheep and beef bones (see Petchey 2004). The faunal material from most

areas of the Deka/Wall St. excavation appeared to represent domestic consumption, with

sheep and cow bones being the most common, many showing butchery marks. In general

sheep was most commonly consumed, although the Crane Shaft showed a different pattern of

consumption with sheep and beef bones roughly equally represented numerically, suggesting

a greater meat weight of beef being consumed there. The Section 41 assemblage is most

easily directly associated with known house sites, and does appear to represent sheep and beef

consumption by a number of working class households. Chicken and pork are also

represented in much smaller amounts.

The area that does not fit into this general pattern is the Lift Shaft (Features 10 & 10a), where

9 cow horns were found attached to skull fragments. This does not represent domestic

consumption, and does not appear to represent butchery of complete carcasses, as the rest of

the skulls were not present, and the rest of the assemblage from this area was very small. It

appears that horns that had been broken out of skulls were dumped into this area as it was

filled.

There is evidence for some fish and shellfish consumption, but only in small numbers

(particularly when meat weight is taken into account). It is also of note that evidence for the

consumption of tinned fish was found (see Tin Cans discussion). The shellfish assemblage

consisted mainly of tuangi cockle (Austrovenus stutchburyi), and Bluff oyster (Tiostrea

chilensis lutaria). These are both muddy shore species found commonly along southern

shores (Crowe 1999), and in small numbers within the Otago Harbour in the historic period.

Both were found at the Farmers site (Petchey 2004) and the site of the old Dunedin Gaol

(Petchey 2002b: 19). The large strombidae (conch) and volutidae shells will not have been

used for food, but are likely to have been brought to Dunedin as souvenirs or curiosities from

the Pacific. Dunedin is and was a port city, and international movements by sea were

commonplace.


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Botanical Material

Botanical specimens were recovered from most main excavation areas, particularly Trench

1A & 1B, the Crane Shaft, Sections 40 and 41, and the timber causeway itself and the

deposits overlying it. The Section 40 assemblage had the largest (and best preserved)

assemblage with the greatest variety, if one ignores the timbers in the causeway itself. Timber

identifications were carried out by Rod Wallace of the University of Auckland. Leaf

identification was carried out in Dunedin with the assistance of Dr. Ralph Allen (botanist,

Dunedin) and Dr. Jill Hamel (Dunedin).

The timbers in the causeway have already been described above, but to recap they were

kanuka (Kunzea ericoides), mapau (Myrsine australis), Olearia, Pittosporum, putaputaweta

(Carpodetus serratus), mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus) and rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum).

These were all part of the forest cover that the first European settlers to Dunedin found

covering the lower hillslopes (Allen 1994: 49). Underlying some of the timbers were flax

(Phormium tenax) leaves. Dropped on top of the causeway were several totara (Podocarpus

totara) roofing shingles, probably also cut and split in the local forest cover.

The Section 41 assemblage was reasonably large and varied, due partly to the excellentanaerobic preservation conditions. Native species included tree ferns (Dicksonia squarrosaand Cyanthea smithii), manuka (Leptospermum scoparium), and dracophyllym sp. A sampleof timber shavings from Section 40 (Area C) was identified as totara (Podocarpus totara),and it is likely that wood shavings in Section 41 include the same material. Exotic speciesincluded gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa) and an unidentified exotic broadleaf. A number of theplant specimens had cut marks, indicating that they were cut down prior to the deposit beingfilled over with clay. Examples of Dicksonia squarrosa showed clear cut marks both on theirbases and on the fronds, showing that the fronds had been cut away and the trunks cut downprior to deposit in the rubbish deposit (Figure 153). Similarly, manuka branches in the depositmust have been deliberately thrown down prior to the deposit being covered by fill. Thegooseberry branches also showed some cut marks, but these appeared to be pruning marks,indicating that the gooseberry buses had been actively tended prior to being cut down anddiscarded.

Figure 153Detail of tree fern (Dicksonia squarrosa) trunk from Section 41 deposit, showing how the

fronds were cut away prior to deposition. D85028.


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Figure 154Manuka (Leptospermumscopatium) branch from theSection 41 deposit. D85026.

Figure 155Detail of gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa) branch from section 41. D85023.

The Section 40 assemblage incuded the dense layer of wood shavings, a sample of which wasidentified as totara, indicating that native timbers were being worked on site, probably forbuilding construction. Kanuka or manuka bark was also found in this area.


118

The Trench 1A & 1B assemblage included kanuka and two exotic broadleaf species.

The Crane Shaft excavation included a lot of flax leaf (Phormium tenax), kanuka, and anexotic broadleaf species.

The occupation layers above the timber causeway included kanuka or manuka, snow grass(Chionochloa conspicua, hunangamoho), possible pepper tree (Pseudowintera colorata) andan exotic broadleaf species.

Summary of Botanical Material

The Deka/Wall St. site contained both exotic and native plant species. It is of note that theearliest feature on the site, the timber causeway, contained only native timbers, all of whichwere commonly found around Dunedin at that time of European settlement (Allen 1994: 48).The prevalence of flax in the area is well documented, and Figures 4 and 5 clearly show thatlarge areas of flax were present on the flats in 1861. The tall timber was on the surroundinghillsides.

By the 1860s, when other parts of the site were in use, exotic species were also present, andso a mixture of native and exotic varieties were found. Of particular interest was the Section41 assemblage, where native manuka and tree ferns were present together with introducedgooseberry, the latter showing clear signs of having been pruned and tended. Native totarawas being used for building, but a number of exotic broadleaf timbers were also present.These building timbers were almost certainly imported as cut lumber rather than grown inNew Zealand. At the Eichardt’s Hotel site in Queenstown floorboards were found with anAmerican timber merchant’s stamp (Petchey 2001: 35).

Overall, the botanical material provides archæological evidence of the historically recordedDunedin environment of the 1850s and 1860s, and shows how exotic species were introducedsoon after settlement got under way. The gooseberry is interesting, as it shows how fruitingplants were an early introduction, even in what is interpreted as a working class cluster ofcottages.


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Part IV Discussion

The Deka/Wall Street site contained a great deal of archæological information regarding the

settlement and growth of historic Dunedin from the settler period of the 1850s, through the

tumultuous goldrush growth of the 1860s, to the more settled 1870s and 1880s. The timber

causeway is evidence of the settler’s response to “Mud-edin” of the 1850s, where winter rain

turned the streets and pathways into barely passable quagmires. This mud provided the wet

anaerobic conditions that preserved not only the causeway timbers, but also a great deal more

artefactual material from the later nineteenth century, including fabrics and tin cans with

legible labels from a group of small working class cottages at the rear of Section 41.

The archæological evidence of these cottages illustrates another typical feature of early

Dunedin; the close nature of settlement with working class houses, workshops, commercial

yards and retail premises all in very close proximity. This was also found in the nearby

Farmers archæological investigation, where evidence of a squalid set of tenement cottages

was found directly behind what was Dunedin’s newest and most elegant department store of

the 1870s (Petchey 2004).

At the Deka/Wall St. site the excavated areas and features fall into two broad categories:

those features that pertain to the first occupation of this area, and are on the original ground

surface; and those features that are later and are on surfaces that have been built up (by

filling) or cut down (by digging) from the original ground surfaces. The early features are the

timber causeway, Layer 2 in the Crane Shaft, and some features within Trench 1A & 1B. Of

these, the causeway is probably the earliest feature by several years, while the others probably

date to the early 1860s, and are the result of the expansion of Dunedin during the gold rush.

The later features are the Section 40 and 41 deposits (although in part these still possibly date

to the late 1860s), some Trench 1 features, all Trench 2 and 3 features, the Lift Shaft features

and all other features. Many of these features can be interpreted at least in part by reference to

the 1888 insurance block plan of Dunedin (see Figure 156). This plan shows that the rear of

Section 40 was occupied by a number of very small houses, and even allows their

approximate size to be measured (20’ by 20’). It also shows how the George Street frontage

was occupied by that date by an almost unbroken line of two storey commercial buildings,

with smaller houses, shed and yards behind. The archæological evidence found in 2007-08

fits very well with this overall picture.

The general sequence of events at the Deka/Wall St. site, as suggested by the archæologcal

and historical evidence, is:

• 1846. Initial survey of the legal boundaries by Kettle, Park and Davidson. At this

time the legal sections were probably pegged, but no further development work

would have been undertaken on the site.

• 1848. Settlers arrive. Early growth of the town is around the Exchange area, south of

Bell Hill.

• Causeway constructed sometime in the very late 1840s, or more likely in the early to

mid-1850s, along a path from the hillside to the flat. Some bush clearance on the

hillsides, and probably a few houses being built in North Dunedin. Timber, including

totara roof shingles, is carried to these houses across the causeway.

• 1857. First detailed Town Board Rates Books information. Most of Block XX

unoccupied, with just 13 houses in the block. Development has definitely begun on

the North Dunedin flat, but much open ground remains.

• 1861. Economic boom begins due to gold discoveries, but major rush begins in

August 1862 to the Dunstan. Many men leave Dunedin for the goldfields, but many


120

people arrive in Dunedin and goldfields revenues pass through the city. Rapid

development of Dunedin, particularly across the North Dunedin Flat.

• 1875. Surviving Rates Book information begins again (1862 to 1874 missing). All of

Block XX is now occupied. The area is mostly built up, although Section 42 is taken

up by A. Fulton’s timber yard.

• 1888. Insurance block plan provides a detailed picture of the area, showing the

buildings present, their construction material, height and in some cases their use.

• 1888-1967. The nature of the area remains largely the same during this period, with

just incremental change as buildings are updated, and brick and stone replaces wood.

The greatest changes are the replacement of the cottages on sections 40 and 41 with

factory buildings and the building of the Penroses and Woolworths department stores.

• 1967. A large area is cleared for the development of a brand new Woolworths store.

• 2007. The Deka (ex-Woolworths) building is completely demolished, to be replaced

by the new Wall Street Mall.

• 2009. The new Wall Street Mall opens.

Figure 156

The 1888 insurance plan, set to the same orientation as the main excavation plans, with

notes on the structures that were shown at this date.

In the discussion below, each of the main excavation areas is discussed in its historical

context, relating the archæological evidence with the known archival information.


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Timber CausewaySection 42 Block XX Dunedin

The timber causeway was constructed on the original ground surface, probably when the first

major activity was starting in the area. It was laid across a very muddy swale or stream course

at the foot of the hill on the west side of the North Dunedin flat. Although it is in the south-

western corner of Section 42, it is likely that it was laid with little reference to legal

boundaries, but rather on the line of an in-use footpath. The timbers were all local varieties,

cut by axe from the neighbouring bush. Flax leaves trapped amongst some of the timbers

suggest that the causeway was laid across flax-covered ground, which would agree with the

earliest photographs of this area which date to 1861 (see Figures 4 & 5). The very small

amount of artefactual material in direct association with the causeway suggests that there was

no domestic or any other intensive activity in its immediate vicinity as it was being built.

However, the unused timber roofing shingles that were found around the causeway suggest

that these were being cut in the bush on the hillside, and carried down to the flat. It is possible

that the causeway was actually built to facilitate movement between the timber resources of

the forested hillsides and building sites on the flat.

Despite its size (ca. 11m by 3m) and apparent complexity, the causeway is actually a very

simple structure, and tells a simple but important story. Various accounts (eg Wood 1997) tell

of how muddy, smelly and wet some parts of early Dunedin could be, but little remains today

apart from a few photographs to remind us of what pioneer Dunedin was like for the first

settlers. The green parks and ornate masonry and brick buildings that represent historic

Dunedin today are largely from the post-goldrush period, when Dunedin had begun to mature.

The causeway is a very rare surviving structure from the first decade of European settlement,

and is direct evidence of the way that the settlers dealt with the adverse conditions that they

encountered.

What is particularly interesting is to contrast the 1850s causeway with the ca. 1860s limestone

path from Trench 1A & 1B, and the mosaic shop door pavement from Trench 3. These quite

graphically illustrate the development of Dunedin through the second half of the nineteenth

century: the causeway was timber cut straight from the bush and laid in the mud; the stone

path was made from limestone offcuts and laid on the soil which by that time was full of ash,

clinker, nails, glass and ceramic fragments; the mosaic was finely made and laid on a concrete

bed in a shop doorway. Within 50 years Dunedin changed from muddy paths through the flax

bushes, to ornate Victorian shop entrances.

Deposits over CausewaySection 42 Block XX Dunedin

The layers overlying the causeway are of interest, as although they do contain artefactual

material dating to the late nineteenth century, the nature of this material is very different to

that of the immediately neighbouring Section 41 deposit. This makes it quite clear that the

legal section boundaries, and the legal ownership and use of the land, did affect occupation

and use once settlement got underway.

On top of the silty clay that overlay the causeway were several thin but distinct lenses that

contained artefactual and botanical material. After the causeway had been buried, the new

ground surface remained in use for some time before it too was buried during the general

filling of the area. The contemporary record show that Section 42 was for many years an open

yard, and this is possibly the reason that relatively little domestic refuse was deposited there

when compared to Section 41. If it remained in use as a commercial open yard area, there


122

would have been relatively little dumping compared to little-used backyards and waste

ground.

However, there was still some domestic-type material present, including bones

(predominantly sheep), ceramics and glass. The ceramics assemblage contained a number of

makers’ marks, but unfortunately for this area the identification of several was uncertain (the

makers’ names were just given as initials). A terminus post quem based on the only certain

identification is 1850 (based on a J. & M.P. Bell mark), meaning that this assemblage could

have been created soon after the causeway was constructed, before the gold rushes. A less

certain date is 1892 (based on a T.C. mark possibly identified as Thomas Cone).

The 1888 insurance plan shows a stable building over where the causeway was found, so the

ground had been considerably built up from its original (Causeway) level by that date.

Section 41 Rubbish DepositSection 41 Block XX Dunedin

This very distinct rubbish concentration was found on top of the late nineteenth century

occupation surface that was found intermittently across the Deka/Wall St. site. However, only

in the area of the rear of section 41 (and possibly the Crane Shaft) was there such a

concentrated artefactual assemblage, which was made more significant by the wet anaerobic

conditions that preserved a great deal of organic material in excellent condition. There was

also a large amount of plant material (including gooseberry), some freshly chopped down

before deposition, suggesting that it was thrown onto a dense rubbish scatter shortly before

the whole area was filled and levelled with clay.

The artefactual material from this area appeared to be largely domestic, with ceramics, tin

cans, glass bottles, footwear, and domestic items such as a wooden scrubbing brush present.

Of particular note was a large amount of well-preserved fabric, much of which appeared to be

offcuts from dressmaking or tailoring activity rather than worn out rags. This suggestion is

supported by the presence of wooden cotton reels and brass dressmaking pins. Dressmaking

and sewing were one way that working class women could make a living in nineteenth

century New Zealand.

Also of note were the several well-preserved tin cans and tinplate plates. The Scottish label on

one tin can is evidence of consumption of tinned jam and commercial links with Scotland,

while the sardine tins appeared to be French. The tinplate plates are particularly interesting as

archæological assemblages often contain large numbers of ceramic plates, but cheap tinplate

plates are usually absent. But as they are prone to rusting away, it is not possible to state

whether this absence is actual or taphonomic.

The date range suggested by the artefactual material is between ca.1867 and ca.1880. The

ceramics assemblage contained a number of makers’ marks, with Turner, Goddard & Co.

mark providing a terminus post quem of 1867. The bottle glass assemblage was entirely

composed of hand-made bottles, with a large proportion of ‘black glass’ beer and whiskey

bottles that are typical of the period prior to ca. 1880. The dateable tin matchboxes date from

the 1860s and 1870s.

Historical records show that this land was unoccupied in 1859, and by 1860 one house had

probably been built belonging to John Curle. Unfortunately the gap in the Dunedin City

Council records from 1861 until 1875 means that details of construction activity in this period

are lacking. By 1875 Section 41 was occupied by a number of small houses. J. Curle owned

most of these properties, but they were occupied by a number of different tenants. The 1875


123

Dunedin Rates Book listed J. Lucas, Weir McMorran, Wilson, R. Mackenzie, William

Thomas (who owned his house), and Adam Thompson as resident on Section 41. The actual

area of the midden deposit was occupied in 1888 by what appear to be three very small

cottages, each only about 20 feet (6m) square (1888 Block Plan). Houses of this size on a rear

section could only be working class cottages, possibly comparable to the site of the row of

cottages found in Area C of the nearby Farmers archæological excavation (Petchey 2004). By

the 1920s this area had been redeveloped, and was occupied by storage buildings belonging to

Woolworths (N.Z.). Ltd.

This deposit therefore appears to be evidence of a small group of very small working class

tenanted cottages at the rear of Section 41 that were probably occupied from the mid-1860s

until the turn of the century. The very good preservation has allowed much of the material

culture to be examined in detail, and in addition to the commonly documented assemblages of

glass, ceramics and boots, there is evidence of activities such as dressmaking and gardening.

Section 40 (Area C)Section 40 Block XX Dunedin

Section 40 contained a more disturbed archæological assemblage than the neighbouring

Section 41. The archival sources show that in 1857 there was a dwelling house and garden

somewhere on this section (Town Board Rates Books, 1857), although its exact location is

now known. By 1875 the section was occupied by five cottages, all owned by Jas. Curle, but

occupied by tenants. The 1888 insurance plan shows the row of five tenement cottages, and it

is significant that these were much larger than those at the rear of the neighbouring Section

41. By the late 1920s these cottages had been replaced by a number of commercial buildings:

on the part of Section 40 now occupied by the Wall St. Mall these were the rear stores and

workrooms for Penrose’s department store.

The archæological evidence shows that this area was more modified than the Section 40. An

early occupation layer contained a dense concentration of wood chips, either from some

construction activity or from a timber yard. There was then a layer of clay fill, and another

possible occupation layer, and then rubble fill. There was evidence of wall and post lines,

some of which are likely to be associated with the cottages. The existing Great Taste

restaurant that borders the site replaced these cottages, and the material in the underpinning

holes along that boundary is therefore likely to be directly associated with them.

The artefactual material from this area suggests domestic occupation, although it is a far

smaller assemblage than the neighbouring Section 41 deposit. One item of particular note

from Section 40 was the brass badge from the ‘All England’ cricket team that toured New

Zealand, and played in Dunedin in February 1864. This was a significant event, as it marked

New Zealand’s entry into international first class cricket.

Crane Shaft & Escalator PitSection 70 Block XX Dunedin

The Crane Shaft excavation was significant in two ways. Firstly it exposed what appears to be

a two-layer domestic assemblage of artefacts, of a slightly different nature to the assemblage

from Section 41. Secondly, it provided clear evidence that there had been a stream course or

shallow gully running through the site that was filled at an early date.


124

The artefacts from this excavation included glass, ceramics and bone. A Palmer & Son

matchbox indicated a mid-1860s date for the assemblage, and a Pinder, Bourne & Co.

ceramics maker’s mark provides a terminus post quem of 1862.

The faunal assemblage in this area is notably different to that from other domestic areas (such

as Section 41) as it contained an almost equal number of sheep and beef bones (based on

NISP count), while the other areas contained much higher proportions of sheep bones.

Overall, the Crane Shaft assemblage appears to be domestic refuse that had been thrown

down a stream bank from a neighbouring house in the mid-1860s. From the location of the

excavation, this house could have been either on Section 70 or the neighbouring Section 71.

In 1861 Section 70 was unoccupied, but Section 71 had a dwelling house and stable owned

and occupied by Ezra Lousley (Town Board rates Books, 1860, 1861). It is therefore quite

likely that the Crane Shaft assemblage is a rubbish scatter from the house of Ezra Lousley on

the neighbouring section.

The glass dump in the neighbouring Escalator pit was disposed of into the same gully feature

as the Crane Shaft assemblage, also at an early date based on the predominance of ‘black’

glass in the assemblage. This dump does not appear to be domestic in nature, as it contains

only bottle glass in quantities that suggest some commercial activity. However, the

contemporary Rates Books do not shed any light; as stated above Section 70 was unoccupied

in 1871, and by 1875 it was occupied by A. Fulton’s factory, timber yards and premises.

Lift Shaft (Features 10 & 10a)Section 71 Block XX Dunedin

The Lift Shaft exposed a shallow basement with a brick floor. This had been filled with clay

fill followed by demolition rubble. The fill included quantities of fragmented black bottle

glass, although this was possibly redeposited from elsewhere. There were also areas of mixed

fill of a different nature, which included tools and harness, together with a number of cow

horns attached to skull fragments. Beneath the brick floor was a timber-lined drain.

The overall nature of the material from the Lift Shaft excavation was quite different from the

nearby Crane Shaft and Section 41 areas, which were domestic in nature. The Lift Shaft

assemblage was more commercial, including harness parts and tools. It is likely that this

material relates to the history of this part of the overall site an area of small yards and

workshops. The 1888 and 1892 insurance plans show a number of small buildings and open

areas there, and the 1927 plan shows that by that date the earlier buildings had been replaced

by more substantial buildings, but still with similar purposes.

Trench 1A, 1B & 1CSection 69 Block XX Dunedin

The limestone path and occupation surface exposed in Trench 1A & 1B ran along an old

ground surface that dipped down to the west, almost certainly dropping into the same stream

bed or depression as the Crane Shaft. The limestone path (Feature 1) was constructed on top

of this ground surface with minimal preparation. In a few places there were additional blocks

beneath it, but mostly it consisted of thin slabs of offcut limestone laid directly on the ground.

It was laid some time after intensive occupation of this area started, as the soil directly

beneath it contained nails, ash and clinker, unlike the timber causeway that had been laid onto

clean soil and mud. The stratigraphic section of Trench 1 shows that the lower lying western


125

end of Section 69 was filled in at a relatively early date to level (and presumably dry out) the

property.

A Bell & Black tin matchbox trodden well into the soil horizon in Trench 1B dated to ca.

1875, well after the gold rush period. This suggests that the rear of the section remained an

open muddy yard for many years. In 1861 the property was listed as unoccupied (Town Board

Rates Book 1861), but by 1875 five houses and a workshop were listed there (Town Board

rates Book 1875). The 1888 insurance plan (Figure 156 above) shows that much of the rear of

Section 69 was an open yard at that date, with two storey buildings on the George Street

frontage. The 1892 plan adds a little detail, showing that the area of Section 69 that is now

occupied by the Wall St. Mall was then occupied by the Bank of Australasia and Collins

Boots. As a small shingle-roofed building is shown on the 1888 plan at the western end of the

section (which, as discussed above was originally low-lying) it is likely that the filling of the

rear of the property was carried out between 1861 and 1875 (when the houses were listed).

The limestone path therefore appears to be associated with occupation of the section prior to

this filling event, as it follows the original ground surface, dipping below the fill layer. It was

therefore probably constructed in or soon after 1862, as the expansion into this area due to the

gold rush occurred. It pre-dated the filling of the rear of the section discussed immediately

above.

Trench 2Section 70 Block XX Dunedin

Trench 2 revealed relatively few features, and was dug mainly into natural clay. In common

with Trench 3 it appears that this area was probably originally higher ground than much of the

rest of the site, and so rather than being filled in (and therefore burying archæological

deposits), this area was probably modified relatively little in the earlier years of settlement,

and then skimmed off slightly in 1967 during the Woolworths development. Some topsoil still

survived at the eastern end of the trench, and this contained artafectual material

The two rubbish concentrations and remnant topsoil in Trench 2 contained typical nineteenth

century assemblages, with ceramics, glass and bone. The ceramics include two makers’

marks, both of which allow for a period of occupation from the 1860s onward. The faunal

material included both beef and sheep bones. Overall, the assemblage indicates an initial

domestic occupation in the 1860s, with the archival evidence showing that the area was soon

built over by larger commercial premises. It is possible that the scatter is associated with the

Crane Shaft assemblage, which is interpreted as coming from domestic occupation in Section

71 or 70.

The brick wall foundation and septic tank are likely to be related to the later development of

the property, probably the commercial buildings that stood there prior to 1967. An engine

house and chimney once stood there (see the 1888 insurance plan), and would have had

substantial foundations.

Trench 3Section 71 Block XX Dunedin

The Trench 3 deposits in general were much later than most of the other features that were

investigated at the Deka/Wall St. site. In common with Trench 2 it appears that this area was

probably originally higher ground than much of the rest of the site, and so rather than being

filled in (and therefore burying archæological deposits), this area was probably modified


126

relatively little in the earlier years of settlement, and then skimmed off slightly in 1967 during

the Woolworths development.

The two shallow basements that were found in the trench are hard to date, but almost

certainly belonged to a commercial business. The 1888 and 1892 insurance plans show a

number of small iron-roofed buildings on Section 71, which were later replaced by a much

larger single Woolworths department store building that took up half of the legal section. This

building was in existence by 1927, as it is shown on the insurance plan of that date. It is likely

that the mosaic floor found in Cellar 1 belonged to this store.


127

References

Allen, R. (1994) Native Plants of Dunedin and its Environs. Dunedin, Otago Heritage Books.

Bedford, S. (1986) “The History and Archaeology of the Halfway House Hotel, Cromwell

Gorge.” New Zealand Historic Places Trust, Cromwell.

Bioresearches (1995) The Archaeology of the Sky City Site, Auckland (Sites R11/1813 &

R11/1814). Report for Terra Firma Group Limited.

Cotterell, W. (2006) Furniture of the New Zealand Colonial Era. An illustrated history 1830-

1900. Reed, Auckland.

Dunedin City Council (Dunedin Town Board) Valuation Roll & Rates Books. 1857-1861.

1875-1923

Ebbett, E. (1977) In the Colonial Fashion. A lively look at what New Zealanders wore.

Wellington, A.H. & A.W. Reed.

Green, S. (2006) “George Street Retail Development, Preliminary Geotechnical Assessment.”

Opus International Consultants Ltd.

Godden, G.A. (1972) The Handbook of British Pottery & Porcelain Marks. (Revised edition).

Barrie & Jenkins Ltd., London.

Godden, G.A. (1991) Encyclopaedia of British Pottery and Porcelain Marks. London, Barrie

& Jenkins. First published 1964.

Hamel, G.E. (2002) “ A note on nails.” Archaeology in New Zealand. 45(1): 22-24.

Hamel, G.E. (2004) “A Smithy and a Biscuit Factory in Moray Place, Dunedin.” Unpublished

report to NZHPT.

Hamel, G.E. (2008) “Structures From the Mid-nineteenth Century Shoreline of Dunedin.”

Unpublished report to the NZHPT.

Hamilton Advertiser. http://www.hamiltonadvertiser.co.uk/news/2007/08/30/tainsh-family-

appeal-for-a-vintage-marmalade-jar-50144-19710207/

Hammond, P.J. (1988) Registered & Patented Clay Tobacco Pipes. Originally published

1985 British Archæological Reports, Vol. 146. Revised & reprinted by the author.

Henry, G. (1999) New Zealand Pottery, Commercial and Collectable. Reed Books, Auckland.

Humphrey Company history. http://www.humphrey-products.com/?q=content/humphrey-

history-1901-today

Johns. F. (1998) Strike a Light. Wax vesta tins & matchboxes brought into or sold in New

Zealand 1840-1993. Taranaki Museum.

McDonald, K.C. (1965) City of Dunedin. A Century of Civic Enterprise. Dunedin, Dunedin

City Corporation.


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Millen, J. (1984) Colonial Tears & Sweat. The working class in nineteenth century New

Zealand. A.H. & A.W. Reed, Wellington.

Mitchell, L. (1997) Stepping Out. Three centuries of shoes. Sydney, Powerhouse Publishing.

Nayton, G. (1992) “Applying frontier theory to a Western Australian site: the problem of

chronological control.” Australasian Historical Archæology, X, 1992: 75-91.

Oswald, A. (1975) Clay Pipes for the Archaeologist. British Archaeological Reports 14,

Oxford.

Otago Witness (Newspaper, Dunedin). 16 October 1875; 31 March 1898

Petchey, P.G. (1997) “A History of the Dunedin Gasworks.” Dunedin Gasworks Museum

Trust Board.

Petchey, P.G. (2001) “Eichardt’s Hotel, Queenstown. Archæological Investigations.” Report

for Eichardt’s Ltd.

Petchey, P.G. (2002) “Dunedin Law Courts Archæological Investigation.” Report to the

NZHPT.

Petchey, P.G. (2004) “Beside the Swamp. The Archæology of the Farmers Trading Company

Site, Dunedin.” Southern Archæology Ltd., Dunedin.

Petchey, P.G. (2007a) “Wall Street Development, Deka Building Site. Archæological

Assessment for Dunedin City Council.” Southern Archæology Ltd., Dunedin.

Petchey, P. G. (2007b) St. Peter’s Vicarage, Queenstown. Report on the archæological

excavation of the Vicarage site. Southern Archæology, Dunedin.

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Taranaki. New Zealand Archæological Association Monograph 20.

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Scott, A. & C. (1996) Smoking Antiques. Shire Album 66, Shire Publications Ltd.

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Vass, L. & Molnar, M. (1999) Handmade Shoes for Men. Konemann, Cologne.

Wood, P.J. (1997) “Constructing Colonial Dirt: A cultural history of dirt in the nineteenth

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Maps & Plans

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“Structural Plans of the City of Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand, Ignis et Aqua Series.” 1892.

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Appendix A

Glossary of terms & abbreviations

Chinoiserie Chinese-styled European designs. Blue Willow is the most common

and best-known, and is still in production today.

Earthenware Porous non-vitrified baked clay, fired at a temperature of between

950° and 1100°C. It has to be glazed to make it impervious to

liquids.

MNI. Minimum number of individuals. The minimum number of an

artefact type (or animal) than is represented by the fragments or

portions present in an assemblage. Calculated by counting a

distinctive feature of the artefact type (such as bottle tops for bottles).

MNV. Minimum number of vessels. As for MNI, but applied to vessels such

as bottles.

n. Number of items.

NISP Number of individual specimens. The actual number of fragments

counted.

Stoneware Ceramics relatively rich in vitreous material and fired at a high

temperature (about 1300°C) so that partial vitrification takes places

and renders it impervious to liquids. Stoneware also tends to be very

strong.

Terminus ante quem The latest date a site of feature can be, based on it being sealed by a

later, dateable, feature.

Terminus post quem The earliest date a site or feature can be, based on inclusion of

dateable artefacts.

UGTP Under-glaze transfer print. The application of coloured designs on

ceramic vessels (primarily earthenwares) prior to their glazing. A

paper with an inked design taken from an engraved metal plate is

applied to the biscuit-fired (fired once but not glazed) ceramic item.

Once the item is glazed and fired again, the coloured design is in

effect sealed beneath the glaze.

Vitreous Having a glassy appearance and character as a result of fusion at a

high temperature, i.e. as a result of some of the ingredients of the

body having been vitrified.


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Appendix B

Bottle classifications from Bedford (1986)


132


133

a Ring seal beer

b Black beer

c Squat black beer

d Black porter

e Crown top beer

f Blob top beer

g Schnapps

h Case gin

i Coffin flask

j Ring seal wine

k Ring seal brandy/cognac

l Spirit

m Wide mouth pickle jar

n Small wide mouth pickle jar

o Wide mouth jam jar

p Worcester sauce

q Champions vinegar

r Salad oil

s Codd

t Blob top, flat bottom maughm

u Maugham

v Torpedo

w Sq. section, wide mouth, rect. panel

x Rectangular, bevelled pharmaceutical

y Rectangular, panel (front and sides)

z Rectangular, panelled, ring on neck

aa Cylindrical pill

bb Oval cross-section

cc Essence


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Appendix C

Artefact catalogue (On Disc)

Catalogue number series:

10001- Glass

15001- Metal

20001- Ceramics

25001- Tin cans

30001- Fabrics

35001- Miscellaneous timber artefacts

40001- Household items

45001- Matchboxes

50001- Stone (limestone path & slate)

55001- Clay pipes

60001- Shoes

65001- Miscellaneous items

70001- Harness

75001- Worked wood

80001- Personal items

85001- Botanical

90001- Faunal

95001- Nails

The Dunedin Causeway. Archaeological Investigations at the Wall Street Mall Site, Dunedin. Archaeological Site I44/469

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