The Disempowerment Game

8/13/2019 The Disempowerment Game

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T h e D i s e m p o w e r m e n t G a m eB our d i e u a nd La ngua ge i nL i te racyR U Q A I Y A H A S A NMacquarie University

. . it should be possible to point to a specific event and say: it was at such a nd such apoint that everything went wrong. But I have not found such a moment or such acause although I have sought ha rd and long f or i t.[Achebe 's 1kernquoted in Gordim er 1995: 76]

1 . I N T R O D U C T I O NI t w o u l d b e a f a s c i n a ti n g a c a d e m i c e x e r c i se t o tr a c e th e m o t i v a t io n s u n d e r l y i n g t h ev i c is s it u d e s o f t h e n e w d i s c o u r se o n l it e ra c y w h i c h b e g a n s o m e w h e r e a r o u n d th em i dd l e o f th i s c e n t u r y a s a c onc e r n w i t h t he t e a c h ing a n d l e a r n i ng o f r e a d i ng / w r i t i ngi n s c hoo l s , l bu t w h i c h ha s no w i n the 1990s t r a ns f o r m e d i t s e l f i n t o a d i s c ou r s e onl i te r a c y i n a s e ns e t ha t goe s f a r be y on d t hos e i n i ti a l c onc e r ns . W hi l e r e a d i ng / w r i t i ngi n t he c onve n t i on a l s e ns e o f t he te r m s a r e ge ne r a l l y t a ke n a s c e n t r a l t o t he m e a n i ngo f t h e t e r m , t h e n o t i o n o f literacy ha s l ong s u r pa s s e d t he s i m p l e r i s s ue s o f t hec a l ib r a t io n o f t h e t w o d i s t in c t m o d a l i t i e s - - t h e v o c a l - a u r a l a n d t h e g r a p h i c - , c i s u a l - -f o r a c c e s s t o l i ngu is t ic f o r m s : 2 a nd i t is p r ob a b l y t r ue t o s a y t ha t f o r m a n y e du c a t o r st o d a y t h e t e r r a h a s b e c o m e a l m o s t s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e p r o c e s s e s o f e d u c a t i o ni ts e l f, f o r m i ng a s i gn i f ic a n t e l e m e n t o f w ha t Bour d i e u a nd P a s s e r o n ( 1977 ) r e f e r t oas p ed a g o g i c a c t io n

T h i s e l a s ti c it y o f t h e t e r m c r e a te s s o m e t h i n g o f a d i l e m m a : o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h ec on t e s t e d na t u r e o f t he c onc e p t c a l l s f o r a n ic l en t if ic a ti on o f on e ' s pos i t i on i n t h isde ba t e ; on t he o t he r , the m a ny a m b i gu i t i e s , m y t hs , a nd c on t r ov e r s i e s t ha t s u r r oundc l a i m s a b o u t i ts t r u e m e a n i n g m a k e su c h a n i d e n ti f ic a t io n p r o b l e m a t i c ) T oi d e n t if y m y o w n p o s i ti o n I p r o p o s e t o s i d e - st e p t h is t r o u b l e d t e r r a in b y s i m p l yr e f e r ri n g t o m y o w n i n te r p re t at io n o f th e t e r m ( H a s a n , 1 9 9 6) a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c hl it e ra c y i s th e p r a c t ic e o f u s in g t h e r e s o u r ce s o f l a n g u a g e f o r m a k i n g s e n s e - - f o r

Direct all correspondence to: Ru qaiya Hasan , U nit 14, 133 Sydn ey Ro ad, Fairlight NSW 2094,Australia.Lingu istics and Edu cation 10(1): 25-87 All fights of reproduction n any form reserved.Copyright 1999 Ab lex Publishing Corporation ISSN: 0898-5898


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e x c h a n g i n g m e a n i n g s. I t i s an o n g o i n g p r o c e s s o f s e m i o t ic d e v e l o p m e n t w h o s ec u lm ina t ion c ons i s t s i n e na b l ing the a c t iv i t y o f r e f l e c t ion on the d i s c ou r se s p r e va -l e n t i n one ' s soc i e ty , i nc lud ing r e f l e c t ion on the soc i a l a nd se m io t i c c ond i t i ons f o rthe oc c u r r e n c e o f t he se d is c ou r se s ; on the soc i a l ba se s o f t he i r l e g i t ima t ion ; on thes t r uc tu r ing o f t he i r c on te n t , bo th i de a t iona l a nd in t e r pe r sona l ; a nd on the d i f f e r e n -t i a ll y va lue d poss ib i l it i e s o f t e x tua l f o r ms a s va r i a n t r e a li z a t ion o f som e sp e c i f i cma te r i a l - s e mio t i c a c t ion . I n sho r t , t h i s v i e w o f l i t e r a c y in t e g r a t e s r e f l e c t ion onl i t e ra c y a s a n e s se n t ia l pa r t o f t he p r oc e s s o f be c om ing l i t e r at e . As r e f l e c t ion , i tw o u l d d i f f e r f r o m f o l k p e r c e p ti o n s o f d i s c u r si v e p r o w e s s ( s u ch a s a r e r e p o r t e d i na n th r opo log ic a l a c c oun t s ; s e e f o r e xa m ple F r ake , 1964 , 1972) by be in g se l f - c on -sc ious a nd a na ly t i c r a the r t ha n s im p ly in tu i t ive a nd sub je c t ive , w i th t he imp l i c a t iontha t r e f l e c t i o n l i t e r c y s p r o p o s e d i n H a s a n ( 1 9 9 6 ) a s s u m e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o fwr i t ing 4 as ind ispen sable .

Th i s v i e w o f l i t e r a c y sugge s t s a Vygo t sk i a n unde r s t a nd ing o f t he r e l a t i onsb e t w e e n l a n g u a g e u s e a n d h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s. I t is a l so i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h ec u r r e n t t e n d e n c y t o s e e t h e t e rm a s l a rg e l y s y n o n y m o u s w i t h e d u c a t io n . T o e q u a t ethe p r oc e s se s o f l i te r a c y w i th t hose o f e duc a t ion i s t o a f f i r m no t on ly t he c e n t r a l i tyo f l a ngua ge a c r os s t he c u r r i c u lum, bu t a l so t o t h ink o f t he p r oc e s se s o f t e a c h -ing / l e a r n ing a s e s se n t i a ll y t he e xc h a nge o f me a n ings , a nd to t h ink o f th i s e xc ha n geo f m e a n i n g s a s a s p e c if i c k i n d o f a b s tr a ct t o o l f o r th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o n s c i o u s -ne s s 5 o f t hose i nvo lve d in suc h p r oc e s se s . I t s e e ms to m e tha t t he a c c e p ta nc e o f t h isse t o f e qua t ions c a l l s f o r a v i e w o f l a ngua ge wh ic h wou ld h igh l igh t i t s me a n ingm a k ing c ha r a c t e r . S u r p r i s ing ly , t hough , t h i s me a n ing f u l v i e w o f l a ngua ge i s o f t e na b s e n t f r o m t h e l i t er a c y d e b a te , w h e r e t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f l a n g u a g e t e n d s t o b e b a s e don the so r t o f t he o r y de sc r ibe d o nc e by F i r th 6 ( 1950 /1957 , p . 181 ) a s one wh ic h

le a ds t o s t a t i c s t r uc tu r a l f o r ma l i sm, t o me c ha n ic a l s t r uc tu r e s , t o me c ha n ic a lm a te r i a l i sm in li ngu i s t ic s . Th e ta c i t a c c e p ta nc e o f a n ide a o f la ngua g e a s no th in gb u t ( m e a n i n g l e s s ) f o r m i s a l l t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e w h e n i t c o m e s t o u s f r o me d u c a t io n a l s o c i o l o g y , w h o s e d i s c o u r s e o n l a n g u a g e o f t e n b e g i n s a s , f o r e x a m p l e ,i n t he c a se o f B o ur d ie u ( 1990 , 1992) , w i th tr e nc ha n t c r i ti que s o f t he l i ngu i s t ' sm y o p i c v i e w o f l a n g u ag e .

Th i s a r t ic l e is i n t e nde d a s a c r i ti que o f t ha t c onc e p t ion o f l a ngua ge wh ic h ac e r ta i n v a r ie t y o f e d u c a ti o n a l s o c io l o g y b u y s - - p e r h a p s , u n w i t t i n g l y - - f r o m f o r m a ll ingu i s t ic s . A c r i t i que o f t h i s k ind i s u r ge n t ly r e qu i r e d a s a n e s se n t i a l s t e p in c l e a t ingthe g r ound in t he g r e a t l i t er a c y de ba te . I be l i e ve tha t som e o f t he m os t p r e s s ingp r ob le m s in t he e xa m ina t ion o f l i te r a c y a s s ign i f ic a n t pe da g og ic a c t ion a r e r e nde r e dinv i s ib l e i f t he f o r m a l i s t c on c e p t ion o f l a ngua ge i s t r e a te d a s t he on l y pos s ib l e one .T h e s e p r o b l e m s d o n o t c o n c e r n s i m p l y t h e d o m a i n t h o u g h t o f as l a n g u a g e e d u c a t i o npe r se , i. e ., cur r icu la and c la ss roo m prac t ices ; they im pl ica te , in the f i r s t ins tance ,ide a s a bou t t he r e l a t i ons o f l a ngua ge a nd soc i e ty , a nd be yond tha t , t o v i e ws onwhe the r pe da gog ic a c t ion c ou ld f unc t ion a s a l i b e r t i n g f o r c e ( c f B o u r d ie u &


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T H E D I SE M P O W E R M E N T G A M E 7

P a s s e r o n , 1 9 7 7) . T h i s w i d e r e a c h o f t h e p r o b l e m s j u s ti f ie s a c l o s e r e a d i n g o fa u tho r i t i e s on e duc a t iona l soc io log y .

T h e r e a r e o b v i o u s l y d i f fe r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e e v e n w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o fe duc a t iona l soc io lo gy . Th i s ne c e s s i t a te s a m or e p r e c i se i de n t i f i c a tion o f the ob je c to f my c r it i que . I c ou ld , o f c ou r se , t a lk s imp ly a bou t t he e duc a t iona l soc io log i s t ;t h i s wou ld be in ke e p ing w i th t he t ra d i t i on s e t by B our d ie u ( 1990 , 1992) who inh i s c ri t i que o f c u r r e n t ide a s a bou t la ngua ge typ i c a l ly r e f e r s t o t he l i ngu is t , a nd to

l ingu i s t i c s a s a who le . B u t pe r ha ps B o ur d ie u wo u ld be the f i rs t t o po in t ou t t ha tth i s ha s the d i s a dva n ta ge o f totalizing th e ob je c t o f i nve s t iga t ion ; i t a sc r ibe s t o t hef i e ld a my th i c a l un i ty b y e f f a c ing a l l e v ide n c e o f c on f l ic t , w i th t he r e su l t t ha t t hel e s s p r iv i l e ge d pa r a d igms be c ome doub ly inv i s ib l e . Unf o r tuna t e ly , t h i s i s wha tB o ur d ie u ' s a c c oun t o f l i ngu i s t i c s doe s f o r fla at d i s c ip l ine: t he l ingu i s t ic s t ha t h i sr e a d e r e v e r h e a r s a b o u t f r o m B o u r d i e u i s i n fe c t e d b y a m u l t i t u d e o f m a l a is e - -- a n dh o w c o u l d i t n o t b e s i n ce t h is i s p r e c is e l y t h e r ea s o n f o r i ts b e i n g c h o s e n ? A n y o n er e a sona b ly f a mi l i a r w i th t he f i e ld na me d linguistics knows tha t , c on t r a r y t o t hei m p r e s s i o n B o u r d i e u ' s d i s c o u rs e c o n v e y s , t h e re i s n o t , a n d t h e r e n e v e r h a s b e e n ,a ny suc h th ing a s t he l i ngu i s t o r e ve n s t r uc tu r a l l i ngu i s ti c s , m uc h l e ss t hef i e ld o f l i ngu i s t ic s a s a n u nd i f f e r e n t i a t e d un i f i e d w ho le . I r on ic a l ly , t h is d i s r e ga r do f c on f l i c t a nd c on te s t a t i on in B our d ie u ' s d i s c ou r se on l i ngu i s t i c s r uns pa r a l l e lp r e c i se ly t o wh a t B o ur d ie u finds m os t ob j e c t iona b le i n l ingu i s ti c s : t he l i ngu i s t ' se r r o r l i e s i n h i s i de a o f wha t c ons t i t u t e s t he ob je c t o f h i s e nqu i r y ; he t o t a l i z e sl a ngua ge , t r e a t ing i t a s a n e n t i r e ly homoge ne ous inva r i a n t ob j e c t , a nd th i s i nB o u r d i e u ' s v i e w s i m p l y e n ta il s e q u a t in g it w i t h d o m i n a n t an d l e g i t i m a t e l an -gua g e a t t he c os t o f i gno r ing the c ond i t i ons o f l ingu i s t ic dom ina t ion . I w i l l t r y toa vo id suc h p i t f a ll s i n m y ow n d i sc ou r se by p r ov id in g a mor e p r e c i se i de n t i f i c a tiono f t h e o b j e c t o f m y c ri ti q u e. M y f o c u s w i ll b e o n t h e v i e w o f l a n g u a g e p r e s e n t e da n d / o r i m p l i e d i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f P i e r re B o u r d i e u : m o r e p r e c i s e ly , I d r a w m a i n l yo n The Production and Reproduction o f egitimate anguag e ( B our d ie u , 1992 , pp .43 - 65 ) , t houg h I sha l l oc c a s iona l ly re f e r to o the r sou r c e s a s w e l l.

T h e r e a r e g o o d r e a s on s f o r c h o o si n g t o c o m m e n t o n B o u r d i e u ' s c o n c e p t i o n o fl a ngua ge . A t som e po in t o r o the r, l angua ge i s me n t ion e d in t he wr i ti ngs o f m os tsoc io log i s t s , bu t su s t a ine d e nga ge me n t w i th l a ngua ge i s qu i t e r a r e . B our d ie u ' sd i sc ou r se i s e xc e p t iona l bo th i n i t s i nc is ive soc io log ic a l a na lys is a nd in t he e x t e n tto w h ic h i t ha s c onc e r ne d i t s e l f w i th l a ngua ge . C e r t a in ly a s i s we l l r e c ogn iz e dla ngua ge i s a c ruc i a l e l e me n t i n B e r n s t e in ' s so c io log ic a l t he o r y a s w e l l. H i s i n t e re s ti n l a ngua ge r e s t s on a c l e a r ly e nunc ia t e d c on c e p t ion o f a d i a le c t i c be twe e n the soc i a la nd the s e m io t ic : he c e r t a in ly doe s no t c on c e ive o f l a ngua ge a s a m e a n ing le s sf o r ma l i sm, i n to wh ic h some how soc i a l r e a l i t i e s /nua nc e s a r e pou r e d . 7 T h e m a i na t t ra c t ion o f t h i s t he o r e t i c al f r a me w or k ha s b e e n i ts c l a r i f i c a tion o f t he de t a i ls o ft h e p a r t l a n g u a g e p l a y s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e p r o d u c t io n o f s o c i et y . A n d t o t h eb e s t o f m y k n o w l e d g e , B e rn s t e in h a s n e v e r p r o f e s se d t o t e ll t h e l in g u i s t h o w t o


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do a soc io - po l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t l ingu i s ti c s . B our d ie u b y c on t r a s t doe s p r e c i se ly t ha t ;a nd to h i s c r e d i t , h i s pe ne t r a t i ng soc io log ic a l ga z e c ombine d w i th h i s r he to r i ca c h i e v e s e f fe c t s o f a k i n d w h i c h n u m e r o u s v o l u m e s o f s o c i o li n g u i st ic s p u t t o g e t h e rm igh t f a il t o do . F o r t h i s, t he l i ngu i s t m us t be g r a t e f u l - - - e ve n i f t he g ra t e f u ll i ngu i s t i s NOT ve r y l i ke ly t o be t he on e w ho m B ou r d ie u so r e l e n t l e s s ly c a s ti ga t esf o r h i s de f e c t ive v i e w o f l a ngua ge . Tha t l i ngu i s t , I sugge s t , r e s t s s e c u r e i n t hec e r t a in ty o f h i s una s sa i l a b ly c o r r e c t pos i t i on .

Th e r e i s, o f c ou r se , a fl i p s ide to B ou r d ie u ' s phe nom e na l suc c e s s i n t he f i e ld o fs o c i o l o g y . F o r t h e p a s t s o m a n y y e a r s p o s t- m o d e r n i s m h a s b e e n t e ll i n g u s t h a t th ea u t h o r is d e a d a n d m e a n i n g s a r e n o t c o n s t ra i n e d b y s u c h u n n e c e s s a r y a n d m u n d a n et h in g s a s f o r m s o f l o c u ti o n8 ( R ose na u , 1991). Th i s m a y b e so , pa r ti c u l a r ly w he r eo n e e x p e r t ' s r e a d i n g o f a n o t h e r e x p e r t ' s l o c u t io n s i s c o n c e r n e d .9 B u t e x p e r i e n c e o fa c a de m ia p r ov ide s no e v ide nc e a t a ll to supp or t t he v i e w tha t a u tho r ia l a u tho r i t y i sa l t oge the r e x t inc t : t he a u tho r i t y o f s e l e c t e d a u tho r s r e ma ins powe r f u l a nd i t c a nha r d ly be de n ie d tha t B our d ie u i s j u s t suc h a n a u tho r i t y . S o w he n h e s e t s ou t t oe xp ose the c ou n te r f e i t sove r e ig n ty o f li ngu i s ti c s ( c f B ou r d ie u , 1992 , p . 32 ) so a s t of r e e soc io log y f r om i ts dom ina t ion ( B our d ie u , 1992 , p . 37 ) , i t i s no t su r p r i s ing l tha t t he a u tho r i t y o f h i s vo i c e a s a soc io log i s t - c r i t i c l e nds c r e d ib i l i t y t o h i sp r o n o u n c e m e n t s o n l a n g u a g e a n d l in g u is ti cs : g i v e n t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f a c a d e m i cd i sc ou r se , h i s a u tho r i t y i n one f i e ld c e r t i f i e s h i s v i e ws a s l e g i t ima te on a nyin t e l le c tua l e n t e r p r is e . Ev e n i f B o ur d ie u p re se n t s a p i c tu r e o f t he l i ngu i s t wh ic hi s som e th ing l i ke a c a r i c a tu r e , o r a n a c c oun t o f l i ngu i s t i c s wh ic h is f a r r e m ov e df r om the p r a c t i c e s o f ma ny l ingu i s ts , i t is qu i t e l ike ly t o be he r a lde d a s a m a s t e r lyr e v e la t io n . T h i s p l a c e s a n i m m e n s e b u r d e n o n a n y o n e w i s h i n g t o p o i n t o u t t h atB o u r d i e u ' s o w n c o n c e p t i o n o f l a n g u a g e i s i n m a n y c r u c ia l re s p e c ts l es s t h an v i a b le ,t h a t h is o w n j u d g m e n t o f s o m e l in g u i st ic m o d e l o r s o m e l i n g u is t is o p e n t oqu e s t io n - - in sho r t, t ha t t he r e e x i s t a l te r na t ive r e a d ings o f an a u th o r o r a fi e ld , wh ic ha r e pe r ha ps m or e ju s t i f i a b l e tha n h i s . Ho we ve r , by the s a me to ke n the c r i t ique o fB our d ie u i s a n e n t e r p r i s e wor th unde r t a k ing on the p r inc ip l e t ha t t he g r e a t e r t hea u tho r i t y o f t he a u tho r , t he g r e a t e r t he ob l iga t ion on the r e a de r t o que s t ion the v i e ws .

M y d e c i s io n t o e x a m i n e B o u r d i e u ' s v i e w o f la n g u a g e i s n o t a c tu a t e d b y a d e s i reto s a lva ge the sove r e ign d i sc ip l ine o f li ngu i st i cs ( B our d ie u , 1992 , p . 32 ) , o r t osho r e up it s i n t e l l e c tua l impe r i a l i sm wh e r e by a pa r t i c u l a r m ode l o f la ngua ge c ou lda s sum e a pa r a d igm a t i c s ta tu s i n t he soc i a l s c i e nc e s a s a who le ( Th om pso n , 1992 ,p . 3 ) . I a c c e p t w i thou t he s i ta t i on tha t li ngu i s ti c m ode l s l a c k pe r f e c t ion : t he y h a ven e v e r b e e n p e r f e c t in t h e p a s t n o r a re t h e y e v e r li k e ly t o b e - - w h a t b u s i n e s s h a v em o d e l s w i t h p e r f e c t i o n , a n y w a y ? B u t e v e n g r a n t in g t h e i m p e r f e c ti o n o f l i n gu i st icm ode l s , i t ha s t o be s a id t ha t the u se o f a l i ngu is t ic m ode l b y soc i a l s c i e n ti s ts ha so f t e n be e n ba se d on l e s s t ha n sound unde r s t a nd ing . Th i s i s no t some th ing a nythough t f u l l i ngu i s t wou ld we lc ome : t he p r opa ga t ion o f a l i ngu i s t i c mode l on theb a s is o f o n l y a p a r ti a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g - - L e v i S t ra u s s b e i n g o n e e x a m p l e o f t h e


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p h e n o m e n o n - - i s , i n t h e lo n g r u n , m o r e l i k e l y t o b r in g " t h e " l i n g u i s t 's e m p i r e in t od i s r e pu te tha n e nha n c e i t s g ra nde u r . The n , a ga in , t he pe r c e p t ion o f t he u se f u lne s so f t h e c o n c e p t s a n d / o r m e t h o d o l o g y o f s o m e d i s c i p l i n e - - - t o u s e a l e s s l o a d e de x p r e s s i o n t h a n " i n te l le c t u a l i m p e r i a li s m " o r " d o m i n a t i o n " - - d e p e n d s l e ss o n t h a td i sc ip l ine ' s un i l a t e r a l de c l a r a t ion o f impe r i a l i s t i c p r e sumpt ions tha n on wha tL a n g e r h a s d e s c r ib e d a s a " p r o d u c t i v e " c o n c e p t - - n o t in t h e s e n s e o f a panacea b u ta c o n c e p t t h a t h ap p e n s t o m e e t s o m e n e e d t h a t is f e l t r i g h t ly o r w r o n g l y b y s o m es c h o la r s a t s o m e g i v e n m o m e n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f s o m e e n t e rp r is e . I f at a n y t i m el ingu is t ic s ha s be e n f ou nd to be in the pos i t i on o f ha v ing a c qu i r e d c on t r o l ove r asubs t a n ti a l pa r t o f t he a c a de mic m a r ke t , t h is p r oba b ly ha pp e ne d l e s s be c a us e o f i tsa c t ive e f f o r t s a t imp e r i al e nc r oa c hm e n t s t ha n be c a use o the r s , im pe l l e d by the i r owndes i res , led by the i r ow n v is ions , w ere a t t r ac ted in to inves t ing in i t s sha res 11

W i th the se in t r odu c to r y c om m e n t s I t u r n to the t a sk in ha nd . The f o u r i ssue s Iwo u ld l i ke to d i sc uss in t h i s pa pe r ma y be r e s t a t e d a s f o llows :

t ha t B o ur d ie u ' s v i e w o f li ngu i st i cs a nd hi s r e a d ing o f S a us su r e ' s t e x t a r e ,both monocular. To the e x te n t tha t t he se l imi t e d r e a d ings a r e p r e se n te d a sde f in i t i ve , t he y a r e m is le a d ing ;

t ha t B o ur d ie u ' s v i e w o f l a ngua ge a s a s e mio t ic is a k in to tha t o f a f o r m a ll ingu i s t ' s , suc h a s , s a y , C h om sky ; i t f a i ls t o a pp r e c i a te c r uc i a l fe a tu r e s o fl a ngua g e a s a s e mio t i c sy s t e m;

tha t h is spontaneous socio/linguistics i s l a r ge ly e qua l t o wha t S a ussu r ec a l l e d external linguistics; s ince ex te rna l l inguis t ic s , l ike in te rna l l inguis -t i c s , i s on ly ha l f t he s to r y , i t f a i l s t o p r e se n t a c onv inc ing mode l o f t her e l a t ions o f l a ngua ge a n d soc ie ty ;

t ha t i f B o ur d ie u ' s v i e w o f l a ngua ge i s a c c e p te d a s t he po in t o f de pa r tu r e f o rpe da gog ic a c t ion , i t s de f i c i e nc ie s w i l l i ne v i t a b ly r e su l t i n a l e s s t ha nsa t i s fa c to r y p r og r a m f o r l i te r a c y e duc a t ion , de ny ing pe da go g ic a c t ion a nyro le a s a l ibe ra t ing force .

F r o m a n a r r o w p e r s p e c t iv e o n l y t h e l a s t o f th e s e p o i n ts m i g h t a p p e a r r e l e v a n t tot h e l i t er a c y d e b a te . H o w e v e r , i t i s n o s e c re t t h a t th e d i s e m p o w e r m e n t g a m e p l a y e di n n o n e g a l it a ri a n s o c i e t i e s - - w h i c h i s t o s a y i n a n y s o c i e t y w e h a v e e v e r k n o w n - - -r e c e i v e s c o n s id e r a b l e s u p p o r t f r o m t h e p r a c ti c es o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m . T h ee a se w i th w h ic h l a ngua g e e duc a t ion in pa rt i c u la r c a n be c on sc r ip t e d in the p r odu c -t i o n a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n o f p a tt e rn s o f d i s e m p o w e r m e n t i n a s o c i e t y m a k e s b o t h t h em o d e l l i n g o f l a n g u a g e a n d t h e d e t a i l s o f l a n g u a g e e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s h i g h l ys e n s i ti v e a re a s. U n d e r l y i n g e v e r y l a n g u a g e e d u c a t io n p r o g r a m is s o m e v i e w o fl a ngua ge . Tha t ve r y o f t e n th i s v i e w o f l a ngua ge i s a t a ke n f o r g r a n te d v i e w ,se e m ing ly ne ve r i n ne e d o f be ing e xp l i c i t ly de ba te d o r d i sc ussed , sug ge s t s t ha t i ti s a dom ina n t v i e w o f la ngua ge , wh ic h vo ic e s o f f i c i a l i de o logy . Th i s , a s B our d ie u


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h i m s e l f po i n t s ou t ( s e e se c t i on 3 be l ow ) , i s e s s e n t i a ll y w ha t g i ve s the i m pr i m a t u ro f l e g i t im a c y t o t h e l a n g u a g e e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s . 12 T h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s et h a t th o s e w h o a r e k e e n t o p r e s e r v e o ff i ci a l i d e o l o g y w o u l d w i s h t o f o r e g r o u n d t h em a n n e r i n w h i c h l a n g u a g e a c t s as a m e a n s o f s e m i o t ic m e d i a t i o n i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n to f hum a n c ons c i ous ne s s . W hi l e i t i s t r ue t ha t t he i m pe t us f o r soc i a l c ha n ge c a n no tbe l oc a t e d i n a ny o ne s i ng l e f a c to r , w h i c h i s a no t he r w a y o f s a y i ng t ha t e a c h f a c t o rh a s s o m e p a r t to p l a y t h e l e ss v i s i b le t h e ro l e o f l a n g u a g e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o fc ons c i ou s ne s s , a nd t he l e s s c le a r t he r e l a ti on o f t h i s t o c ha nge i n s oc i e t ie s , t he e a s i e ri t i s t o m a in ta in the s ta tus quo . T hi s l i ne o f r e a s on i ng s ugge s t s t ha t a l l f ou r c l a i m ss hou l d r e c e i ve a t t e n t i on , a nd I s ha l l a dd r e s s a l l f ou r c l a i m s be g i nn i ng w i t hB o u r d i e u ' s v i e w o f t h e l in g u i st a n d l in g u i s ti c s .

2 . B O U R D I E U ' S I D E A O F T H E L I N G U I S T ' S I D E A O F L A N G U A G ET h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l w a y o f p r e se n t in g m y r e a d in g o f B o u r d i e u ' s v i e w o f l a n g u a g es e e m s t o be t o r e c a p i t u l a t e h i s c r i ti c i s m s o f t he l ingu i st . T h e s e po i n t e l oque n t l yt o w ha t i s w r ong w i t h t he c onc e p t i on o f l a ngua g e in l ingu i s ti c s , t he r e by i m p l y i n ghow t he f ie l d m i g h t be r e de e m e d . A s a li ngu i s t I a m i n t e re s t e d in m a k i n g c l e a r t ot h e re a d e r B o u r d i e u ' s i d ea s o n h o w l a n g u ag e w o r k s - - w h a t a r e it s e l em e n t s , a ndw h a t p a r t t h e y p l a y i n t h e p r o d u c ti o n o f a m e s s a g e . H e r e h i s c o m m e n t s o n S a u s s u re ,h i s c r i t ique o f t he p r a c t ic e s o f t he d i s c i p l ine o f li ngu i st i cs , a s w e l l a s h i sc ha r a c t e r i z a t i ons o f off ic ial l a n g u a g e w i ll b e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e y r e v e a l d i r e ct lyo r i nd i r e c tl y h i s i m a ge o f la ngua ge .

2 1 T h e M i s le a d i n g M a p o f L i n g u i st ic s :T h e D i m i n i s h in g C o n t o u r s o f P a r o le

I f o n e w e r e f o r c e d t o i d e n t if y o n e s i n g l e b a s ic r e a s o n f o r B o u r d i e u ' s d i s c o n t e n tw i t h l i ngu i s t i cs , t he p r i de o f p l a c e w ou l d go t o t he s te ps l ingu i s t ic s t oo k t o a c h i e vew h a t Bou r d i e u h a s de s c r i be d a s a n a pp e a r a n c e o f s c i e n t if i c i t y ( p . 33 ) , 13 a na m b i t io n t o a c t a s a s o c i a l p h y s i c s . F r o m t h i s f l o w e d th e p r i n c ip l e s w h e r e b yl angue t o t he e xc l u s i on o f p a r o l e be c a m e the ob j e c t o f s tudy i n l i ngu i s ti c s w h i l epa r o l e w a s t o be s e t a s i de o r a t be s t t o be s t ud i e d a s pe r i phe r a l / e x t e r na l t o c o r el i ngu is t ic s . Bu t d i d S a us s u r e m o de l h i m s e l f i n the i m a ge o f the phys i c i s t ? H e r e i swh a t one l ingui s t , F i r th (195011957, p . 179), had to s ay abou t the insp i ra t ion behin dS a u s s u r e ' s ' s c i e n t if i c p r e t e n s i ons ' w h i c h l e d t o t he e l e va t i on o f l a ngue :

.. De S au ssu re's general linguistics is closely linked with the sociology o f Durkheim.His theoretical ap pro ach ma y fairly be described as Durkheimian structuralism .. DeSaussure, thinking in Durkheimian terms, regarded social facts as sui generis andextem al to and on a different plane from individual phenomena. T he 'collectivecon scien ce' . . is no t arrived a t by studying the psychology of the individual. Th e socialfact is on a different plane of reality. The group constrains the individual, and the


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group culture determines a great deal o f his hum anity.Consequently de Saussure in terms o f his lingnistics could only refer to m y personallinguistic activity, writing or reading this paper, as eman ating from un suje t par lant.

An d individually each one o f you as a listener or reader would b e a sujet parlant.After bearing with m e to the end, he m ight even express the opinion that I was mauvaissuje t. 14S o m uc h f o r S a ussu r e l e a d ing the unsuspe c t ing , i nno c e n t soc i a l s c i e n t is t i n to thewi lde r ne s s o f a ppa r e n t s c i e n t if i c it y Th e h is to r ic a l st a ges i n t he a c h ie v e m e n t o fin t e ll e c tua l impe r i a l i sms a r e no t so c l e a r ly la id ou t a s t o pe r m i t t he une qu ivoc a lt r a c ing o f the o r ig in s o f t he il ls o f soc io logy /a n th r op o log y o S a ussu r e a n l i ngu i s t i c sI t is intere st ing to no te tha t s o far as L~GUISTICSwa s c on c e r ne d , wh i l e the S a nssu r e a np r o p o s a l b e c a m e p o p u l a r w i t h m a n y l i n g u i s t s - - - " N o w a d a y s p r o f e s s i o n a l l i n -guis t s , " sa id F i r th ( ibid. ) , " c a n a l m o s t b e c l a s s i f i e d b y u s i n g t h e n a m e o f d eS a u s s u r e " - - s t i l l , t h e r i g id d i c h o t o m i z a t i o n o f l a n g u e a n d p a r o l e a l w a y s h a d i tsoppo ne n t s , a nd the " va r ious pos s ib l e g r oup in gs" t ha t F i r th ( ib id . ) m e n t i o n s i n c l u d e" S a ussu r e a n s , a n t i - S a ussu r e a ns , pos t - S a ussu re a ns , o r non - S a u ssu r e a ns . " F i r th h im-s e l f w a s , o f c o u r s e , fi r m l y o p p o s e d t o w h a t i n B e r n s t e i n ' s ( 1 9 7 3 ) t e r m i n o l o g yw o u l d b e a " s t r o n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n " o f l a n g u e a n d p a r o l e , a n d e v e n m o r e t o t h ee xc lus ion o f pa r o l e f r om tha t l i ngu i s t i c s wh ic h i s some t ime s impr ope r ly c a l l e dl i ngu i s t i c s p r o pe r Th e r e i s no t m uc h in t he c u r r e n t c r i t ique o f S a ussu r e - - - inc lud ingB o u r d i e u ' s - - t h a t i s n e w , e x c e p t t h e r h e to r ic .

I t s e e ms imp or t a n t t o po in t ou t t ha t t he r e ar e a t l e as t two se p a r a t e i s sue s i n t hel a ngue - pa r o l e de ba te : f i r st , t he i r m u tua l r e l a ti on , a nd se c o nd ly the i r p l a c e v i s a v i si n t e r na l l i ngu i s t i c s . To sa y tha t S a ussu r e f a i l e d to r e c ogn iz e t he c lo se r e l a t i onbe tw e e n pa r o l e a n d l a ngu e i s a t t he le a s t a p r ob le m a t i c r e a d ing o f t he Co urse : 15 i ti s c e r t a in ly one tha t i s c on t r a d i c t e d a t s e ve r a l po in t s w i th in t he body o f t ha tva r i e ga t e d ly s t i t c he d t e x t . Ev e n m or e impo r t a n t is t he f a c t t ha t i f t he de sc r ip t ion o fl a ngua ge i s no t t o c ons i s t i n t he ' un ive r sa l i z a t ion o f sub je c t ive e xpe r i e nc e ' ( c fB ou r d ie u , 1990 , p. 46 ) , i f l a ngua ge i s t o be s tud ie d a s a " s t r uc tu r e d s t r uc tu r ings t r uc tu r e " , t he n a c onc e p tu a l d i s ti nc t ion be tw e e n l a n g u e a n d p a r o l e i s necessa ry .I t s e e ms to m e tha t i n t ry ing to de f ine l a n g u e , S a ussu r e wa s in f a c t a t t e mp t ing toa c h i e v e, s o m e 8 0 y e a r s p r io r to B o u r d i e u , B o u r d i e u ' s ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 2 7 2 ) o w n i d e a l o f" g r a s p i n g t h e i nv ar i an t , t he s t r uc tu r e , be h ind e a c h o f t he va r i a t i ons obse r ve d"[ e mpha s i s o r ig ina l ] . S a ussu r e migh t ha ve e l a bo r a t e d the " inva r i a n t " no t a s " thes t r uc tu r e " bu t a s t he s y s t e m , i n w h i c h t o o h e w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n f a r f r o mB o ur d ie u ' s n o t ion ( c f c l a ss ha b i tu s ) o f " so ma ny l i ngu is t ic ha b i tu s wh ic h a r e a tl e as t par t i a l l y o r c he s t ra t e ae ' [ p. 46 ; e mpha s i s m ine ] . Gr a sp ing the i nva r i a n t be h in dthe va r i a n t , t he sys t e m be h ind the p r oc e s s ( H je lms le v , 1961) i s e s se n t i a l t o t hef o r m a t i o n o f a t h e o r y , w h e t h e r it is S a u s s u r e ' s t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e o r B o u r d i e u ' sthe o r y o f c l a ss ha b i tu s. T o sa y tha t on e i s a tt e mp t ing to a r r ive a t the o r c he s t r a t i ono f t he ma ny l i ngu i s t i c ha b i tu s , i s t o s a y by imp l i c a t ion tha t one i s no longe r


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a t t em p t i n g t o a c c o u n t f o r e a c h a t tr ib u t e o f e a c h " o r a l p r o d u c t i o n " o f e a c h s p e c i fi cl i ngu i s ti c ha b i tu s , i .e . , o f e a c h a c t o f pa ro l e . The o ppo s i t e c l a im w ou ld be athe o r e t i c a l a bsu r d i ty a nd th i s wa s on e o f t he p o in t s ~ ha t S a ussu r e wa s a nx ious t oe s t a b li sh . S uc h o r c he s t r a t i on o f so ma ny l i ngu is t ic ha b i tu s ( e a c h in t he l a s t r e so r tw i th i t s own un ique vo ic e ) i nvo lve s a t he o r e t i c a l p r oc e s s wh ic h c a l l s f o r somed i s ta n c i n g f r o m t h e a c tu a l: o n e p a y s f o r th e p o w e r o f g e n e r a l iz a t io n b y g i v i n g u pthe po we r o f de sc r ip t ion ove r a t le a s t some u n ique a t t r ibu t e s o f a n a c tua l pe r f o r m -a nc e ( H a sa n 1995b) , c a ll i t a un iqu e " o r a l p r odu c t ion" o f l i ngu i st i c ha b i tu s , o r aun ique a c t o f pa r o l e . I t i s ne ve r i n doub t t ha t t he a na lys i s o f t he a c tua l w i l l beinc om ple t e : t he i s sue i s t he g r ounds f o r t r e a ting som e th ing a s non /un ique . I t i s f o rth is r e a son tha t on e ne e ds a t he o r y tha t a l l ows f oc us bo th on the po te n t i a l and thea c tua l, the sys t e m a nd the in s t a nc e in f a c t t ha t ve r y syn the si s o f t he ob je c t ive a ndthe sub je c t ive pe r spe c t ive , wh ic h I unde r s t a nd B our d ie u ( 1977 , 1990) t o ha vea r gue d f o r so a s t o r id t he soc i a l s c ie nc e s f r om the sho r t c omings o f t he S a ussu r e a na ppr oa c h .

The p r ob le ms in S a ussu r e ' s l i ngu i s t i c s do no t a r i s e f r om the f a c t t ha t heun jus t i f i a b ly a nd c a p r i c ious ly pos tu l a t e d the no t ion o f l a ngue : t ha t no t ion i se s se n t i al t o t he s tu dy o f l a ngua ge a s I ha ve ju s t a r gue d . The c on t r a d i c t i ons i n h i sd i s c o u r s e a ri s e f r o m h o w h e s a w l a n g u e a n d p a r o le i n r e l a t i on t o l i ngu i s t i c s ( Ha sa n ,1987a , 1993) . Gr a n t ing the h i s to r i ca l de pe nd e nc e o f l a ngue on pa r o l e ( no t s i m p l yo f p a r o l e o n l a n g u e a s B o u r d i e u i m p l ie s t h r o u g h h i s r ep e t i ti o n o f t h e m e t a p h o r s o ft h e " e x e c u t i o n " o f a " s c o r e " ) , S a u s s u re s ti ll r e c o m m e n d e d - - i n f a c t q u it e i ll o g i-c a l l y - t h a t i n t e r na l l i ngu i st i c s w h i c h f o r m e d t h e c o r e o f t h e s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e ,shou ld f o c us on ly on l a ngue , on wha t i s i nva r i a n t i n t he va r ia t i ons obse r ve d in t hep a r o l e s o f a c o m m u n i t y . H e t h u s p r i v il e g e d th e s y s t e m o v e r i n s ta n c e a n d b l o c k e dtha t de sc r ip t ive a c t iv i t y wh ic h F i r th ( 1962 , p . 29 ) r e f e r r e d to a s " the r e ne wa l o fc on ne c t ion w i th e xpe r i e nc e " . C on t r a d i c t i on the r e c e r t a in ly is i n S a ussu r e , bu t i t iso p e n t o d o u b t t h a t h e w a s f a s h i o n in g a t h e o r y o f c o m p e t e n c e i n h e r en t l y in d e p e n d e n to f p e r f o r m a n c e . T h a t d o u b t f u l d is t in c t io n b e l o n g s t o C h o m s k yS a us su r e ' s d e c l a r e d a im w a s , the n , to e xc lud e c ons ide r a t ion o f pa r o l e f r omin te rna l l i ngu is t ic s . B u t wh a t ha r m doe s B our d ie u sugge s t t h is doe s t o p r a c t ic e s i nl i ngu i s t ic s? B o ur d ie u ( 1992 , p . 34 ) r e m a r ks i n h i s i n imi t a b l e s ty l e :

.. bracketing ou t the social., allow s language or any other sym bolic object to be treatedlike an en d in itself, [which Rn] contributed considerably to the success o f structuralistlinguistics, for it endowed the 'pu re' exercises that characterize a purely internal andformal analysis w ith the charm of a gam e devoid o f consequences.Tha t i s t o s a y , l i ngu i s t i c a na lys i s be c ome s a po in t l e s s f o r ma l ga me . S tude n t s o fl a n g u a g e w h o h a v e a d i n f in i t u m "se gm ent ed" the s t r ing s in to r,rpvPa nd the l i kew o u l d s y m p a t h i z e w i th B o u r d i e u ' s v i e w , w h i l e t he i n a n it y o f a m i n d l e s s b i n a ri s ma s e m plo ye d in a goo d de a l o f the a na lys is o f a n th r opo log ic a l ma te r ia l i n t he na m e


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o f S a us s u r e is p r oo f t ha t o t he r s f oun d the c h a r m i r re s i st i b le . Bu t a s a de s c r i p t i ono f l in g u i st ic a n a l y s i s as a w h o l e , B o u r d i e u ' s a c c o u n t i s so m e t h i n g o f a m i s r e p r e -s e n t a t i o n t o a t l e a s t t h o s e w h o h a v e r e f l e c t e d o n S a u s s u r e ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e

a s s o c i a t iv e b o n d s , w h o s e n e t w o r k d e f in e s t h e se m a n t i c s p a c e c l a i m e d b y t h ew o r d enseignement. I s i t t he a na l y s i s o f t he f o r m o f l a ngua g e a s s uc h t ha t s hou l dbe c a s t i ga t e d , o r s hou l d on e be c r i ti c a l o f a f o r m a l a na l y s i s t ha t fa i l s t o l i nk l i ngu i s t icf o r m s t o m e a n i n g s b y w h i c h s p e a k e r s li v e ? B o u r d i e u , o f c o u r se , d o e s n o t a s k , b u tg o e s o n t o d r a w a t te n t io n t o o t h e r d a n g e r s i n h e r e n t in t h e e x c l u s i o n o f p a r o l e f r o ml ingui s t i c s (p . 33) , which

.. excludes from it all the investigations which establish a relationship betweenlanguage and anthropology, the political history of those who speak it, or even thegeo graph y of the domain where i t is spoken, because al l o f these things ad d nothingto a kn ow ledge o f language taken in i tself .I t h i nk I a m r i gh t in c l a i m i ng t ha t t h i s c r i t i c i s m - - w h i c h , i nc i de n t a l l y , i gno r e s m u c ho f t h e S a u s s u r e a n d i s c o u r s e o n d i a c h r o n y - - i s r e p r e s e n ta t i v e o f B o u r d i e u ' s d i s q u ie ta t the e xc l u s i on o f pa r o l e f r o m l i ngu i st ic s : a t one l e ve l one m a y i n t e r p r e t th i s a s ad i s qu i e t ov e r t he pos s i b i li t y o f a l i ngu is t ic s t ha t m a k e s t he s oc i o l og y o f l a ngu a gei n s ig n i f ic a n t b y c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e s t u d y o f th e f o r m o f l a n g u a g e . L i n g u i s t s s u c ha s F i r t h ( 1957 , p . 177 f f ) a nd H a l l i da y ( 199 3 , 1996b ) , w h i l e de p l o r i ng t h i s a s pe c t ,h a v e g i v e n m o r e c o g e n t r e a s o n s f o r d i sa g r e e in g w i t h S a u s s u re . I c o n s i d e r t h e s er e a s o n s m o r e c o g e n t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e f u n d a m e n t a l t o th e s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e i ts e lf .T o q uo t e H a l l i da y ( 1996b , p . 30 ) :

Saussure problem atized the nature of the linguistic fact; but he confused the issue o finstantiation by setting u p langue an d parole as if they had be en tw o distinct classesof phenomena. But they are not. There is only one set o f phenom ena here, not two;language (the linguistic system) differs fro m parole (the linguistic instance) on ly inthe position taken up by the observer. Langue is parole seen from a distance, andhence o n the way to bein g theorized abou t.

A c c o r d i n g t o t hi s v i e w , i f p a r o le i s tr u l y b a n i s h e d f r o m t h e s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e , t h e nl o g i c a l l y t h e r e c a n b e n o l a n g u e - - t h e v e r y o b j e c t o f s t u d y d i s a p p e a r s , a n d t h ea c t i v i t y o f l i ngu i s t i c s be c om e s undo able. H a l l i da y ( 1993 : 8 ) po i n t s t o t he ha r md o n e t o t h e s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e b y t h e f a l s e d ic h o t o m i s a t i o n o f l a n g u e a n d p a r o l e :

This failure to construe the link, in semiotic system-and-process, between the IN-STANCEmthe act o f meaning ..- -a n d the SYSTEM (prototypically, a language) hashaunted our late twentieth century linguistics, which has oscillated wildly betweensyste m and instance, creating a massive disjunction between the two. In the 1 960s, ifyo u dared to m ention the text [ie., socially situated parole], you w ere dismissed as'data-orien ted'; while in the 1980s if yo u ventured to refer to the system, yo u w ere


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a t t a c ke d f o r ' t o t a l i z i ng . ' Bu t c om bi n i ng b e i ng da t a - o r i e n t e d w i t h be i ng t o t a li z ing i sa u s e f u l r e c i pe f o r unde r s t a nd i ng t h ings ; w e s om e t i me s c a l l i t s c i e n t if i c m e t hod .

I n f ac t t h e c o u r s e H a l l id a y r e c o m m e n d s i s w h a t B o u r d i e u c a ll s a t heory o fprac t i cew h e n h e p r e s e n t s , a t l e as t b y i m p l i c a ti o n , a si m i l a r re l a t io n o f m u t u a l d e p e n d e n c eb e t w e e n t he s y s t e m a n d th e in s t a n c e - - b e t w e e n t he var iant a n d t h e invar iant ( c fB o u r d i e u 1 9 9 3 , p . 2 7 2 ) - - a s a d e s i r a b l e c o n d i t i o n f o r d o i n g s o c i a l s c i e n c e . B u t h i sc r i ti q u e o f th e s t r o n g c l a s s i fi c a t io n o f l a n g u e a n d p a r o l e f a i ls t o h i g h l i g h t t h ec e n t r a l i t y o f th i s s a m e r e l a ti o n f o r d o i n g l i n g u i st ic s c i e n c e. T h i s t o o i s f a i r ly t y p i c a lo f B o u r d i e u ' s r e f l e c ti o n s o n l a n g u a g e . A n t i c i p a t in g a li tt le , i t i s a s i f f o r B o u r d i e ut h e re is n o t h i n g t o b e s a id a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g m a k i n g p o t e n ti a l o f la n g u a g e t a k e ni n i t se l f ; li n g u i s t ic s h a s n o f a c ts t h a t a r e n o t g i v e n b y s o c i a l i n s ti tu t i o n s ; l a n g u a g eis s i m p l y a s e c o n d a r y f l o w o f v e r b a l e q u i v a l e n t s a s M a l i n o w s k i ( 1 9 3 5 , p . 5 )d e r i s iv e l y c o m m e n t e d , w h i c h j u s t c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s o c ia l r e a l i t y t h a t is a lw a y sa l r e a d y t h e r e . M o r e w i l l b e s a i d i n s e c t io n s 3 a n d 4 a b o u t th i s a s p e c t o f B o u r d i e u ' sc o n c e p t i o n o f l a n g u a g e w h i c h r u n s c u r i o u s l y p a r a ll e l t o t h e f o r m a l i s t ' s a p p r o a c h .

2 2 T h e M i s l e a d in g M a p o f L i n g u is ti cs : T h e E l e v a t i o n o f L a n g u eI f t h e e x c l u s i o n o f p a r o l e f r o m i n t e rn a l l i n g u i s ti c s h a s a p p e a r e d p r o b l e m a t i c t o

s c h o l a r s , t h e i d e a o f l a n g u e i t s e lf i s n o l e s s c o n t e n t i o u s . B o u r d i e u u n q u e s t i o n i n g l ya c c ep t s t h e v i e w c o m m o n a m o n g s t d o m i n a n t l in g u is ts th a t C h o m s k y a n ' c o m p e -t e n c e ' i s a n o t h e r n a m e f o r S a u s s u r e ' s langue ( p . 4 4 ) ; i n f a c t, th e d i s c u s s i o n m o v e sb e t w e e n S a u s s u r e a n d C h o m s k y a s i f t h e ir th e o r ie s w e r e i d en t ic a l, w h i c h , i n v e r yi m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s , t h e y a r e r~ oT . T h u s t h e t e n d e n c y t o e q u a t e l a n g u e a n d c o m p e -t e n c e , f o r a ll it s c u r r e n c y , i s p r o b l e m a t i c o n s e v e r a l c o u n t s . T h e i s s u e s a r e to oi n v o l v e d t o p e r m i t a f u ll d i s c u s s io n h e r e , b u t I m e n t i o n f o u r i n t e rr e l a te d d i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e n t h e t w o c o n c e p t s .

( i) C o m p e t e n c e i s i n n a t e - - a b i o l o g i ca l at tr ib u t e o f al l n o r m a l h u m a n s ; l a n g u e i s asocial product o f t h e f a c u l ty o f s p e e c h a n d a collection of necessary conventions t ha tha v e be e n a dop t e d by a soc i a l bo dy . . ( Sa us s u r e , 1966 , p . 9 ; e m pha s e s a dde d RH) ;l a ngu a ge ne v e r e x i s t s a pa r t f r om t he s oc i a l f a c t .. I ts s oc i a l na t u r e i s on e o f i ts i nne rcha rac te r i s t i c s (ibid, p. 77) . I t i s no t e wor t hy t ha t Sa us s u r e ' s facultd de langage,u n l i k e c o m p e t e n c e , s u b s u m e s b o t h l a n g u e a n d p a r o le .( ii ) S i nc e c om pe t e n c e i s i nna t e i t i s l og i c a l l y i nde pe n de n t o f the c o m m uni t y a nd , s o ,in t r a -org anic ; l angue , a soc ia l prod uc t , is in t e r -organ ic ( c f H a l l iday, 1974) . I t i s no tc om pl e t e i n a ny s pe a ke r ; i t e x i s t s pe r f e c t l y on l y w i t h i n a c o l l e c t i v i t y ( Sa us s u r e ,1966 , p . 14 ); c om pe t e n c e i s c omp l e t e in e a c h na t i ve s pe a ke r ; i t e x i s t s pe r f e c t l y i n e a c hi nd i v i dua l , e xc e p t i n c a s e s o f b r a i n pa t ho l ogy .( i ii ) Co m pe t e n c e a t it s m os t a bs t r a c t i s the i nna t e know l e dge o f t he un i ve r s a l r u l e s o fh u m a n l a n g u a g e; a s o p p o s e d to th e C h o m s k y a n c o n c ep t o f h u m a n l a n g u a g e ,S a u s s u r e ' s langue i s s t ri c tl y l a ngua g e s pe c i f ic : t he l a ngue o f one langage i s n e v e r t h es a m e a s t h e l a n g u e o f s o m e o t h e r . I n fa c t w h e r e o n e i s e n g a g e d i n t h e d e s c ri p t io n o f


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a (sub-standard/dominated) dialect, it could be m aintained strictly within the term so f Saussurean definition that on e is studying the lan gu e (i.e. syste m ) o f that dialect(comparable to the linguistic habitus o f say a class), not its parole, not the oral/graphicproductions.(iv) Finally, the homogeneity of competence is simply a logical concomitant of itsuniversality--at its deepest level competence consists in a genetically endowedknowledge of the rules common to natural languages; by contrast the homogeneityo f a langue arises fro m the fact that it is a syste m representing wh at is treated asinvariant in the parole of a comm unity; it consists of only what is considered to be incommon to all members of the speech community (however defined) because thetheory (rightly o r wrongly) requires such an abstraction.

T h i s c om pa r i s o n h i gh l igh t s t he c ons i s te n t l y s oc i al na t u r e o f l a ngue a s oppo s e d t ot h e c o n s i s te n t l y b i o l o g ic a l n a t u re o f c o m p e t e n c e . L a n g u e i s n o t a t h e o r y a b o u t t h es t ru c t u r e o f t h e h u m a n b r a in ; c o m p e t e n c e i s . 16 L a n g u e w a s a c o n c e p t d e s i g n e d t oa c c o u n t f o r t h e p o s s i b i li t y o f s e m i o t ic e x c h a n g e i n a c o m m u n i t y ; i r o n i c a ll y , o n er e a s on w hy B our d i e u i s s o c r it ic a l o f the no t i on o f l a ngue i s tha t i t f a i l s t o a c h i e v et h is a i m . B o u r d i e u ' s c r i t iq u e p e r ta i n s to t w o d i st in c t l e v e l s - - t h a t o f la n g u a g ede s c r i p t i on a n d t ha t o f t he o r y . I r e po r t f i r st on t he p r o b l e m s f o r t he de s c r i p t i ve l e ve l .

2 2 1 L a n g u e : T h e I ll u si o n o f L i n g u is ti c C o m m u n i s mA c c o r d i n g t o B o u r d i e u , S a u s s u r e ' s c o n c e p t o f l a n g u e a s h o m o g e n e o u s h a sc r e a t e d a n i l lu s i on o f li ngu i s ti c c om m un i s m w h i c h ha un t s a l l l i ngu i s ti c t he o r y ; 17i t l e a v e s u n r e s o lv e d t h e q u e st io n o f t h e s o ci a l a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i ti o n s o f t h ea p p r o p r i a t io n o f la n g u a g e ( p. 43 ) . I t m i g h t n o t b e u n r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h atha d Bo ur d i e u c ons i de r e d l i ngu i st s o t he r t ha n thos e l e g i ti m i z e d a s t he li ngu i s t' ; byt h e ir d o m i n a t i o n o f th e f i el d , h e w o u l d h a v e q u i t e p o s s i b l y a g r e e d w i t h F i rt h , a l w a y sa t h o u g h t f u l a n d o u t s p o k e n o p p o n e n t o f d o m i n a n t l in g u i st ic t h e o r i e s w h o s e r o o t sl a y in f o r m a l s tr u c tu r a li sm . H e r e i s a c o m m e n t b y F i r th o n h o m o g e n e i t y i n l a n g u a g e(1935/1957 , p . 29) :

Unity is the last concept that should be applied to language. U nity o f language is themost fugitive of all unities, whether it be historical, geographical, national, orpersonal. The re is no such thing as u n e l a n g u e une and there n eve r has been.

A s f o r t he r e l a t i on o f t he c om m un i t y to l a ngua ge , F ir t h ( 1950 / 1957 , p . 187 ) be l i e ve dt h a t la n g u a g e t a k e s f o r m i n t h e l iv i n g o f l if e a n d t h a t S u c h l a n g u a g e s y s t e m s c a n. . be r e ga r de d a s a c t i ve l y a nd c ons i s t e n t l y m a i n t a i ne d by pe r s ons i n t he s oc i a lp r oc e s s . I t f o l l ow e d f r o m t h i s t ha t li ngu i s ti c s w a s t he s t udy o f l a ngu a ge a s a s oc i a lp r o c e s s , a n d t h e c h a r a c te r o f t h e l a n g u a g e th a t p e r s o n s a p p r o p r i a t e d , o r t o u s eF i r t h ' s w or ds , l e a r ne d a nd u s e d f o r the l i v i ng o f t he ir l if e , i s de s c r i be d a s f o l l ow s

i b i d , p. 184):


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There is the element of habit, custom, tradition, the element of the past, and theelement of innovation, o f the moment, in which the future is being born. W hen y ouspeak yo u fuse these elements in verbal creation, the outcome of yo ur language andyo ur personality ...

A n d w h i l e F ir t h d id n o t d i s c o u rs e i n d e ta il o n t h e s o ci a l a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t io n so f t h e a p p r o p r i at i o n o f l a n g u a g e , h e in t r o d u c e d t h e co n c e p t s o f l a n g u a g e c o m -m u n i t y a n d s p e e c h f e l lo w s h i p i b id , pp . 185 --6 ) t o show ho w wi th t he c omp l i c i t yo f l a ngua g e i t s e l f, t he l i ne s o f i nc lu s ion a nd e x c lus ion in to soc i a l c a t e go r i e s a r ed r a wn a long the l i ne s o f l a ngu i s t i c va r i a t i on . B our d ie u ' s c onc e r n w i th wha ta c c o r d i n g t o h i m f o l l o w s f r o m t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f l a n g u e a s h o m o g e n e o u s , i se l a bo r a t e d in r e m a r ks suc h a s t he f o l lowing ( p . 45 ):

To speak of the language, w ithout further specification, as linguists do, is tacitly toaccept the off icial definition o f the off icial language o f a political unit. . Produced byauthors w ho have the authority to write, fLxed and codified by g ramm arians andteachers wh o are also charged w ith the task of inculcating its mastery, the languageis a code, in the sense o f a cipher enabling equivalences to be established betweensounds and m eanings, but also in the sense o f a system o f norm s regulating linguisticpractices.I t is c e r t a in ly t r ue t ha t t he ob je c t o f l i ngu i s ts ' de sc r ip t ions ha s t yp i c a l ly be e n the

l a ngue o f a l a ngua ge , be i t Eng l i sh , F r e nc h , G e r ma n , P ush to , P i t ja n t j at j a ra , W e f to r G o o n i y a n d i . T h e ju x t a p o s i t i o n o f l a n g u e s wh ose soc i a l s t a tu s d i f f e r s so r e ma r k -a b l y f r o m e a c h o t h e r p e r h a p s s e r v e s t o th r o w d o u b t o n t h e e a s y e q u a t i o n o f t h ec o n c e p t o f l a n g u e wi th tha t o f o f f i c i a l /l e g i t im a te l angua ge .I S B u t B o ur d ie u i s no tth ink ing o f l a ngua ge s suc h a s Goon iya nd i . S o f a r a s l a ngua ge s suc h a s Eng l i sh ,F r e nc h a nd Ge r ma n a r e c onc e r ne d , i t ha s t o be g r a n te d tha t t he s t a nda r d va r i e ty ,ho w e ve r un f a ir l y , is a l so t he soc i a l l y s a l ie n t va r ie ty . W hic h i s a no the r wa y o f s a y ingtha t i ts m a r ke t i s w ide r t ha n tha t o f a ny o the r va r i e ty , wh ic h g ive s i t r e l a t i ve ly h ighe rv i s ib il i ty . L ingu i s t s a r e no e xc e p t ion to t he ge ne r al t e nde nc y o f pa y ing a t t e n t ion towha t i s soc ia l ly sa l ien t , and eas i ly v is ib le . I t i s indeed fasc ina t ing to a sk : whens c h o la r s b e n d t h e i r m i n d s t o t h e s t u d y o f s o m e p h e n o m e n o n , w h y d o t h e y t y p i c a l l yc ho ose to f o c us on the m os t so c i a l l y sa l ie n t , the m os t v i s ib l e o f i ts i n s t a nc e s, be i tl a ngua ge a s i n t he c a se o f t he l ingu i s t o r the o r e t i c a l f r a me wo r ks a s i n t he c a se o f at h e o r e ti c i an s u c h a s B o u r d i e u ?

On the o the r ha nd , t o b e f a i r t o l i ngu i s ts , a t l e a s t som e o f t he m h a ve e nga g e d inthe de sc r ip t ion o f domina te d l a ngua ge s / l e c t s a s we l l . I ha ve o f t e n quo te d F i r tha bove , bu t he i s no t t he on ly l i ngu i s t who wa s c r i t i c a l o f S a ussu r e ' s i n t e r na ll in g u i st ic s o r w h o r e c o g n i z e d th e s o c ia l n a tu r e o f la n g u a g e. N a m i n g s i n g le n a m e s - -G u m p e r z , F i r t h , H a l l i d a y , H a u g e n , H y m e s , L a b o v , M a t h e s i u s , M u k a ~ o v s k ~ ,V o l o ~ i n o v , W e i n r e ic h , a n d t h e l i st c o u l d c o n t in u e f o r s o m e t i m e - - g i v e s t h e w r o n gimp r e s s ion in t h i s c on te x t . Th e f i e ld o f l i ngu i s t i c s ha s be e n no le s s f r a gm e n te d


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than o ther in te l l ec tual f ie lds , and a lon gs ide the form al i s t t rad i t ions , there ha s a l sof l ou r i shed som e l ingu i s ti c s o f l anguage as soc i a l p rocess . B ourd i eu c r i ti c i zes t hedom inan t , t he i n s t it u t iona l l y accep t ed v a r i e t y o f l ingu i s ti c s fo r conc ep tua l i z i ng t hes y s t e m o f l a n g u a g e a s h o m o g e n e o u s , f o r ig n o r in g t h e p o l i ti c o - e co n o m i c b a s e s o fl ingu i s t ic behav io r . Ho we ver , beg inn ing wi th Mal inow sk i (1923 , 1935) and F i r t h(1935/1957)-- --not to m ent io n ear l i er sch ola rs - - the re has been c ont inu ed in teres ti n t h e s t u d y o f t h e r e le v a n c e o f soc ia l con tex t t o l a n g u a g e u s e ; t h e re h a v e b e e nsoc io -econom ica l ly s ens it i ve concep t s e . g ., Gu m perz ' s (1971) co d e s w i t ch i n g a n dregister repertoire, H a l l i d a y ' s reg i s t er theory (1964), h i s soc io - semio t i c t heo ry o fl anguag e deve lopm en t (1975) and h i s concep t o f a n t i- l a n g u a g es (1976) , as w el l asH y m e s ' w r i t i n g s o n speech variety (1962, 1967) . Apar t f rom these , one couldh a r d l y m i s s t h e f e r v o r w i t h w h i c h s o m e h a v e a d o p t e d t h e p o s it io n o f d e f e n d i n g t h edominated~non-standard varieties (e .g . , see Labov, 1972) . Bourdieu i s not muchimpres sed by t h i s ev idence o f i n t e rest i n the soc i a l cond i t ions o f speak ing ; he d rawsat ten t ion , ins tead , to i t s neg at ive s ide (1990, p . 53) :

The bringing to light of the presuppo sitions inherent in objectivist construction hasparadoxically been delayed by the efforts of all those who, in linguistics as inanthropology, have so ught to 'correct' the stmcturalist mo del by appealing to 'con-text' or 'situation' to ac count for variations, exceptions and accidents .. They havethus avoided a radical questioning of the objectivist mode of thou ght. .

In o the r w ords , wha t l ingu i s t s do by w ay o f desc r ib ing d i a l ec ts / languag es o the rt han t he o f f i c i a l one , by w ay o f r e l a ti ng l anguage va r i e ti e s to soc i a l h i e ra rch i es , tod i f f e ren t marke t s , t o d i f f e ren t f ie l d s , is o f l e ss con sequenc e t han t he f ac t t ha t t heyhav e an ob j ec t i v is t po in t o f v i ew, i n t roduced i n to the f i e l d m os t succes s fu l l y bySaussure . Thei r descr ip t ions reveal an in te l l ec tua l i s t ph i losophy which t rea t sl anguage as an ob j ec t o f con t empla t i on r a the r than as an i n s t rumen t o f ac t i on andp o w e r (p . 3 7 ) - - a f a u lt , w h i c h o n e is t e m p t e d t o c o n c l u d e , c a n b e a v o i d e d o n l y i fone embraces Bourd i eu ' s t heo re t i ca l app roach . Th i s b r i ngs u s t o Bourd i eu ' sobject ion s to l an gue f rom a theoret ica l s tandpoin t .2 2 2 L an gu e: T h e Da n gers o f O b jec t i f ica t i on

I n B o u r d i e u ' s v i e w t h e g r e a t e s t d a m a g e d o n e b y S a u s s u r e ' s t h e o r y w a s i t sha rm fu l i n f l uence i n o r i en t ing t heo r i es t o t he l im i ti ng and l im i t ed ob j ec t iv i s t s tance .In h i s Lo g i c o f P r a c t i ce Bou rd i eu p resen ts a ma s t e r l y ana lys i s o f cu r ren t app roachesto t heo ry -ma k ing i n t he soc ia l s c iences , sugges t ing t ha t i f t he a im o f t he soc ia lsc iences i s to descr ibe socia l pract ice in an i l lumina t ing w ay, then ne i ther object iv-i sm nor sub j ec t iv i sm by i t s e lf w i ll p rove adequa t e . The p ro fes s iona l p rac t ices o f

t he l i ngu i st amply ma n i fes t t he p rob l ems t ha t cha rac t e r ize the ob j ec t i v i s t ap -proach .


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S a ussu r e a n se mio logy - -- - o r m or e p r e c i se ly , S a ussu r e a n in t e r na l l i ng u i s t i c s - -is i n B o u r d i e u ' s v i e w , a n e x a m p l e p a r e x c e l le n c e of ob je c t iv i sm. Th e ba s i s o f th i sob je c t iv i sm l i e s in i t ia l l y i n t he f unda m e n ta l d iv i s ion be tw e e n the l a ngua ge a n d i tsr e a l i z a tion in s pe e c h , t ha t i s , in p r a c t i c e , a nd a l so i n h i s to r y , a nd f r om the ina b i l i t yto unde r s t a nd the r e l a ti onsh ip be twe e n the se two e n t i t i es a s o the r t ha n the mo de la nd i t s e xe c u t ion19 .. ( 1990 , pp . 32 - 3 ) . D i s t a nc ing h im se l f f r om the p r a c t i c a lc onc e r ns t ha t soc i a l a ge n t s ha v e w i th la ngua ge , t he l i ngu i s t a dop t s ( 1990 , p . 31 )

the viewpoint of an 'impartial spectator' who seeks to understand for the sake ofunderstanding .. taking it [i.e., language RrI] as an o bject o f analysis instead o f usingsic. it to think and speak.

I n s e e k ing to unde r s t a nd l a ngua ge ju s t f o r the s a ke o f unde r s t a nd ing i t, t hel ingu i s t c om e s to be a r a pu r e ly t he o r e t ic a l r e l a t ion to la ngua ge , a nd f a il s t ou n d e r s t an d t h e p r a c ti c a l r e la t io n to l a n g u a g e o f s o m e o n e w h o s e e k s t o u n d e r s ta n di t in o r de r t o a c t a nd w ho u se s l a ngua ge f o r p r a c t ic a l pu r pose s i b i d . ) . T h e fa i lureto unde r s t a nd th e na tu r e o f t he soc ia l a ge n t s ' p r a c t i c a l c onc e r n w i th l a ngu a geinc l ine s t he l i ngu i s t t o t re a t la ngua ge a s a n a u tonom ous , s e l f - su f f ic i e n t ob j e c t . .i b i d ) m e a n t f o r i n t e rp r e t a t ion a lone . He thus be s tow s a spu r ious r e a l i ty on i t as i f

i t e x i s t e d inde pe n de n t ly o f spe a ke rs . Thus , s l i d ing f r om the mo de l o f re a l i t y t o t her e a l i t y o f t he m od e l ( B our d ie u , 1990 , p . 39 ), t he li ngu i s t f a il s t o c a l l i n to que s t ionthe p r e suppos i t i ons i nhe r e n t in t he pos i t i on o f t he ' ob j e c t iv e ' obse r v e r wh o se e k ingto in t e r p r e t p r a c ti c e s , t e nds t o b r ing in to t he ob je c t t he p r inc ip l e s o f h i s r e l a t i on tothe ob je c t . . ( 1990 , p . 27 ) . B o ur d ie u a r gue s tha t ne ithe r t he que s t ion o f the ge ne s iso f a n ' imm a ne n t ' s t r uc tu r e suc h a s l a ngue no r t he soc ia l a ge n t ' s r e l a t i on to i t c a nbe r e so lve d e i t he r by a ppe a l ing to t he pa r t ic ipa t ion i s t op t io n o r by pos tu l a ti ngun ive r sa l c a t e go r i e s , t he m se lve s e xp la ine d by a ppe a l t o t he unc onsc ious a c t iv i t yo f t he m ind . H e c l a im s ( 1990 , p . 52 ; m y e mpha s i s ):

Objectivism con stitutes the social wo rld as a spectacle offered to an observer w hotakes up a 'po int of view ' on the action and w ho, putting into the object the principlesof his relation to the object, proceeds as if i t were solely fo r kno wle dge.. Th e theoryo f practice as practice insists, contrary to positivist materialism, that the objects o fknow ledge are constructed, not passively recorded, an d, contrary to intellectualistidealism , that the principle o f this construction is the system o f structured, structuringdispositions, the habi tus , which is constituted in practice and is always orientedtowards practical functions .. On e h a s to e s c a p e f r o m th e r e a l is m o f th e s tr u c tu r e , t ow h ic h o b je c t i v is m . . n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d s . , w i th o u t a l l in g b a c k in to s u b je c t i vi s m , w h ic hi s q u i te in c a p a b le o f g i v in g a n a c c o u n t o f th e n e c e s s i t y o f t h e s o c ia l w o r ld .

F o r t h i s e l e ga n t ly e xp r e s se d c og e n t c r it i que , those l i ngu i st s shou ld b e g r a t e f u l wh oh a v e a l w a y s o p p o s e d t h e p r i n c ip l e o f t h e e x c l u s io n o f p a ro l e f r o m l in g u is ti c s, w h oha v e s tud ie d l a ngua ge a s pa r t o f t he soc ia l p r oc e s s , a nd wh o ha v e in s i s te d on thel o g ic a l n e c e s s i ty o f m a i n ta i n in g t h e d u a l p e r s p e ct i v e o f s y s t e m a n d i n s t a n c e - - a


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THE D ISEMPOWERMENT GAM E 9

d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t fi ts r a t h e r w e l l a g r o u p o f l i n g u i st s w h o h a v e w o r k e d w i t h t h es y s t e m i c f u n c t io n a l m o d e l o f l an g u a g e . I t se e m s a p p r o p r i a te t o d r a w a t te n t io n h e r eo n c e a g a i n t o s o m e v i e w s o f F i r t h s ( 1 9 4 8 / 1 9 5 7 , p . 1 4 3 ) t h a t m a i n t a i n a p o s it i o ne s s e n ti a ll y s i m i l a r t o th a t o f B o u r d i e u s t h o u g h w i t h o u t t h e s a m e e l e g a n c e o r t h ew i d e s w e e p o f h is d is c o u r se . ( E m p h a s i s a d d e d . )

Linguis t s and so ciologis t s have to deal wi th sys tems, b ut sys tem s very di f ferent f romphysical sys tems. Personal sy s tems and socia l sys tems are act ively ma inta ined (wi thadaptat ion and chang e) in the bodi ly behav ior of men. M ost o f the olde r def ini tions(and de S aussu re s m ust fal l in this category) need overh aul ing .. Langu age andpersonali ty are buil t into the bod y, wh ich is con stantly taking p art in act ivi ties directe dto the co nservat ion o f the pattern o f li fe . W e m ust expec t therefore that linguist icscience w ill also f ind i t nece ssary to postulate the maintenance o f l inguistic pat ternsand sys t ems (including adap tation and change) within w hic h there is ord er, structure,and funct ion. Suc h sys tems are m aintained by activity , and in act ivi ty they are to bestudied. I t is on these grou nds that l inguistics m ust be systemic.

O n e n e e d a b a n d o n n e i t h e r t h e s y s t e m n o r t h e i n s t a n c e s o l o n g a s t h e h i s t o r i c a lr e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s y s t e m ( s ) a n d t h e v a r i o u s i n s t a n c e s - - b e t w e e n t h e i n v a r i a n ta n d t h e m a n y v a ri at io n s o b s e r v e d - - c a n b e s tu d ie d u n d e r s o m e p r in c i p le w h i c hc o m b i n e s t h e t w o p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e e x p l a n a t o r y p r i n c i p l e B o u r d i e u ( 1 9 9 0 : 5 3 )o f f e r s u s i s t h a t o f habitus:

The condi t ions a ssocia ted wi th a part icular c lass of condi t ions o f exis tence (sic )p r o d u c e habitus, sys tem s o f durable, transposable dispositions, structured structurespred ispo sed to functio n as structuring structures, that is , as principles w hic h gene rateand organ ize practices and representat ions that can be object ively adap ted to thei rou t com es wi thout p resuppos ing a consc ious a iming a t ends o r an express m as t e ry o fthe ope rat ions nec essary to at tain them.

I m p o r t a n t a s t h e c o n c e p t o f h a b i tu s i s, m a n y i ss u e s i n r e la t io n t o i t c a n n o t b ea d d r e s s e d w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f th i s p a p e r , s u c h a s th e d e t a il s o f h o w l i n g u i s ti c h a b i t u sis p r o d u c e d , h o w i t r e s p o n d s t o c o n d i ti o n s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e i t w a s p r o d u c e d i n, a n dh o w o n e m i g h t d e s c r i b e , be y o nd ge ne r a l i ti e s , t he d e ta il s o f t h e p h y s i o g n o m y o fs o m e c a t e g o r y o f li n g u i s ti c h a b i t u s , s u c h a s , s a y , t h a t o f t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s .B o u r d i e u s w r i t in g o n h a b i t u s i s c e r ta i n l y in s p ir a ti o n a l, b u t I h a v e n o t f o u n d s u c hd e t a i ls i n i t, w h i c h w h e n i t c o m e s t o t h e a c tu a l a n a l y s i s o f a l i n g u i s ti c p r o b l e m i s ad i s ti n c t d i s a d v a n ta g e . L e t m e n o w c l o s e th is d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e r ro r a n d f a il u re o fl in g u i s ti c s i n B o u r d i e u s o w n w o r d s ( p p . 3 7 - 8 ; e m p h a s e s a d d e d . ):

O n the on e hand, there a re the social ly con structe d disposi tions o f the l inguistichabitus, w hic h imply a certain p rope nsi ty to speak and to say determinate things . ..and a cer ta in capaci ty to speak, w hich invo lves both the linguist ic capa ci ty to generatean inf ini te nu m ber o f gramm at ical ly correct discourses, and the socia l capaci ty to use


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this com petence adequately in a determinate situation. On the other hand, there arethe structures of the linguistic market, which im pose themselves as a sy stem ofspecific sanctions and censorships.This sim ple m odel o f the linguistic production and circulation as the relation betweenlinguistic habitus and the m arkets on wh ich they offe r their products . . enable(s) usto understand the error and failure to which linguistics succumbs when, re ly ing ono n l y o n e o f t h e a c t o r s i n v o l v e d - - a strictly linguistic competence, abstractly defined,ignor ing every th ing tha t i t ow es to the soc ia l cond i t ion of its produ ction m it tries togiv e an adeq uate account o f discourse .. In fact, as long as they [i.e., linguists RH] areunaware of the limits that constitute their science, linguists have no choice but tosearch desperately in language for something that is actually inscribed in the socialrelations within wh ich it [i.e., languag e P,H] functions, or to engag e in a sociologywithout know ing it, that is, with the risk of discovering, in gr am m ar itself, somethingthat their spontaneous sociology h as unwittingly im ported into it.

T h e d i s c u s si o n s o f a r h a s b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h w h a t B o u r d i e u f in d s p r o b l e m a t i ci n t he w a y t he l i ngu i s t doe s h i s l ingu i s ti c s . T h i s i s sue i s f a r f r o m s im p l e , a s I ha v et r ie d t o s how b y i m po r t i ng a l t e rna t i ve v i e w s f r o m t he f i e l d o f l ingu i s ti c s . I f t hel i ngu i s t o f Bo ur d i e u ' s c r i t i que i s r e a l, the n s i de by s i de t he r e a l s o e x i s t l ingu i s t sw h o s e p o s i t io n h a s n o t b e e n r e m a r k a b l y d i ff e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f B o u r d i e u ' s , e s p e -c i a l l y i n t he i r c r i t i c i sm o f s t a t ic s t ruc t u r a l f o r m a l i s m ( F i rt h 1950 / 1957 , p . 181 )w h i c h i g n o r e s e v e r y t h i n g t h a t l a n g u a g e o w e s t o t h e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n . F r o m t h ep e r s p e c t i v e o f s u c h l i n g u i s t s , B o u r d i e u ' s c r i t i q u e o f a h o m o g e n i z e d , t o t a l i z e dl i ngu i st i c s i s obv i o us l y a n a c t o f d i s in f o r m a t i on a b ou t t he f i el d , w h i c h ob l i t e r a te sa l l f o r m s o f l i ngu i s t i c s t ha t do no t c on t r i bu t e t o h i s no t - s o - h i dde n a ge nda o fd i s c r e d i t ing t he s ove r e i gn d i s c i p l i ne ( Bou r d i e u 1992 , p . 32 ). M os t s y s t e m i cf unc t i ona l l i ngu i s ts w ou l d a g r e e w i t h Bou r d i e u ' s c r i t i que o f S a us s u r e a n l i ngu i st i cs ,a t l e a s t a s t ha t t he o r y go t i n t e r p r e t e d a nd u s e d by s i m p l y f o r m a l l i ngu i s t s . M os ts ys t e m i c f unc t iona l l i ngu i s t s w ou l d s ha r e Bou r d i e u ' s d i s qu i e t a t t he s t rong c l a s s i -f i c a t i on o f l a ngue a nd pa r o l e , a nd a t t he e xc l u s i on o f t he l a t t e r f r om i n t e r n a ll i n g u i s t i c s ; i n f a c t t h e y w o u l d b e o p p o s e d t o t h e v e r y i d e a o f t h e d i v i d e d h o u s e o fi n t e rna l a n d e x t e r na l l ingu i s t ic s , a ga i n f o r a r e a s on t ha t i s no t ve r y d i f f e r e n t f r omw h a t B o u r d i e u h a s t o s a y a b o u t a v i a b l e t h e o r y o f p ra c ti c e. W h e r e I b e l ie v e t h es ys t e m i c func t i ona l l i ngu i s t w i ll pa r t c om pa n y w i t h Bo ur d i e u i s on h i s i de a s a bo u tl a ngu a ge i ts e lf . T h i s i s the i s s ue t o w h i c h I t u r n i n t he f o l l ow i ng s e c t i on .

3 . B O U R D I E U O N L A N G U A G ES i n c e t o t h e b e s t o f m y k n o w l e d g e B o u r d i e u h a s n o t p r o v i d e d a n y a c c o u n t o f w h a t,b y v i r tu e o f t h e m u l t it u d i n o u s a c ts o f l a n g u a g i n g a s p a r t o f t h e s o c i a l p r o c e s s o fl i v ing , l a ng ua g e t a ke n i n i t s e lf be c o m e s / i s a s a s e m i o t i c s y s t e m i t w i l l be


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T H E D I SE M P O W E R M E N T G A M E 4

n e c e s s a r y t o b e g i n b y e x a m i n i n g h i s a c c o u n t o f o f f i c ia l l a n g u a g e . I t is i n t h e c o u r s eo f c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e g e n e s i s a n d n a t u r e o f t h is v a r i e t y o f l a n g u a g e t h a t B o u r d i e ur e ve a l s h i s v i e ws on su c h ph e nom e na a s l i ngu i s ti c va r ia t ion , t he c on c e p t o f s ty le ,t h e w o r k i n g o f a s e m i o t i c s y st e m , th e n a t u re o f g r a m m a r a n d o f l e x i c o n , an d t h el ike .

W e a r e a l re a d y f a m i l ia r w i t h B o u r d i e u ' s v i e w ( p . 4 5 ) t h a t T o s p e a k o f t h el a ngua ge , w i thou t f u r the r spe c i f i c a t ion , a s l i ngu i s t s do , i s t o t a c i t l y a c c e p t t heof f i c ia l de f in i t i on o f t he of f i c ia l l a ngua ge o f a po l i t i c a l un i t . . ( s e e e x t r a c t s e c t ion2 . 2. 1 ). G i v e n t h e s o c i al s t ru c t u re o f h u m a n c o m m u n i t ie s , a ' p a n - c o m m u n a l 'l a ngua ge , e qu a l ly a pp r op r i a t e d by a ll , i s no m or e tha n a t he o r e t i c a l m y th , a s F i r thha d po in t e d ou t ; wha t t he l i ngu is t t yp ic a l ly e nds up de sc r ib ing is wh a t a ppe a r st h e m o s t s a l i e n t - - w h a t i s k n o w n i n t h e t ra d e as t h e s t a n d a r d d i a le c t; b u t a c c o r d i n gto B our d ie u the sa l i e nc e o f t he s t a nda r d d i a l e c t i s s imp ly the me a su r e o f i t sdom ina t ion . B o ur d ie u u se s the t e r ms o f f i c i a l l a ngua g e , l e g i t ima te l a ngua ge ,

s t a n d a rd l a n g u a g e a n d a u t h o r i z e d l a n g u a g e m o r e o r l es s i n t e r ch a n g e a b l y t or e f e r t o t ha t va r i e ty o f l a ngua ge wh ic h i s a p r oduc t o f t he po l i ti c a l dom ina t ion tha ti s e nd le s s ly r e p r odu c e d by in s t i tu t ions c a pa b le o f imp os ing un ive r sa l r e c ogn i t iono f dom ina n t l a ngua g e s ( p . 46 ) ; a nd it i s t h is l a ngua ge tha t t he l i ngu i s t de sc r ibe s ,t h u s c o n t r i b u ti n g t o t h e i n v i d io u s d e v a l u a t i o n . o f c o m m o n l a n g u a g e . W h a t i s th eo r ig in o f t h i s o f f i c i a l l a ngua g e ? W h a t a r e i t s c ha r a c t e ri s t ic s? H ow doe s i t d i f f e rf r om o the r va r i e t i e s o f t he sa me l a ngua ge ? I n the f o l lowing sub - se c t ions , I w i l lp r e s e n t s o m e o f B o u r d i e u ' s i d e a s o n t h e s e q u es t io n s , b e f o r e p re s e n t in g h i s v i e w son l a ngu a ge a s a f o r m a l sys te m.

3 .1 T h e P r o d u c t i o n a n d R e p r o d u c t i o n o f O f f i c i al L a n g u a g eL e t m e b e g i n w i t h o n e o f B o u r d i e u ' s r e m a r k s ( p. 4 8 ) o n t h e g e n e s is o f o f f ic i a l

l a ngua ge :.. on ly when the making o f the 'nation,' an entirely abstract group based o n law,creates new usages and functions does it bec om e indispensable to forge a standardlanguage, im personal and an onym ous like the official uses it has to serve, and by thesame token to und ertake the work o f norm alizing the products o f the linguistic habitus.

Th e e duc a t iona l sy s t e m p la ys a de c i s ive r o l e i n t he c ons t r uc t ion , l e g i t ima t iona nd imp os i t i on o f a n o f f i c ia l l a ngua ge ( p . 48 ) , wh ic h i s c r uc i a l t o t he r e p r od uc t ion

. a nd the d i f f e r e n t i a l va lua tion o f t he d i f f e r e n t d i a le c t s. T he e duc a t iona l sy s t e m i sa b le to e xe r c i se th i s pow e r e spe c ia l ly by v i r tue o f i ts un i f i c a t ion w i th the l a bo rm a r ke t a s B o ur d ie u po in ts ou t ( p . 49 ; my e mpha se s . ):

The educational system .. no doubt directly helped to devalue popular m ode s o fexpression dismissing them as 'slang' and 'gibberish' .. and to impo se recognitiono f the legitimate language. B ut .. doubtless the dialectical relation between the schoo lsystem and the labor market--., between the unification of the educational (and


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4 R U O A I Y A H A S A N

l i n g u i s t i c ) ma r k e t , . . a n d t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e l a b o r ma r k e t . . - - . . p l a y e d t h e mo s td e c i s i v e r o l e i n d e v a l u i n g d i a l e c t s a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e n e w h i e r a r c h y o f l i n g u i s t i cp r a c t i c e s . T o i n d u c e t h e h o l d e r s o f d o m i n a t e d l i n g u is t ic c o m p e t e n c e s t o c o l la b o r a t ei n t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r i n s t r u me n t o f e x p r e s si o n , .. i t wa s n e c e s s a r y f o r th e s c h o o ls y s t e m t o b e p e r c e i v e d a s t h e p r i n c i p a l ( i n d e e d , t h e o n l y ) me a n s o f a c c e s s t oa d m i n i s t ra t i v e p o s i t io n s , w h i c h we r e a ll t h e m o r e a t t r a c t iv e wh e r e i n d u s t r i a li z a t io nwa s l e a s t d e v e l o p e d .

I n t h e d e v a l u a t i o n o f p o p u l a r l a n g u a g e - - w h i c h , b e it n o t ed , i s s i m p l y a n in s tr u -m e n t o f e x p r e s s i o n , a m o d e o f s t r in g i n g t o g e t h e r t h e s i g n i fi e r s, t h e s i g n i f ie dp e r h a p s b e i n g n o p a r t o f l an g u a g e , b u t s i m p l y a g i f t o f t he s o c i a l - - t h e e d u c a t io n a ls y s t e m f in d s w i l l in g c o l l ab o r a t o r s a m o n g i ts f e m a l e a p p r e n t i c e s ( p . 5 0 : m y e m p h a -s i s . ) :

. . w o m e n a r e m o r e d i s p o s e d t o a d o p t t h e l e g it i ma t e la n g u a g e o r t h e le g i t ima t epronunc ia t ion ) : s i n c e t h e y a r e i n c l in e d t o w a r d d o c i l i ty w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e d o m i n a n tu s a g e s b o t h b y t h e s e x u a l d i v i s i o n o f la b o r , wh i c h m a k e s t h e m s p e c i a l iz e in t h e s p h e r eo f c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d b y t h e l o g ic o f m a r ri a g e , w h i c h i s t h ei r m a i n i f n o t t h e o n l ya v e n u e o f s o c ia l a d v a n c e m e n t a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y c i rc u la t e u p w a r d s , w o m e n a r ep r e d i s p o s e d t o a c c e p t , f r o m s c h o o l o n w a r d s , t h e n e w d e m a n d s o f t h e m a r k e t i ns y m b o l i c g o o d s .A l t h o u g h th e c o n c e p t s o f m a r k e t s a n d f i e ld s a r e r e l e v a n t t o B o u r d i e u ' s

a c c o u n t o f th e p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e o f f i c ia l la n g u a g e , h e d o e s n o td e v e l o p t h e m s u f f i c ie n t ly f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f l a n g u a g e ; f o r e x a m p l e , h o wd o e s o n e l i n g u i s ti c m a r k e t d i ff e r f r o m a n o t h e r , o r w h a t i f a n y t h i n g h a s l a n g u a g e t od o w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c i ty o f o n e f ie l d a s o p p o s e d t o a n o t h e r. I w i l l t o u c h b r i e f l y o ns o m e o f t h e s e i s s u e s i n s e c t i o n 4 .

3 2 O n t h e D i s t in c t i o n o f a n O f fi c i a l L a n g u a g eT h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e p r o d u c t io n o f o ff ic i a l l a n g u a g e c a n t hu s b e e x p l a i n e d

e n t i r e ly in t e r m s o f e x t e r n a l f a c t o rs : t h e p o l i t i c a l w i l l t o u n i f i c a t i o n , w h i c h m u s tu l t im a t e l y u n d e r l y t h e u n i f i c a ti o n o f t h e m a r k e t in s y m b o l i c g o o d s w h i c h a c c o m -p a n i e s t h e u n i fi c a t io n o f t h e e c o n o m y ( p . 5 0 ) . A n d t h e s a m e is t r u e o f t h e v a l u a t io no f th e d i f fe r e n t l in g u i s t ic v a r i e ti e s : A l l l in g u i s ti c p r a c t ic e s a r e m e a s u r e d a g a i n s tl e g i t i m a t e p r a c t i c e s , i. e. , t h e p r a c t i c e s o f t h o s e w h o a r e d o m i n a n t ( p. 5 3 ) . InB o u r d i e u ' s n a r r a t iv e , t h e n a k e d n e s s o f th e e m p e r o r i s N EV ER v i s ib l e . I n d e e d , s oc o n v i n c e d i s B o u r d i e u o f t h e c ri ti c a l r o l e o f th e p u r e l y e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s i n th ep r o d u c t i o n , r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f s o c i a l d i a le c t s t h a t h e w a r n s u s a g a i n s ta t t e m p t i n g t o f i n d t h e s e c r e t o f t h e ir c o n s t i tu t i o n e l s e w h e r e . T o d o t h is i s to c o u r tt r o u b l e ( p p . 5 2 - 3 ) :


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THE D ISEMPOWERMENT GAM E 4

.. on e inevi tably fa ll s into one o r other o f two o ppo sing errors . E i ther one u nco n-sciously absolut izes .. the dom inant usage, fai ling to look be yo nd the proper t ies oflangu age i t se lf , such as the com plexi ty of i ts sy ntact ic s tructure , in order to iden t i fythe bas is o f the value w hich i s acco rded to i t ( i. e. , off icial language), par t icular ly inthe educa t ional ma rket ; or one escap es this .. fe ti shism only to fa ll in to the na ivetypar exce l l ence of the scholar ly re la tivism wh ich forgets that the nai've gaze i s notrelat ivist, and igno res the fact o f legi timacy, thro ug h a .. relat ivizat ion 2 o f thedom inant usage, wh ich is socia l ly reco gnize d as legi timate , and no t only by tho sew ho are dominant.S o i n t ry i n g t o d e c i d e w h a t f a c to r s d is t in g u i s h t h e d i a le c t s o f a c o m m u n i t y ' s

l in g u i s ti c r e p e rt o ir e , w e a r e a d v i s e d b y B o u r d i e u n o t to m a k e t h e e rr o r o f a s s u m i n gt h a t t h e o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e is v a l u e d b e c a u s e i t h a s A NY l i n g u i st ic p r o p e r t i e s p e r s e :t o d o t h is w o u l d b e t o s u c c u m b t o li n g u i s ti c f e t is h i s m , a m a l a i s e t h a t , w e a r e t o l d ,i n f e ct s B e r n s t e i n ' s d i s c o u r s e o n e d u c a t i o n a l s o c i o l o g y . N o r s h o u l d o n e f a ll in t o th ee r r o r o f a s s u m i n g , a 1~ L a b o v , t h a t a l l d i a l e c ts a r e e q u a l i n t h e m s e l v e s : t o d o t h isis t o i g n o r e t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s ( i n te r - su b j e c ti v e ly ) o b j e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n o f th e o f f ic i a ld i a l e c t a s i n d e e d ' b e t t e r ' b e i n g t h e p r i v i l e g e d v a r i e t y .

B u t i f o f f ic i a l l a n g u a g e h a s n o s p e c i f ic p r o p e r t ie s i n r e sp e c t o f w h i c h i t m i g h tb e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m t h e o t h e r v a r i e t i e s i n t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s l i n g u i s t i c r e p e r t o i r e ,a n d i f a ll s p e a k e rs i n th e c o m m u n i t y st ill h a v e v i r tu a l l y t h e s a m e r e c o g n i t i o n o fa u t h o r i z e d u s a g e ( p . 6 2 ) , a re w e n o t f a c e d w i t h a p u z z l e : w h a t is it o n t h e b a s is o fw h i c h t h e s p e a k e r s r e c o g n i z e w h a t e v e r i t is th a t th e y d o r e c o g n i z e ? N o t s o , s a y sB o u r d i e u . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a s o n , w e m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e n a t u r e a n d r o l e o fh a b i tu s , w h i c h is c o n s t i t u te d o u t s id e t h e s p h e r e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d c o n s t r a i n t .H e r e is a m o r e d e t a il e d d e s c r i p t io n o f h o w t h e d i s p o s it io n s o f t h e h a b i tu s a r e f o r m e d(p. 51 ) : 21

The re i s every reason to think that the factors which are m ost influential in theformat ion of the habi tus are t ransmi t ted w i thout pass ing through language andconsciou sness , but through sugg est ions inscr ibed in the most apparent ly ins igni f icantaspects o f the things , s ituat ions and pract ices of every day l ife . Thus the m odal i t ies o fpractices, the wa ys of looking , sit ting, standing, kee ping si lent, o r e v e n o f s p e a ki n g( ' r eproachfu l l ooks ' o r tones , ' d i sapprov ing g l ances ' and so o n) a r e fu l l o f in junc-t ions that are powerful and hard to res i

The Disempowerment Game

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