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Comprehensive Grammar Rules Handbook

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Courses THE TEACHING

OF SPEAKING (Engl 19) and PREPARATION & EVALUATION OF INSTRUCTIONALMATERIALS IN ENGLISH (Engl 21)

Shiela Ann Neron

October 2014

1

The Different Parts of Speech

Nouns

Nouns are names of people, places, things, ideas, and events.

I. Kinds of Nouns

1. Proper Nouns – These name a specific person, place, or thing and always

start with a capital letter.

e.g. Andrei, Philippines, December

2. Common Nouns – These are general names.

e.g. writer, building, baby, car

3. Mass nouns – These cannot be directly counted and are taken as a whole.

They cannot be made plural by adding –s or –es at the end.

e.g. salt, sugar, damage, water

4. Count nouns - These are names that can be directly counted. They can also

be made plural by adding –s or –es at the end.

e.g. dress, piano, brush, can

5. Abstract Nouns – These are names of ideas, qualities, conditions, or

emotions. They cannot also be made plural by adding –s or –es at the end.

e.g.success, beauty, intelligence, happiness

6. Concrete nouns – These can be perceived by any of the five senses. They

can also be count or mass nouns.

e.g. chair, rain, lightning, food

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7. Collective Nouns – These are names of groups of persons, things, or

animals. e.g. band, flock, crowd, family

8. Compound Nouns – These are nouns that are made up of one word.

Types of Compound Nouns:

1. Separated - police station, bubble bath

2. Hyphenated - editor-in-chief, hand-me-down

3. Combined - ballpen, seaman

9. Adjectives that functionasnouns – Adjectives may be considered nouns

when they represent people. They come after the determiner “The” and

verbs may immediately come after them. Also, they are considered plural in

number. Therefore, if they are used as subjects in sentences, plural verbs

come after them.

e.g. The determined succeed.

The senator gave the jobless employment.

*Mass, abstract, and some concrete nouns are considered Noncount.

II. Forms of Nouns

Nouns are easy to find in a sentence because of their appearance. A word is

a noun when:

1. it has a singular and plural form.(Refer to Appendix A)

e.g. car cars

mouse mice

2. it has a gender, either male, female or neuter. (Refer to Appendix B)

e.g. male – father

female – mother

common – parent

neuter – house

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3. it has cases, namely the nominative (or subjective), the objective, and the

possessive. It is only in the possessive case that the form of nouns

changes.

4. it has endings or suffixes such as –age, -ce, -cy, -dom, -ion, -ism, -ity, -

ment, -ness, -or, -ship, -sy, -tion, -ty, -ure. (Refer to Appendix C)

e.g. happiness equality

kingdom agreement

III. Noun Cases

Case refers to how nouns (or pronouns) are used in sentences. The three

cases are the nominative(or subjective), the objective, and the possessive.

The table below shows the uses of these cases.

Case Use

Nominative Subject or Predicate Nominative

Objective Direct Object, Indirect Object. or, Object of a

Preposition

Possessive To show ownership

Here are sentences showing the ways how nouns can be used.

1. as a subject of a verb

e,gFlowersgrow in the garden. subject verb

2. as predicate nominative (or complement of a linking verb)

e.g. Jossie is the pride of the school. link ing complement verb

3. as the direct object t of a verb

e.g. Lito drives his car to the bank. verb direct object

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4. as the indirect object of a verb

e.g. The man gave his wife a gold ring. verb indirect object

5. as the object of a preposition

e.g. You will find the vase beside the chair. preposition obj.of the preposition

6. as objective complement

e.g.We made Isaac lead guitarist of the band. d.o. obj. complement

7. asnominative of address (a noun that is used in direct quotations; also

called direct address.)

e.g. Ben, take this. Nominative of address

8. as appositive (a noun that renames, identifies, or explains a noun or

pronoun in the sentence)

e.g. Our dog, a poodle turned seven last week. Appositive

IV. Possessive Forms of Nouns

Here are several rules in using the possessive form.

1. Add an apostrophe and s (‘s) to singular nouns not ending in –s.

e.g. Kay’s shoes

The artist’s painting

2. Add only an apostrophe(’)to plural noun ending in –s.

e.g. the musicians’ instrument

the heroes’ welcome

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3. Add an apostrophe and s (‘s)to a plural noun that has a different spelling

from that of a singular form.

e.g. children‘sfood (from the singular form child)

brethren‘shouses (from the singular form brother; another

plural form brothers)

4. Add an apostrophe and s (‘s)to one-syllable nouns that end in –s.

e.g James‘squestions

Bress‘snotebooks

However, if the next word starts with s, add only an apostrophe(’)to the

possessor.

e.g. Thess’suitors

Jess’ songs

5. Add an apostrophe(’)to more-than-one-syllable nouns ending in –s.

e.g. the actress’ performance

the carcass’stench

6. Add an apostrophe(’)to proper nouns with two or more syllables that have

an s sound before the last s sound.

e.g. Moses’ sermon

Ulysses’ journey

7. In joint ownership, add an apostrophe and s (‘s)to the last noun.

e.g. Ling and Tina‘sroom

Glenda, Gladys, and Gemma‘sfather

8. In separate ownership,add an apostrophe and s (‘s) and an

apostrophe(’)at the end of each noun.

e.g. Ling‘s and Tina‘sroom

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Glenda‘s, Gladys’, and Gemma‘sclosets

9. In compound nouns, add an apostrophe and s (‘s) to the last word.

e.g. the editor-in-chief‘sarticles

his sisters-in-law‘shouses

10. Add an apostrophe and s (‘s)to nouns ending in –z or –x.

e.g. the Alferez‘ssuccess

Alex‘sresearch

11. If the possessor is placed after the possession, not the following:

“Mary’s friend”can be turned into “a friend of Mary’s,”, “a friend of

hers,” or “the friend of Mary,” but not “the friend of hers.”

12. Generally, inanimate nouns do not show ownership. However, the

possessive pronoun its is noun normally used in the international media.

e.g. SUBSTANDARD: the house’s kitchen

STANDARD: the kitchen of the house

ACCEPTABLE: its kitchen

V. Plural Forms of Nouns

A. Regular Plurals

In general, to form plurals of singular count nouns, add –s or –es at the end

of the lesson.

Noun Ending Rule Examples Exemptions

s, x, z, ch, sh,

ss

Add –es dishes, boxes,

dresses, waltzes oxen, quizzes

o preceded by Add –es

tomatoes, heroes,

potatoes

Musical terms:

pianos, altos;

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a consonant

photos, logos

o preceded by

a vowel

Add –s zoos, radios,

tattoos

y preceded by

a consonant

Change y to I and

add –es

babies, cities,

ladies

y preceded by

a vowel

Add -s days, toys,

kidneys

f, ff, fe Add -s

hoofs, beliefs,

cliffs, cuffs, chefs,

proofs

Change f to v and

add s or es :

elves, halves,

knives, lives,

loaves, thieves

B. Irregular Plurals

Irregular plurals generally have a different spelling from that of their singular

form. Therefore, they are not formed according to the rules given on the

previous page. (Refer to Appendix A, Tables 1 to 3, for examples of irregular

plurals)

C. Forming Plurals of Compound Nouns

To make compound nouns plural, add –s or –es at the end of the first noun.

e.g. sergeants-at-arm

mothers-in-law

D. Forming Plurals of Letters, Numbers, and Names

To make numbers, letters, or names plural, add –s after them.

e.g. How many 2sare there in 16?

There are two Rs in the word “occurred.”

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We have three Joeys in the class roster.

VI. Partitive Nouns

Noncount nouns cannot have –s or –es at the end to make them plural.

Partitive nouns or quantifiersare used to make these noncount nouns singular

or plural.

Here is a list of noncount nouns that are made plural by adding

partitivenounsbefore or after them.

advice – pieces of advice

applause- rounds of applause

baggage- pieces of baggage

butter- cubes of butter

cheese- slices of cheese

corn- ears of corn, kernels

dust- specks of dust

equipment- pieces of equipment

evidence- pieces of evidence

fish - schools of fish

flour – teaspoons of flour

food – food items

furniture – pieces of furniture

hair – strands of hair

information – bits of information

ink – bottles of ink

jewelry – pieces / sets of jewelry

lettuce – heads of lettuce

lightning – bolts of lightning

milk – bottles / glasses of milk

music – musical pieces / scores

oil – bottles / drops of oil

rice – grains / sacks of rice

salt – teaspoonful of salt

sand - grains / sacks of sand

sheep – flocks of sheep

smoke – wisps of smoke

soap – bars of soap

soda – bottles of soda

tea – cups of tea

thunder – peals of thunder

wine – bottles of wine

To make a noncount noun from the list above singular, remove the –s from

the partitive noun and then add the determiner a or anbefore it.

e.g. A pieces of jewelry wassold yesterday.

Pieces of jewelry weresold last week.

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Quantifying Count and Mass Nouns: The table below shows how to

quantify count or mass (noncount) nouns.

Count many few a number of

Mass much less, not much an amount of

Both Count or Mass more

e.g. more tables a few pens a number of books

much money less water an amount of salt

VII. Rules of Capitalization

Through capital letter, it is easy to know the important parts of the sentence

that need to be emphasized.

To capitalize is to use a capital letter at the start of the word. Specifically,

capitalization is used:

Usage Examples

*in the first word of a sentence Everyone loves the new book.

*to indicate proper nouns Philippine, Marc, Sony

*for days of the week and months Friday, December

*in the first word of a salutation My dearest Jamie,

Dear Jake,

*in the first word of a complimentary close Respectfully Yours,

Love,

*in naming a direction She went to the North.

*in the first word of a direct quotation Annie replied, “It wasn’t my fault.”

*in the first and all the important words in a

title (These words are nouns, verbs,

adjectives, adverbs, and the first word in a

title.)

The 50 Most Beautiful Islands of the

Philippines

*in titles, when they refer to a particular General Maximus

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official or family member First Lady Nancy Reagan

*in the pronoun I and the interjection O I am happy.

O Father, hear us.

Verbs

Verbs show “action” or “being.”

When verbs show being, they express the condition of someone or the fact that

something exists. They link a noun used as a subject to another noun, as in the

sentence “The teacher is Mrs. Alfarez,” or to a pronoun modifying it, such as in “The

teacher is industrious.” Such connectors are called linking or copulative verbs.

On the other hand, some verbs that show action are either visible (smile, touch, dance,

write) or mental (think, believe, hope, learn). There are also regular verbs and irregular

verbs.

I. Kinds of Verbs

Regular verbs form their simple past and past participles by adding –d or –ed at

the end of the verbs.

e.g. smile touch dance hope

smiled touched danced hoped

Irregular verbs form their simple past and past participles by changing their

spelling.

e.g. catch sing rise write

caught sang rose wrote

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Linking or Action Verb?

The most common linking verbs, or verbs that link two or more words in a sentence, are

the forms of be. Here are the examples:

The Forms of BE

am can be have been

are could behas been

is may be had been

wasmight becould have been

were must be may have been

am beingshall be might have been

are beingshould be must have been

is being will be shall have been

was being would be should have been

were being will have been

would have been

Some verbs may use either as linking verbs or as an action verbs. Examples of such

are appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, stay, taste, and turn.

To know if the verb is linking or action, try using am, is, or are in place of the verb of the

sentence. If the sentence makes sense, the verb is a linking verb. Otherwise, it is an

action verb. See the example below.

The flower smells fragrant.

In this sentence, smells does not seem to a linking verb. But if the verb isis substituted

for it, the sentence makes sense.

The flower is fragrant.

In this case, smells is a linking verb.

Now, look at the next example.

The gardener smells the flower.

If the verb isis substituted for smells, then the sentence will not make sense.

The gardener is the flower.

Therefore, smells in the second sentence is an action verb.

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II. The Verb Phrase

One verb may consist of many words. This is called a verb phrase which is made up of

a main verb and one or more helping verbs. Here is an example.

The doctor has left the building already.

A B

Both A and B make up the Verb Phrase. The last word is always the main verb and the

word or words before it are called helpingverbs.

A. Helping Verbs

Here are the different kinds of helping verbs.

1. Modals

These are helping verbs that modify the meaning of the main verb in a sentence.

When they are used, the main verbs that come after them no longer take tense.

e.g. She can doit! (notcan didit)

*examples of modals and their usage are found on the Appendix G.

2. Auxiliary Verbs

These show the progressive, the passive, the emphatic, the negative, or the

perfect verb forms. Here is a table showing the different auxiliary verbs and their forms.

Look at the examples after the table.

BE - Verbs DO - Verbs HAVE - Verbs

Am, is are, was, were, will

be

Do, does, did, do not, does

not, did not

has, have, had, has not,

have not, had not

*Only verbs in the present

participle orpast

participlecome after theBE

*Only verbs in the simple

present come after the DO

– Verbs.

*Only verbs in the past

participle come after the

HAVE –Verbs. However, if

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– Verbs. these HAVE – Verbs have

“been”after them, then, the

present participle can also

be used.

Be Andrei is learning how to drive. (progressive)

The car was parked by Andrei. (passive)

Do I do know that Andrei is learning how to drive a car. (emphatic)

Andrei’s brothers did not think that he would pass his driving test. (negative)

Have Andrei had passed his driving test before he bought the car. (perfect)

III. The Four Principal Parts of the Verb

Verbs can further be classified according to form or appearance. These are:

Verb Forms Examples

PRESENT *This form be the base or

simple form of the verb,.

This does not have –s, -es,

or –ies after it.

*The present form can have

either an –s or –es after it if

the subject or the doer of

the action is singular

*For some verbs ending

with –y, remove –y and add

–iesto make the verb

My parents eat breakfast

early.

He lives in the big city.

Mary studies at the

university.

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singular.

PAST *The past form of a regular

verb has –d or –ed after it.

*The past form of an

irregular verb is changed in

spelling.

*Some verbs in the past

form do not have any

changes in spelling.

She danced with her

father.

Butch drove the van

carefully.

The balloon burst

yesterday

PRESENT PARTICIPLE

*This form has an –ing in

the end.

*BE –Verbs are used

before the present

participle.

*HAVE – Verbs can be

added to “been” to form

“(has/have/had) + been +

present participle.”

I am reading the

newspaper.

Nenethas been sleeping

for nine hours straight.

PAST PARTICIPLE

*Have – Verbs and BE –

Verbs are used before the

past participles.

*The past participle of a

regular verb has –d or –ed

after it.

*The past participle of an

irregular verb is changed in

spelling.

*Some past participles do

not change in spelling.

*When past participle verbs

He has worked in the

army.

We have eaten lunch

already.

Ruthhas read the

magazine.

The bell was rung twice

already.

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are used in the passive

voice, BE – Verbs or “been”

+ HAVE –verbs are used

before them.

The van has been broken

for years.

IV. The Emphatic Form

The emphatic form highlights the action of the doer. The DO – verbs (the helping verbs

do, does, and did) are used to show the emphatic transformation of a verb. After these

DO – verbs comes the base form of the verb.

e.g. I understand what you’re trying to tell me.

I do understand what you’re trying to tell.

V. Active and Passive Voice

Voice is the property of the verb that shows whether the subjects is the doer or the

receiver of the action in the sentence.

A verb is in the active voice when the subject does the action.

e.g. The author wrote a children’s book.

A verb is in the passive voice when the action is done to the subject. In other words,

the subjectis always a be – verb followed by a verb in the past participle.

e.g. The book was written because the author likes children very much.

**Some verbs in the past participle may not be used alone in their passive form.

Prepositions should be added to make them correct.

e.g. laughed

Active: He laughed hard when he heard the joke.

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Passive: He was laughed at when he slipped on a banana peel.

**Some verbs, however, cannot be used in the passive voice. Examples of such verbs

are abide, bid, bleed, cling, come, cost, flee, float, flow, hesitate, mingle, quit,

roar, and soar.

Active: Burt came to the conversation alone.

Passive: Burt was came… (This is incorrect!)

Active: My sister hesitated to answer the question.

Passive: My sister was hesitated… (This is also incorrect!)

*Look at voice transformation according to tenses on Appendix H.

VI. Moods of Verbs

Mood tells the manner of expression of the verb. There are three types.

A. Indicative Mood – expresses declaration or inquiry

e.g. Do you know where the coffee shop is?

He made it to the honor roll.

B. Imperative Mood – speaks of a request or command

e.g. Please leave your things at the counter.

Tell me your name.

C. Subjunctive Mood – in all of these, the verb were or a modal in the past tense is

used. The subjunctive mood is used:

when a sentence expresses a condition contrary to fact

e.g. The director decided to have the opening night next week as if our

rehearsals were that much.

when a sentence expresses a compromise or resolve

e.g. if Rena were to visit me next week, I should be in Italy by then.

when a sentence uses the verb wish

e.g. Jazz wishes Joshua were there in the meeting.

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A sentence expressing a command or desire is followed by a thatclause. Within

this clause is a verb in the base or the simple form. Also, a verb such as ask,

demand, hope, insist, propose, recommend, request, require, or suggest

can be used.

e.g. It is important that he study before the exam.

VII. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

A. Transitive verbs

The only verbs used here are action verbs. They are followed by complements or

objects such as nouns or pronouns. They also answer the question whom?orwhat?

e.g. Fred kissed Lulu. (Fred kissed whom? Lulu)

object

The old lady wrote something. (The lady wrote what? something)

object

Therefore, the verbs kissed and wrote in the sentences are above transitive.

Phrasal verbs may also be transitive. A phrasal verb is a group of words which

functions as a verb in the sentence. They are also considered idioms.

Here is an example of transitive phrasal verbs.

e.g. Lara put on her hat. (Lara put onwhat? her hat)

B. Intransitive verbs

These verbs do not have complements which receive the action. They end either in

themselves or with adverbs.

e.g. The couple danced.

Joy chuckled.

Marvin writesconstantly. (adverb)

The child staysthere. (adverb)

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VIII. Verbals

A verbal looks like a verb but functions either as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. It

can come in phrase form if words are added to it. There are three categories.

1. Participles – These function as adjectives. They have two forms: the present

(verb with –ing) and the past (verb with -ed, -d, -en, -or –t).

e.g. the sleeping girl (present participle)

ahidden talent (past participle)

The past participle sleeping functions as an adjective because it

describes noun girl. It answers the question “What kind of girl?” Similarly,

in the second example, hidden describes the kind of talent.

2. Gerunds – These verbals have -ing. They are used as nouns.

e.g. Eating is necessity.

The thing I taught Fely this year was driving.

In the first example, the word Eating functions not as a verb but as a

noun. Also, it answers the question “What is a necessity?” (Nouns answer

what questions.) Specifically, it is the subject or the one being talked about

in the sentence. The word driving in the second example is the predicate

noun in the sentence.

3. Infinitives – These are used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. They are

constructed by adding “to” before a verb.

e.g. To eat is a necessity.

The person to consult is my teacher.

I find it really hard to dance.

In the first example, the word To eat functions as a noun because it is the

subject which answers the question “What is a necessity?” in the second

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example, to consult describes the kind of person talked about in the

sentence.it functions as an adjective. Finally, in the third, to dance

functions as an adverb which describes the adjective hard.

There are two kinds of infinitives.

1. Present Infinitive- when “to” is followed by a base or a simple

form of a verb

e.g. I love to sing.

To smile is a good thing.

2. Perfect Infinitive - when “to”is followed by the helping word have

and a verb in the past participle.

e.g. To haveslept is so relaxing.

I am glad to have come.

**Some verbals omit the preposition “to” but are still considered as

infinitives. This may be applied when dare, help, let, or make is used as

the verb in the sentence.

e.g. I dared not join.

My students helped me check papers.

They let me see their work right away.

Bonito just made the baby laugh!

The words join, check, see, and laugh do not have “to” before

them but are still considered infinitives.

Infinitive or Prepositional Phrase?

A prepositional phrase always has an object (a noun or a pronoun) after

“to” while an infinitive has a verb.

(Prepositional Phrase) = “to” + noun or pronoun

e.g. to the park, to him, to someone

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(Infinitive) = “to” + verb

e.g. to drive, to have swum

IX. Verb Tenses

Tense refers to the form a verb takes to indicate when and/or how long the action

is, was, or will be done (whether it is done in the present, or during the past, or in

the future). Look at the table below that shows the use of auxiliary verbs

according to tense.

Singular Plural

Present am, is does are, do

Past was, did were, did

Future will be will be

Perfect has, has done

had, had done

have, have done

had, had done

Progressive has been, had been have been, had been

The following tables show how verbs are formed according to tense.

A. The Simple Tenses

Tense Usage Example

PRESENT

(Add -s or -es at

the end if the

subject in the

sentence is

singular.)

*used to tell a general truth

or fact

The earth revolves

around the sun.

*used to show habit I always go to the gym.

*used to show an existing

condition

The dress is worn out.

*used to explain a process When the leaves of a

planet receive sunlight,

photosynthesis begins.

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*used in conditionals When he finishes his

meal, please tell me.

*used to retell stories

(like in movies)

One man hits another,

then Tommy, the hero,

comes to the rescue.

*used to promote

something(as in an

advertisement)

Brand X cleanses the

skin like no other soaps

can.

PAST

(verb with -d or

-edfor regular

verbs; verb

changed in

spelling for

irregular verbs)

*used to indicate an action

which is true only in the past

The scouts decided to

move the trip from May 5

to May 28.

*used in conditional

sentences to refer to a

probable or supposed event

If you did continue your

studies, you might have

been a lawyer.

*used to complement other

verbs which are used in the

past tense in the sentence

I really thought I could

dance well. (The verb

thought complements

could.)

FUTURE

(verb with the

modal will or

shall)

*used to show simple action

or condition in the future

She will dance in the

contest tomorrow.

B. The Perfect Tenses

Tense Usage Example

PRESENT

PERFECT

*used to show an action that

happened before and is still

done up to the present

Lanihas worked like a

dog ever since the

supervisor came.

*used to show a state of She has been sick since

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(has / have +

past participle)

being that was true before

and is still up to the present

Friday.

*used to show an event to

be finished in the future

Once they have written

the book, we will publish

it.

*used to show a recently

concluded action with the

help of the adverb just,

already, or recently

The project has ended

recently.

PAST

PERFECT

(had + past

participle)

*used in a past action that

came before another past

action (Therefore, “had” is

placed in the first past

action and the other verb is

only in the simple past

Andy had left when the

teacher came.

(This means that Andy

left first then the teacher

came.)

PAST

PERFECT

(had + past

participle)

** The expression had had

is simply “had + past

participle of have. “

I had had wine and

cheese before I ate the

main dish.

FUTURE

PERFECT

(will have +

past participle)

*To understand how this

tense is used, imagine a

person talking to somebody.

Then he takes him to the

future by giving time

markers preceded by “by”

such as by tomorrow, by

the next decade, or others

such as ten years from

now, a few months from

now, etc. Then he uses the

future perfect tense to show

Four years from now,

Bea will have been a

licensed nurse.

(This means that before

the four years lapse, Bea

already became a

licensed nurse.)

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a completed action before

that certain time.

C. The Progressive Tenses

Tense Usage Example

PRESENT

PROGRESSIVE

(am/ is/ are + present

participle)

*used to show an on-

going action at the

moment

She is strolling along

with her friend at the park

*used to show future

action

My dad is leaving for the

U.S. tomorrow.

PAST

PROGRESSIVE

(was/ were + present

participle)

*used when something

was going on at one point

in time when another

thing happened

Ricky was filing the

papers when his

manager called him.

FUTURE

PROGRESSIVE

(will be + present

participle)

*This is similar to the

future perfect tense. This

also includes time

markers preceded by “by”

such as by the year

ends, by the start of the

week, or others like a

week from now, a few

months from now, etc.

This tells the continuous

action that is about to

happen when a certain

time comes.

By the time she

graduates, Myrna will be

receiving many awards.

I will be sleeping by ten

this evening.

24

D. The Perfect Progressive Tenses

Tense Usage Example

PRESENT

PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE

(has been/have been +

present participle)

*used to state an action

that started in the past

and is still continuing up

to the present

a. Complaints

e.g. He has been

waiting here for

an hour.

b. Attempt to do

things

e.g. I have been

calling you since

Tuesday.

PAST

PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE

(had been + present

participle)

*used to state a past

continuous action when

another past action

happened

My brother-in-law had

been playing with his

band before he finally

settled down in Chicago.

We had been eating

when the phone rang.

FUTURE

PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE

(will have been + present

participle)

*used to tell an action

that is predicted to

continuously happen

when a certain time

comes

By this afternoon, my

relatives will have been

arriving from the airport.

A month from now,

Litowill have been

travelling in Athens.

Adjectives

25

Adjectives describe nouns or pronouns.

They are also called modifiers.

Placed before nouns or after linking verbs, adjectives answer the question “What kind?,”

“Which one?,” or “How many?”

What kind of mug? Which section? How many boxes?

a large mug the middle section six boxes of apple

I. Adjectives According to Function

1. An adjective that come before a noun is called an attributive adjective.

e.g. True friends are not so hard to find.

2. An adjective that comes after a linking verb is called a subjective

complement. It may also be called a predicate adjective.

e.g. This meal is loaded with vitamins and minerals.

3. An adjective that comes after an object of transitive verb is called an

objective complement.

e.g. Guillermo made his painting more beautiful compared with those of

his other friends.

II. Categories of Adjectives

A. Descriptive adjectives – These adjectives state condition or quality which can be

changed. There are two main types.

26

1. Gradable adjectives – These can be expressed in different degrees of

comparison by using more, most, less, least or by affixing with -er or -est.

e.g. more grateful wisest

2. Absolute adjectives – These cannot be compared using the adverb more,

,most, less, least, but other adverbs of degree can be attached to them such

as almost, nearly, and not quite.

e.g. absent final round

dead ideal straight

essential perfect unique

B. Limiting adjectives – these adjectives point out or indicate a quantity or a quality

that limits the nouns that follow them. There are three main types.

1. Articles – These are the, a, and an. The last two articles a, and an, modify a

singular count noun. The, on the other hand, can modify either a singular or

plural noun.

e.g. a bag the computer

an egg the computers

2. Numerals – These are either cardinal numbers or ordinal numbers.

e.g. Cardinal: two girls, twelve chapters

Ordinal: sixth car, eighth floor

3. Pronominals– These are pronouns which also function as adjectives. The

following are the different kinds of pronominals.

a. Demonstrative adjectives – These are this, that, these, and those.

e.g. this gown, those clothes

27

b. Possessive adjectives – These are my, your, his, her, their, its, and

our.

e.g. her brush, my house

c. Distributive adjectives – These are each, every, either, and neither.

e.g. each pen, neither woman

d. Indefinite adjectives – examples are any, all, another, both, few, many,

etc.

e.g. some pictures, another toy

e. Interrogative adjectives – These are which, what, and whose.

e.g. which question, whose ball

C. Noun adjectives (or nominal adjectives) – These are nouns that function as

adjectives.

e.g. I have made a research on my country’s government system.

My mother made fruit salad for my birthday.

** A participle can also function as an adjective.

e.g. The giggling baby is my son.

He fixed my broken watch.

In the first example, the present participle verb giggling functions as an adjective

describing the noun baby. It answers “What kind of baby?”.In the second,the past

participle broken also functions as an adjective describing the noun watch. It

answers “What kind of watch?”

** Two words joined together can function as adjectives. These are called

compound adjectives. While some are hyphenated, some are not.

e.g. multicolored birds

well-to-do family

28

** Proper nouns can also be used as adjectives. These are called proper

adjectives, and they usually begin with capital letters.

e.g. Philippine cuisine

MSA books

III. Order of Objectives

Nouns may have more than one adjective in a sentence. In such cases, the

following order of adjectives is used.

1 Determiner

2 Possessive Noun

3 Number: ordinal (first, second) or cardinal (one, two)

4 Size

5 Quality, Shape, etc.

6 Color

7 Proper adjective or Noun adjective

Noun

e.g. Therunner’sfirst three2-inchauthenticgoldOlympianmedals

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

IV. Degrees of Comparison

There are three types of comparison in the English language.

Positive: An adjective in the positive degree is the basic word itself. It is used to

simply describe a noun or a pronoun.

e.g. a wise teacher the grateful servant

asmart girl some expensive clothes

29

Comparative: An adjective in the comparative degree is marked by the suffix -er.

Normally, this is added to an adjective with one or two syllables. The adverbs

more and less come before an adjective with three or more syllables. The

adjective is followed by the preposition than. This degree is used to compare two

nouns or pronouns.

e.g. wiser than more grateful than

smarter than less expensive than

Superlative: An adjective in the superlative degree is marked by the suffix -estor

the adverb most or least which is placed before the adjective. This degree is

used to compare two nouns or pronouns.

e.g. the wisest teacher the most grateful

thesmartest girl the least expensive

** However, some adjectives with two or more syllables take more/less or

most/least as modifiers. These include the participles.

e.g. handsomer (×) more handsome ( )

popularer (×) more popular ( )

knowner (×) more known ( )

V. Irregular Modifiers

Some adjectives change in spelling when made comparative or superlative. Here

is a table that shows them.

Positive Comparative Superlative

bad/ ill worse worst

far (distance) farther farthest

far (extent) further furthest

good better best

30

late later last/ latest

little (amount) less least

many/ much more most

** The adverbs badly and well also share the same degree change as bad and

good respectively.

Adverbs

Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

They are also called modifiers.

Here are the kinds of adverbs.

1. Adverbs of TIME – These tell when the action is, was, or will be done.

Examples are last week, later, now, today, tomorrow, yesterday, etc.

e.g. He might get up late tomorrow.

2. Adverbs of PLACE – These tell where the action is, was, or will be done.

Examples are aboard, aboveground, here, inside, outside, etc.

e.g. The doctor went outside.

3. Adverbs of DEGREE – Also called intensifiers, these answer the question

How much?orHow little? Examples are completely, most, much, quite, so,

totally, too, very, etc.

e.g. We saw her baby who is so cute.

Aside from an adverb of degree, lesser is also used as an adjective to

mean “smaller” or “lower” as in “lesser percentage or “lesser number.”

31

4. Adverbs of FREQUENCY - These adverbs state how often the action is,

was, or will be done. Examples are always, every week, fortnightly,

frequently, never, occasionally, often, seldom, sometimes, etc.

e.g. Kai often goes to the mall.

Adverbs of frequency are generally placed before the verb. However, in

informal or spoken English, placing these after verbs is acceptable.

FORMAL: He frequently goes to the library.

ACCEPTABLE: He goes to the library frequently.

5. Adverbs of MANNER – These adverbs state how or in whatmanner

anaction is was, or will be done. Many of them are formed by adding -ly to

adjectives. Examples are bravely, happily, patiently, sadly, etc.

e.g. Read the directions carefully.

Some words that end in –lysuch as leisurely, friendly, lovely, and silly are

adjectives. Avoid, therefore, using them as adverbs or placing them in

adverb phrases.

WORDY: She talked to me in a friendly way.

APPROPRIATE: She is friendly.

INCORRECT: You dance silly.

CORRECT: Your dance is silly.

6. Adverbs of AFFIRMATION – These adverbs indicate a positive disposition.

Examples are absolutely, certainly, definitely, positively, surely,

unquestionably, undeniably, yes, etc.

e.g. I am absolutely going to the party.

32

7. Adverbs of NEGATION – These adverbs indicate a negative disposition.

Examples are absolutely not, never, no, not, not at all, etc.

e.g. I do not understand you.

8. Adverbs of DOUBT – These adverbs express hesitation or doubt. Examples

are maybe, most likely, perhaps, possibly, probably, etc.

e.g. The mail would probably arrive later.

9. Adverbs of APPROXIMATION – These adverbs express a rough estimation.

Examples are about, almost, approximately, around, more or less, roughly,

etc.

e.g. The building is roughly seven feet high.

* Like adjectives,adverbs have degrees of comparison.

Positive : She danced beautifully.

Comparative : She danced more beautifully than Lisa.

Superlative : She danced most beautifully in the class.

Conjunctive Adverbs

A conjunctive adverb is an adverb used as a conjunction which connects

complete ideas. Also called sentence connectors, transitional words, or

cohesive devices, conjunctive adverbs signal a particular relationship,

such as comparison, contrast, or cause and effect between ideas or

sentences. These may be found within a sentence or between sentences

in a paragraph. The blocked words below are examples of conjunctive

adverbs.

e.g. My teacher told me that my writing skills improved; however

she suggested that I still practice constantly. Furthermore, she

advised me to write about my experiences in a diary. I, on the

other hand, would rather join writing clubs instead.

Other examples of conjunctive adverbs are found on Appendix I.

33

Adjective or Adverb?

The blocked words below may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs. They

describe the underlined words.

FAST

Adjective: Basketball players are fastrunners.

Adverb: The athletes ranfast.

HARD

Adjective: Hardevidence against him was found.

Adverb: The boys playedhard this season.

LATE

Adjective: Latestudents will not be given a test.

Adverb: Do not comelate.

LIKELY

Adjective: The likelydelegate to be sent in Reena

Adverb: He willlikelybe a member of the club.

RIGHT

Adjective: Do the rightthing and you will be rewarded for it.

Adverb: You better say it right.

STRAIGHT

Adjective: Form a straightline.

Adverb: Walkstraight.

WELL

Adjective: The patient is well at last.

Adverb: Speakwell in class.

Prepositions

Prepositions express relationships of nouns or pronouns with other words in a sentence.

They give a sentence additional meaning.

34

After prepositions always comes a noun or a pronoun which is called the object of the

preposition.

Prepositions are classified into five groups:

I. Location

Prepositions Usage Examples

above higher than or on top of above the building

across from one side to the other;

opposite across the street

along in line with the direction of; with

someone or something

along the way; along with

her friends

amid surrounded by amid beautiful houses

around location surrounding

something around the mall

behind at the back of someone or

something

behind her; behind the

wall

below under or underneath below the ground

beneath lower than or under beneath the sea

beside at the side or next to beside the park

down along; in a lower physical

position

down the road; down the

stairs

inside within inside the house

into refers to the motion or action

of getting inside go into the water

near close to or next to near the bakery

off away from get off me

onto movement towards the

surface of something onto the stage

opposite across opposite the gym

35

outside beyond outside the hall

over above something over the shelf

through by way of or by means of through the door

to movement towards something

or someone

to the school; to the

teacher

under below or beneath under the bed

underneath below underneath the grass

upon on top of something; carried

by something or someone upon the table; upon me

II. Time


during tells when an action is

happening during class

for tells the duration of an action for eight years now

since tells the start of an action done

up to the present since September

till, until reaching to a certain point in

time

till lunch time; until

February

III. Association


about concerning about the project

against in opposition to against the law

among

used in speaking of more than

two persons, animals, or

objects

among the class

between used in speaking of two

persons, animals, or objects between him and me

besides in addition to or aside from dancing besides singing

36

but except but them

by past, by way of, or by means of by studying hard

concerning about concerning the book

despite regardless of despite the hurt

except excluding or but except them

for intended or in favor of for the baby

from

indicates the person/s from

whom something is gained;

coming or originating from

from the students

from the Philippines

like for example or such as like last year

of about; owned by of love; of Merle

throughout all the way through throughout the exam

toward/ towards in the direction of toward light;

towards the east

with including with catsup

without with nothing without catsup

IV. Time or Location


after following after lunch

at

for time; used before clock

time

for location; used before exact

addresses and small places

such as restaurants, bars, etc.

at 8 o’clock

at 315 Katipunan

Avenue;

at the new mall

before ahead of before 7 p.m.

beyond further/farther than beyond the galaxy

between in the middle of two given

things or time

between the chairs;

between 7 and 8 p.m.

37

in

inside something;

for time; used before years,

months or seconds, etc;

for location; used before large

places such as a country,

capital, town, city, state, etc.

in my house

in 2005; in January; in

January 2005; in 60

seconds

in Manila;

in the city

on

on top of something;

for time; used before exact

dates or the days of the week;

for location; used before

places such as streets,

avenues or boulevards

on the ground;

on April 8, 2001;

on Saturday

on the street;

on Smithson Blvd.

past beyond a certain thing or time past the counter;

past 5 p.m.

within the time or place inside of

which something happens

within the store

within the week

V. Compound Preposition


according to said by according to them

aside from besides aside from eating

as to concerning as to the budget

because of owing to the fact

(refers to reason) because of you

by means of through by means of bus

38

for the sake of considering or for the benefit of for the sake of public

confidence

in addition to another point added or also in addition to this task

in front of before something or someone in front of the building

in place of replacing or instead of in place of the manager

in spite of even in the existence of

something; regardless of in spite of the difficulty

instead of rather than instead of crying

on account of because of on account of the law

prior to before prior to the wedding

with respect to considering with respect to the cost

** Object of the Preposition – This is a noun or a pronoun that comes after the

prepositions and answers the question What?orWhom?

e.g. I saw a starfish in that part of the aquarium.

(The starfish is seen inwhat?)

According to the professor, we will be arriving at the ice

` cream factory by noon.

(This is according towhom?)

Conjunctions

Conjunctions connect two or more words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. They function as

transition words and tell the quality of a word, phrase, or sentence.

There are three types of conjunctions:

I. Coordinating Conjunctions

39

and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet

These are words that connect similar kinds of words or groups of words to help

achieve parallelism.

Examples

Connecting NOUNS to other NOUNS Television setsandcomputers are sold in

the store.

Connecting PHRASES to other PHRASES I don’t like hanging out in barsorgoing to

discos.

Connecting CLAUSES to other CLAUSES I asked if I would writeorif I would just give

her a call.

Connecting SENTENCES to other

SENTENCES

He searched for Issa in all the classrooms

and laboratories in the school. But, he did

not find her.

II. Correlative Conjunctions

both … and neither …nor whether … or

either … or not only …but also not …but

These pairs of words connect similar words or groups of words to help

achieve parallelism.

Examples

Connecting NOUNS to other NOUNS Neitherthe celebrantnor her parents

appear tired.

Connecting VERBS to other VERBS Whetherhe agrees or disagrees does

notmatter.

Connecting PHRASES to other PHRASES The news spread not onlyto the fifth

floorbut alsoto the next building.

III. Subordinating Conjunctions

after before till

although even though unless

as if until

40

as if in order that when

as long as since where

as soon as so that whenever

as though than wherever

because though while

These connect two clauses and make one dependent on the other.

e.g. You have to finish editing the book so that it can be printed before

the end of the year.

I can go wherever I want to go.

Preposition or Conjunction?

Remember that a preposition is used in a phrase while a conjunction is used in a

clause. Here are some words that can be used either as a preposition or a conjunction.

AFTER :Preposition: You will find it after the bakery.

Conjunction: You will find it after you pass the bakery.

BEFORE :Preposition: They left before sunrise.

Conjunction: They left before my mother came.

BUT :Preposition:We asked everyone but him to leave the room.

Conjunction:No one asked him to leave but he did anyway.

THAN :Preposition:She likes Mary Beth more than him.

Conjunction:You are better than he.

UNTIL :Preposition:We will stay here until dawn.

Conjunction:We will not leave until Mary Ann arrive

Interjections

41

Interjections express emotions such as happiness, fear, anger, pain, surprise, sorrow,

exhaustion, indecision, and hesitation. They can be used on their own.

Examples of interjections are:

golly great heavens

hey my goodness oh no

ouch wow yeah

Interjections are used with an exclamation point to express emotions.

e.g. He passed the test? All right!

Hey! What’s up?

Agreement

Agreement is the correct relationship between a subject and its verb, between a noun and its

referent, or between a pronoun and its pronoun referent.

Subject – Verb Agreement

I. The General Rule

A singular subject requires a singular verb. Therefore,

SINGULAR Verbs with –s or –es

SUBJECT + or is, was, has, does

e.g. The Nile River is found in Egypt.

My son sleeps early.

She was studying inside the room.

On the other hand, a plural subject requires a plural verb. Therefore,

42

PLURAL Verbs without –s or –es

SUBJECT + or are, were, have, do

e.g. The houses are made of cement and wood.

Velia and Sixto leave the house at 6 a.m.

They were going to their nephew’s birthday party.

II. Noun Subjects with Phrase

In general, a phrase after a subject does not affect the subject’s

agreement with its verb.

A. A lot of phrases may move attention away from the real subject. These

phrases may modify the nouns before them. First, look at the prepositional

phrase.This phrase starts with a preposition and ends with a noun. Here is an

example.

The stars in the sky shine brightly.

The complete subject here is Thestars in the sky. If one looks carefully, the main

or simple subject is stars, not sky, because sky is included in a prepositional phrase.

Also, stars, not sky, is the doer of the action. Therefore, the plural verb shineis used

because it agrees with the plural noun stars.

B. Now consider this example.

One of the men is an engineer.

In the expression One of the men, the subject is One, not the plural noun

menthat comes after it. Therefore, the singular verb isis used to agree with the subject.

C. Now try to look at the participial phrase. It is a phrase that begins with a

verb (either a verb in the present participle or past participle) and, as in the

example below, describes the noun that comes before it.

The boy playing with the toy carsis laughing loudly.

The complete subject in the example above has two nouns – boy and cars. But

since carsis in a participial phrase, the main or simple subject, therefore, is boy.

43

Determiners

Determiners tell the degree of definiteness, quantity, or proximity of the noun or nouns after

them.

The types of determiners are as follows:

Types Examples

1. Articles a, an, the

2. Demonstratives this, that,these, those

3. Specifier such

4. Quantifiers any, each, every, either, neither

5. Negatives no, not any, not a single

6. Possessives my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Rules on the use of Articles (the, a, an)

Rule 1: All singular count nouns must be modified by a determiner.

e.g. The book is very helpful.

Where did you buy this book?

Rule 2: A andan are used only with singular nouns.

Rule 3: Words expressing a definite quantity in the singular are usually preceded

by a or an. Examples of such expressions are a dozen, a mile, a quart, a

pound, and a ton.

e.g. Add a tablespoon of sugar to the dish.

44

Rule 4: When a noncount noun refers to a general concept, no article is used.

However, if the noncount noun is followed by an adjective clause or

phrase, it will have the article the before it.

e.g. Patience is a virtue.

The patience that the teacher displayed is admirable.

Rule 5: The is used with particular proper noun names of rivers, lakes, mountains,

etc. This however is not applicable with the words lake, and mountwhich

precede the name.

e.g. the Nile River theMediterranean Sea

Lake Michigan Mount Fuji

Rule 6: If a noun has a proper noun as a modifier, it would have thebefore the

proper noun.

e.g. the Hernandez residence thePhilippinearchipelago

Rule 7: The always come before the same.

e.g. The story in the book is thesame as that in the movie.

APPENDIX

Appendix A: Singular and Plural Nouns

As mentioned in previous chapter, nouns have plural forms that can be either

regular or irregular. Regular plurals are formed by merely adding –s or –es to the end of

a word. Occasionally, one may also have to change a letter or two in the singular form

of the noun.

However, irregular plurals are formed differently. The spelling of such may be

changed or not.

If no plural form is given, add –s or –es to the singular form. Tables 1-3 given

here contain common irregular plurals.

Table 1: Nouns with different spellings of singular and plural forms

45

Singular Plural Singular Plural

alumna(female) alumnae die(used in games) dice (refers to 2

only)

alumnus(male) alumni ellipsis ellipses

analysis analyses goose geese

axis axes loaf loaves

bacillus bacilli louse lice

bacterium bacteria man men

child children mouse mice

crisis crises ox oxen

criterion criteria phenomenon phenomena

datum data tooth teeth

diagnosis diagnoses thesis theses

Table 2: Nouns with same spelling of singular and plural forms


cod cod salmon salmon

deer deer series series

moose moose sheep sheep

46

APPENDIX

Appendix A: Singular and Plural Nouns

As mentioned in previous chapter, nouns have plural forms that can be either

regular or irregular. Regular plurals are formed by merely adding –s or –es to the end of

a word. Occasionally, one may also have to change a letter or two in the singular form

of the noun.

However, irregular plurals are formed differently. The spelling of such may be

changed or not.

If no plural form is given, add –s or –es to the singular form. Tables 1-3 given

here contain common irregular plurals.

Table 1: Nouns with different spellings of singular and plural forms


alumna(female) alumnae die(used in games) dice (refers to 2

only)

alumnus(male) alumni ellipsis ellipses

analysis analyses goose geese

axis axes loaf loaves

bacillus bacilli louse lice

bacterium bacteria man men

child children mouse mice

crisis crises ox oxen

criterion criteria phenomenon phenomena

datum data tooth teeth

diagnosis diagnoses thesis theses

Table 2: Nouns with same spelling of singular and plural forms


47

cod cod salmon salmon

deer deer series series

moose moose sheep sheep

Table 3: Singular nouns with two plural form spellings

Table 4: Collective Nouns

These nouns generally take the singular form of the verb.

Army club crowd league

Band cluster family litter

Batch committee flock pack (of wolves)

Brood community gang school (of fish)

Brigade company group team

Choir congregation guild litter

Class crew herd union

Table 5: Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning

The singular form of the verb is used with these nouns.

Singular Plural

apex apexes, apices

brother brothers, brethren

buffalo buffalos, buffaloes

cactus cactuses, cacti

cargo cargos, cargoes

curriculum curriculums, curricula

domino dominos, dominoes

dwarf dwarfs, dwarves

elk elk, elks

fish fish, fishes

Singular Plural

ghetto ghettos, ghettoes

hoof hoofs, hooves

index indexes, indices

mango mangos, mangoes

media media, mediums

radius radii, radiuses

stigma stigmas, stigmata

trauma traumas, traumata

volcano volcanos, volcanoes

wharf wharfs, wharves

48

aeronautics measles Philippines shambles

billiards mechanics phlebitis statistics (school course)

civics molasses phonetics The Manila Times

diabetes mumps physics United Nations

economics news politics United States

mathematics optics rickets Wales

Table 6: Nouns composed of parts in pairs

These take the plural form of the verb. They take the singular form of the verb when

they have the expression “a pair of” before them.

binoculars jeans pliers spectacles

braces overalls scissors socks

clippers pajamas shears tongs

eyeglasses pants shorts trousers

forceps pincers slacks tweezers

Table 7: Nouns plural in form and in meaning

The plural form of the verb is used with these nouns.

alms clothes lyrics premises suds

antics contents manners proceedings surroundings

archives eaves mores proceeds thanks

assets gallows nuptials relations tidings

ashes goods oats remains wages

belongings grounds outdoors riches whereabouts

briefs hysterics outskirts statistics (facts) winnings

49

Appendix B: Nouns in Gender

Table 1: People Nouns

Male Female Male Female

actor actress heir heiress

anchorman anchorwoman host hostess

baron baroness lad lass

bartender barmaid marquis/marquess marchioness

best man maid of honor murderer murderess

bridegroom bride nephew niece

count/ earl countess danseur ballerina

director directress sculptor sculptress

dominator dominatrix steward stewardess

duke duchess uncle aunt

emperor empress warlock witch

executor executrix widower widow

Table 2: Animal Nouns

Male Female

bull cow

deer doe

dog bitch

gander goose

stallion mare

ram ewe

Appendix C: Noun Transformation

Noun Verb

-age (stoppage)

-ce (hindrance)

-ness (loveliness)

-or (actor)

-ate (create)

-er (transfer

50

-cy (democracy)

-dom (wisdom)

-ion (admission)

-ism (Hinduism)

-ity (clarity

-ment (argument)

-ship (friendship)

-sy (leprosy)

-tion (creation)

-ty (humility)

-ure (seizure)

-en (widen)

-fy (pacify

-ize (maximize)

Adjective Adverb

-able (capable)

-al (tropical)

-ant (distant)

-ent (different)

-ful (grateful)

-ible (loveliness)

-ic (angelic)

-less (countless)

-ly (friendly)

-ous (pious)

-ly (terribly)

(carefully)

(humbly)

Appendix E: Mass Nouns and Count Nouns

The following mass nouns are generally singular in form and in meaning. However, to

quantify them, one may add partitive nouns or quantifiers to these nouns. On the other

hand, the count nouns given on the second column of each table may be made plural

by adding –s, -ies, or –es after the noun.

Table 1: Food Nouns

Mass Count

bread* pizza

butter rice

chocolate* salad

juice* salt

mayonnaise soda

meat* soup

cake(s)

cookie(s)

nut(s)

patty(ies)

sandwich(es)

vegetable(s)

51

milk sugar

oil* toast

wafer(s)

Those with asterisk (*) may be considered count nouns; therefore, -smay be

added after them. For instance, one may say “juices” to mean liquid coming out of meat.

Table 2: Natural Substances

Mass Count

air steam

hail sunlight

lightning thunder

oxygen water

rain weather

smoke wind

snow

hailstone(s)

raindrop(s)

snowflake(s)

The different parts of speech complete

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