University of Colorado, Boulder CU Scholar Speech, Language, and Hearing Services Graduate eses & Dissertations Speech, Language and Hearing Services Spring 1-1-2012 e Development of Lexical-Semantic Skills in Early Sequential Cantonese-English Bilingual Children Kristina Louise Koenig University of Colorado at Boulder, [email protected]Follow this and additional works at: hp://scholar.colorado.edu/slhs_gradetds Part of the Bilingual, Multilingual, and Multicultural Education Commons , Educational Assessment, Evaluation, and Research Commons , and the Speech and Hearing Science Commons is esis is brought to you for free and open access by Speech, Language and Hearing Services at CU Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Speech, Language, and Hearing Services Graduate eses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of CU Scholar. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Recommended Citation Koenig, Kristina Louise, "e Development of Lexical-Semantic Skills in Early Sequential Cantonese-English Bilingual Children" (2012). Speech, Language, and Hearing Services Graduate eses & Dissertations. Paper 16.
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University of Colorado, BoulderCU ScholarSpeech, Language, and Hearing Services GraduateTheses & Dissertations Speech, Language and Hearing Services
Spring 1-1-2012
The Development of Lexical-Semantic Skills inEarly Sequential Cantonese-English BilingualChildrenKristina Louise KoenigUniversity of Colorado at Boulder, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: http://scholar.colorado.edu/slhs_gradetds
Part of the Bilingual, Multilingual, and Multicultural Education Commons, EducationalAssessment, Evaluation, and Research Commons, and the Speech and Hearing Science Commons
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by Speech, Language and Hearing Services at CU Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion inSpeech, Language, and Hearing Services Graduate Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of CU Scholar. For more information, pleasecontact [email protected].
Recommended CitationKoenig, Kristina Louise, "The Development of Lexical-Semantic Skills in Early Sequential Cantonese-English Bilingual Children"(2012). Speech, Language, and Hearing Services Graduate Theses & Dissertations. Paper 16.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF LEXICAL-SEMANTIC SKILLS IN EARLY
SEQUENTIAL CANTONESE-ENGLISH BILINGUAL CHILDREN
by
KRISTINA KOENIG
B.A., Wesleyan University, 2004
A thesis submitted to the
Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Colorado at Boulder in partial fulfillment
of the requirement for the degree of
Master of Arts
Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences
2012
This thesis entitled:
The Development of Lexical-Semantic Skills in Early Sequential Cantonese-English Bilingual Children
written by Kristina Koenig has been approved by the Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences
Pui Fong Kan, Ph. D.
Brenda Schick, Ph. D.
Bhuvana Narasimhan, Ph. D.
Date
The final copy of this thesis has been examined by the signatories, and we find that both the content and the form meet acceptable presentation standards
of scholarly work in the above mentioned discipline.
IRB protocol # 11-0034
iii
Koenig, Kristina (M.A., Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences) The Development of Lexical-Semantic Skills in Early Sequential Cantonese-English Bilingual Children Thesis directed by Assistant Professor Pui Fong Kan
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to explore lexical-semantic development in early
sequential bilingual children who speak Cantonese (L1) as a home language from birth
and started to learn English (L2) as a second language in a preschool setting.
Linguistically- and culturally- appropriate picture naming and picture identification tasks
were developed to assess participants’ expressive and receptive vocabulary knowledge.
In Study 1, seventy children participated in picture naming and picture identification
tasks comparing their performance as a function of language (L1 or L2), modality
(expressive or receptive), age, length of time at the preschool, and performance on
standardized vocabulary assessment tools. In Study 2, the results on these tasks of five
children on an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) were compared with typically
developing, age-matched peers. Results from Study 1 indicate that there is a correlation
between a child’s scores with their age, time in school and their scores on standardized
tools in both tasks in English and picture identification tasks in Cantonese, but not with
picture naming in Cantonese. Results from Study 2 show that only one of five children on
IEPs had noticeably lower scores in tasks in both languages when compared to typically-
developing peers. This underscores the importance of a culturally and linguistically
appropriate assessment tool in distinguishing bilingual children who have a language
difference from those with a language disorder.
iv
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to all who helped make this project possible. In particular, I am
deeply grateful to my amazing advisor, Dr. Pui Fong Kan. Her tireless patience, support
and infectious passion have made this project a tremendously rewarding learning
experience. There are no words for how much I appreciate all of the work she has put into
this. I would also like to extend my gratitude to my committee members, Dr. Brenda
Schick and Dr. Bhuvana Narasimhan, who have generously offered their time and
impressive knowledge in support of this project. Also, this would not have been possible
without the work of the research assistants who worked so hard on this project! Thank
you!
I extend a big thank you to all of the staff, teachers, parents and students at the
Head Start preschools in San Francisco, CA. Thank you for so much for your kindness
and help in facilitating the assessments with all of the children. Getting to know you
made this project very rewarding.
v
Table of Contents
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………. 1 Lexical-Semantic Development in Monolingual Children………………….. 3
Lexical-Semantic Development in Early Sequential Bilingual Children…... 7 Assessing Lexical-Semantic Skills…………………………………………… 14
The Current Study…………………………………………………………….17 Study 1………………………………………………………………………………... 21 Method………………………………………………………………………………... 21
Analyses………………………………………...…………………….. 31 Results………………………………………………………………………………… 31 Study 2…..……………………………………………………………….…… 32 Discussion.……………………………………………………………………………. 35 Lexical-Semantic Development in Typically-Developing Children………. 35
Language Disorders and Language Differences…………………………… 39 Limitations and Future Studies………………………………………………42
Language and Learning Experience, Cantonese………………..….. 60 Language and Learning Experience, English….…………..……….. 62
Appendix B: Items in Each Task Picture Naming……………………………………………………….. 64 Picture Identification……………………………………………….... 66
vi
Tables
Table 1: Participant information…………………………………………………… 21 Table 2: Mean Scores on Picture Naming and Picture Identification Tasks……. 24 Table 3: Correlation between scores on tasks and standardized tools…………... 26 Table 4: Correlation between Picture Naming and Picture Identification scores with age of participant and time of attendance at preschool…………………..……… 27 Table 5: A comparison between scores of children with an IEP and typically-developing children…………………………………….……………. 33
vii
Figures
Figure 1: Performance on vocabulary tasks in Cantonese and English………….25 Figure 2: Sample Scatter Plot: Correlation between Age and Picture Identification Scores in English……………………………………………………..27
1
The Development of Lexical-Semantic Skills in Early Sequential Cantonese-English
Bilingual Children
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to explore the lexical development of early sequential
bilingual children who speak Cantonese as a home language (L1) and begin learning
English, a second language (L2), in preschool. In particular, this study examines lexical
development in L1 and L2, looking at the effects of age and time spent in a Cantonese-
English bilingual preschool. A vocabulary tool developed specifically for this population
will be compared with two available standardized assessment tools in English. Finally,
the test results of five children who are receiving speech-language services will be
compared with age- and language-matched typically developing peers.
Vocabulary development is a fundamental aspect of children’s language
acquisition. In the past decades, there has been growing research into the area of lexical-
semantic development in bilingual children (e.g., Kan & Kohnert, 2005; Sheng, Liu, &
Kan, 2011). It is no easy task to determine whether a bilingual child has a language
disorder or whether the child is simply following a typical process of acquiring a second
language (e.g., Håkansson, Salameh & Nettelbladt, 2003; Anderson, 2004; Kohnert,
2008). Children who begin learning a second language in the preschool years do not
perform the same as monolingual children on standardized assessments; rather their
scores on standardized assessments are below expected levels (Bialystok, 2008). The
assessment tools available for detecting language disorders in children are not appropriate
for the unique speaker-hearer that is a bilingual child. This combination of factors results
2
in difficulty in distinguishing between language differences and language disorders in
bilingual children.
This study attempts to understand in greater depth vocabulary development in
early sequential bilingual Cantonese-English speaking preschool children, an
understudied population. I will be comparing children’s results on a more culturally and
linguistically appropriate assessment tool for vocabulary knowledge in Cantonese-
English speaking preschool children with two commonly used vocabulary assessment
tools (i.e., the Receptive One Word Picture Vocabulary Test (ROWPVT) and the
Expressive One Word Picture Vocabulary Test (EOWPVT) for monolingual English-
speaking children.
When examining proportions of students receiving special education services, the
complexity of identifying bilingual children with a language disorder is evident. A range
of studies show that children are often over-identified, under-identified or misidentified
as having a language disorder (Kohnert, 2008). For instance, younger bilingual children
may go undiagnosed as having a language disorder, with their difficulties simply
attributed to second language learning (e.g., Samson & Lasaux, 2009). Older bilingual
children are often significantly over-identified as being ‘at risk’ for language impairments
(e.g., Westman, Korkman, Mickos & Byring, 2008) or diagnosed with ‘severe language
in Cantonese may be helping them acquire new words in English.
A possible explanation for this lack of correlation with picture naming in Cantonese
is that the children are experiencing effects on their L1 from the introduction of the L2.
The task of picture naming requires that children have a more solid grasp of a word
before they are able to produce it (e.g., Fenson et al., 1994, Benedict, 1979). It is possible
that some children are beginning to experience a shift in L1 dominance to L2 dominance,
or a weakening in their L1 skills, while others remain more dominant in L1. Other studies
have documented a shift in dominance in sequential bilingual children, leading to a
weakening in L1 skills as children’s L2 becomes stronger (Kan & Kohnert, 2005;
Kohnert & Bates, 2002; Kohnert, Bates, & Hernandez, 1999). This could create a great
38
deal of variation in the children’s vocabulary knowledge in their L2, resulting in a lack of
correlation in the L1 expressive vocabulary skills with age and time spent in school.
An alternative explanation is that due to the interaction between the children’s L1
and L2, there is not a correlation between expressive Cantonese vocabulary and age/time
spent in school. Going back to the theories of a shared semantic representation, bilingual
individuals have shared conceptual representation of translation equivalents in their
languages (Francis, 1999). Previous studies have found that younger children have fewer
translation equivalents in their lexicon (Kan & Kohnert, 2005; Pena, Bedore, Zlatic-
Giunta, 2002). Kan & Kohnert (2005) found that children had a greater percentage of
translation equivalents in picture identification than in picture naming. Perhaps
interference occurs as children acquire new words in their L1, in the domain of
expressive vocabulary, as shown in picture naming. Additional analyses would be needed
to verify this hypothesis.
Additionally, the sheer number of factors that can affect a child’s language
development should not be overlooked. The individual schools and homes the children
come from will have some degree of variance in language input, which will impact
vocabulary production (Pearson et al., 1997). Family perception of the L1 and L2, the
education and fluency of the parents and number of interactions with peers in each
language are only a few of the factors that impact a bilingual child’s language (Anderson,
2004). Finally, each individual child has their own process in emotional, cognitive and
social development that can affect language acquisition (Bialystok, 2001).
Clinical implications of this study are the further validation of the importance of
assessing bilingual children in both of their languages. Even in children as young as
39
preschool-aged are impacted by learning a majority L2. Children can be overidentified as
having language disorders if they are not assessed appropriately (Samson & Lasaux,
2009).
Language Disorders and Language Differences
Despite having begun life as monolinguals, early sequential bilingual children’s
language is different from that of monolinguals. Children with language disorders tend to
have poorer language scores when assessed than children typically-developing children.
Generally, one to two standard deviations below the norm is required to be diagnosed
with a language impairment (Kohnert et al., 2009). Evidence is clear that vocabulary
acquisition, so often used to diagnose language disorders, will look different in these
children (eg., Umbel et al., 1992). Vocabulary is a feature that identifies young children
as having a language impairment (Rescorla, 2005). Bilingual children as a whole, even if
they are typically developing, score lower on standardized tests designed for monolingual
children (Oller et al., 2007; Bialystok et al., 2010). Attempting to assess these children
for a language disorder, using solely their L1 or their L2, will be unsuccessful (e.g.,
Patterson & Pearson, 2012).
Language development has been found to be strongly correlated with exposure in
monolingual (Hart & Risley, 1995) and bilingual children (Marchman et al., 2002;
Marchman et al, 2004; Pearson et al., 1997). Especially given that children’s language
skills in a given domain can shift as they mature (Kohnert & Bates, 2002), it is essential
to evaluate bilingual children’s language skills in both of their languages (Håkansson et
al., 2003). It is no surprise that bilingual children are so often misidentified as having a
language disorder (Kohnert, 2008). In reality, their language development is different
40
from what, in the United States, is considered the norm: monolingualism. Using
appropriate methods of assessing lexical development is necessary to distinguish between
language difference and language disorder.
In this study, picture identification and picture naming tasks were designed to
assess children’s expressive and receptive vocabularies in Cantonese and English. In the
second part of this study, we compared children who are typically developing and
children who are receiving speech-language services through an IEP. The assessment
tool designed for this population was culturally and linguistically appropriate, using
words that are frequently occurring in English, Cantonese and both languages. In contrast
to my prediction that typically developing children would have higher scores than
children with IEPs on these tasks, there was a great range in how the children scored on
the tasks in comparison to one another.
Of the five children that were identified to have language issues, only one child
(C1) had lower scores than his age-matched and L2-experience-matched typically-
developing peer, C1 and T1, the case study where the typically developing child (T1) had
scores much higher than the child on an IEP (C1), was closer to what I would have
expected from all of the children who were suspected of having a language disorder. C1’s
vocabulary skills were low in both Cantonese and Cantonese, when compared to T1, a
typically developing, same-age, same-language background peer. Monolingual children
with language disorders have been shown to have difficulties with receptive and
expressive vocabulary (Leonard et al., 1998; Rice et al., 1990). In bilingual children with
a language impairment, vocabulary skills would be low in both languages. C1’s low
scores in both his L1 and L2 are consistent with the performance of a bilingual child with
41
a language disorder. In contrast, the other children (i.e., C2, C3, C4, and C5) had similar
scores to their peers.
As previously discussed, the information we had about the children who are on
IEPs was not extensive. One important unknown pieces of information is how,
specifically, each child was assessed by the speech language pathologist. Children may
have been assessed only in English, which would not have accurately portrayed the
child’s language skills (eg., Bialystok et al.2010). Additionally, assessing a child’s
language using the Cantonese translation of English tools would not have been
appropriate either (eg. Langdon, 1992). Although it may be possible that the children who
are on IEPs were identified as needing services initially, but at the point that they were
assessed for this study, had made gains in their skills and no longer needed them.
However, looking at the scores obtained by this small group of children on IEPs,
the need for a culturally and linguistically appropriate tool for this population is apparent.
Several of the children that were assessed may have a language difference, rather than a
language disorder. A pattern observed among these children with IEPs was lower
expressive vocabulary skills in Cantonese, but greater English skills. As many
researchers have observed, bilingual children’s language skills are distributed between
their two languages. These children, while their picture naming skills are not as high as
their peers, have higher English vocabulary skills. As Håkansson et al (2003) noted,
children with language disorders would not have strong language skills in either language
(eg., Kohnert et al., 2009). It may be that these children are already showing signs of
language shift. One possibility is that as their lexical-semantic knowledge grows in
English, their Cantonese expressive vocabulary is leveling off or growing at a slower rate.
42
Several other studies have found that this happens in early sequential bilingual children
learning a majority second language in preschool (eg., Kan & Kohnert, 2005; Sheng et al.,
2011). Further study of this population, with a larger sample of children with a language
impairment, would be necessary to explore this possibility further.
The language development of a bilingual child is a complex process. Distinguishing
between children who have a language difference, as they go through the process of
acquiring a second language, and children with a language disorder cannot easily be done
with the tools we have available. A vocabulary tool that is appropriate for this culturally
and linguistically distinct bilingual population would be valuable in identifying any
children who may have a disorder, distinguishing them from children who simply have a
language difference.
Limitations and Future Studies
Limitations and ideas for future studies are discussed briefly. This study included
early sequential Cantonese-English speaking preschool children from a low
socioeconomic background. Whether these results can be applied to other Cantonese-
English speaking children is unknown. Further studies into this population would benefit
from examining the effects of a wider ranger of factors, such as a variety of
socioeconomic backgrounds, families that have more of a mix of home-language patterns
or schools that are strictly English-speaking only with children. Additionally, it would be
interesting to study a population of early sequential Cantonese-English bilingual children
who do not live in an area such as San Francisco’s Chinatown, and compare these results
with those of an area with even less community support of the home language.
43
The comparison between the children on IEPs and the larger group of typically
developing children is on such a small scale, is especially difficult to make when so little
is known about the children who are on IEPs. In a future study, a knowing the specific
diagnosis of a child and a larger sample of children would be necessary to be able to
gather information as to the performance of children with a language disorder on this tool,
and as the usefulness of this tool for identifying Cantonese-English speaking children
with language disorders.
44
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Language Learning Experience Date of birth: Age: Gender F M
1. What is the highest education the child’s father received? __________
mother? __________ 2. Do you have concerns about the child’s speech, language, hearing or learning ability?
yes no If yes, what are the concerns? (optional) _______________________________________ If yes, does your child have an IEP? yes no
3. At what age did the child start to go to school? 4. What language(s) does the child speak at home:
Cantonese (including Tai San) English Other 5. What language(s) does the child speak at school: Cantonese English
Other 6. Which language does the child feel more comfortable speaking? Cantonese
English Other 7. In which language does the child feel he/she have better skills? Cantonese
English Other 8. Did your child start to learn English at Kai Ming? yes no
9. At what age did the child start to go to Kai Ming? ________ 10. In general what percent of your child’s time is spent using each language?
Cantonese _____ % English ______ % Other __________ 11. What language(s) does the child use in the following settings or with the following
people? If the child uses more than one language in each setting, please indicate the percent of your use in each language. at home Cantonese ____ % English ____%
Other ____% in school Cantonese ____ % English ____%
Other ____% when the child read Chinese ____ % English ____%
Other ____%
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when the child write Chinese ____ % English ____% Other ____%
when the child watch TV/video Cantonese ____ % English ____% Other %
with parents Cantonese ____ % English ____% Other ____%
with grandparents Cantonese ____ % English ____% Other ____%
with older siblings Cantonese ____ % English ____% Other ____%
with younger siblings Cantonese ____ % English ____% Other ____%
with friends Cantonese ____ % English ____% Other ____%
12. How many hours a week do the child spend watching TV or video? ___________
with friends? __________________ with siblings? __________________
staying at home? _______________ 13. How many friends of your child speak the following languages?
Cantonese only? ______ English only? ________
Both Cantonese and English? _______ Other languages? _________
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Appendix B Picture Naming Task Items adapted from Cantonese/Mandarin CDI (Tardiff & Fletcher, 2008)
1. Rice 2. Noodles 3. Pork dumpling 4. Crab 5. Soy sauce 6. Green onion 7. Brush hair 8. Short (height) 9. Small 10. Sweet 11. Sour 12. Chopsticks 13. Rice cooker 14. Tea pot 15. Mirror 16. Stroller
Items that are shared across Chinese and American cultures (Adapted from Yoon et al., 2004)