The Development of Educational Policy and Planning

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The Development of Educational Policy and Planning

Learner is able to explain: The Development of EP Philosophical Approach of EP Changes in Conception of EP Issues in Educational Planning Types of Educational Planning

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The Development of Educational Policy and Planning

The aims of life have influenced social and educational planning.

It centers on the tension between individual freedom and societal development.

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During ancient times, Sparta developed an educational system to suit especially the defense, social and economic needs of the society.

Plato in “The Republic” proposes that education is for the society; individuals should be educated to become members of the society.

In China, the examination system has been used to screen for civil service positions, and this practice lasted for millennia.

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More systematic educational planning began when the Union of Socialist Soviet Russia (USSR) developed a Five Year Development Plan in 1923, after the revolution in 1917.

USSR started the establishment of an educational planning unit as a state mechanism in carrying out her development plan.

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As a result of WWII, most nation states, especially the European and North American, consider educational planning as a necessity and as a mechanism to solve post-war related problems such as population growth due to the baby boom.

There was a high demand for jobs, and thus job related training.

Education Acts introduced in England in 1944, gave the Local Education Authorities (LEA) the mandate to plan their own education.

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In 1953, France introduced her own National Planning, including education.

For Malaysia, it was the Razak Report 1955, the Rahman Talib Report in 1961 and the Education Act 1996.

In fact, the number of educational planning centres mushroomed after WWII, providing a much wider and systematic planning of education to suite local needs.

The Asian Institute of Educational Planning and Administration was established in New Delhi in 1962.

The International Institute of Educational Planning (IIEP), UNESCO was established in 1962.

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Thus, early educational planning has been characteristically based on demographic, social, economic, political as well as manpower approaches.

However, the growth and expansion of democracy and capitalism later stimulated economic based educational planning approaches such as cost benefit and cost effectiveness.

This later movement was echoed by the success of corporate planning especially in the production sector such as automobile production in Detroit.

Educational planning reached its golden era from 1973 to 1981.

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Philosophical Approach of Educational Planning

Based on states:1. Socialist Nations2. Capitalist Nations3. Developing Nations

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1. Socialist Nations

Led by the USSR and China It emphasized manpower development Used a centralized, top-down, directive

approach Collapsed, became decentralized, since 1989

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2. Capitalist Nations

Led by Western Europe & North American states Used the market economy approach Due to the urgent demand for reconstruction of the

state economy and baby boom as a result of WWII, required a huge sum of financing

Decentralized, indicative and a loose central government control

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3. Developing Nations Mostly achieved their independence in the 1950s and

1960s. A need for nation-building. At first, model their EP on the manpower-socialist

approach Dependent on their former colonial masters due to

the shortage of expertise Lately, followed the market approach due to the

collapse of the socialist model 

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Learning from the history of EP1. Planning for change is more difficult than early

expectations: the case of USSR and IRAN. Example: education through tape recorder.

2. Innovation takes time than expected.3. Difficult to achieve the planned objective especially

when it is big in size, top-down implementation, but it seems to be easier for reform and innovation to take place at the bottom - the school level.

4.The collapse of beliefs that innovation is a means of control by the state which dictates what students ought to learn.

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Changes in Conception of EP

1. From quantitative to quality; ISO.2. From emphasizing centralised to decentralised and

equal involvement.3. Focuses more on incentives, market forces,

privatisation, out-of-school and non-formal education.4. Increasing job related training.5. Increasing non-governmental agencies’

involvement; eg. Brain Trust.6. Increasing adult education program.

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Farrell (1997: p. 279) suggests: “… a new conception of EP that focuses less

on planning change and more on developing a capacity to innovate and that conceives planning not as controlling learning but as enabling it.”

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International Agreement on Education

UNESCO 1990, The World Conference on Education for All. Jomtien, Thailand, 5-9 March 1990.

UNESCO 2000, The World Education Forum for Lifelong Education. Dakar, Senegal, April 2000.

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Technical vs. Political Approach?

1. Technical Approach: Utilizing “hard” quantitative data, complex statistical

analyses, research results and “rational” or “scientific” analysis.

Tend to operate from a general consensus or equilibrium model of society.

2. Political Approach: Utilizing “soft” data. Tends to work from a variety or

another conflict theory

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3. Mixed Approach: Successful educational planners must be highly

skilled political and technical operatives. Planning process must take into account the varying

stakeholder groups. Called “participatory”, “transactive” or “interactive”

planning such as strategic planning (a win-win situation)

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Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Approach?

1. Top-Down Approach: Decisions on EP are made by high-level actors within

the educational system Use directives, especially in a fidelity model of

educational system Little involvement of lower-level actors within the

educational system Little exercise of flexibility in implementing the

decisions Works well in the short-term Create resentments & resistances w/in the system Make future plans even more difficult

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Practicality Ethics (Doyle & Ponder 1977): Only practical innovations will be implemented in the

classroom.Coping Strategies (Andy Hargreaves 1978): To cope with societal and central demands, the

teacher establishes strategies that can make her/his life bearable, possible and even rewarding as an educational practitioner.

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2. Bottom-Up Approach: Decisions on EP are made by the lower-level actors

(teacher, school principal) Flexibility in implementing decisions Needs support from colleagues, school and

education authorities Works well in the long-term, except issues related to

inventor mortality

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Types of Educational Planning1. Comprehensive EP2. Adaptive EP3. Contingency EP4. Compulsive EP5. Manipulative EP6. Indicative EP7. Incremental EP8. Autonomous EP9. Ameliorative EP10. Functional EP11. Educational Programming

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1. Comprehensive EP

A long range planning, takes 25-40 years General and comprehensive in nature To provide a guideline to be followed by other related

fields; on the use of educational resources, on how to monitor and evaluate educational progress and problems.

E.g Wawasan 2020

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2. Adaptive EP

To adapt current practices as a result of reaction from external development

Problem solving in the narrowest sense To ensure organizational equilibrium Example: Introduction of English in the Teaching of

Science and Mathematics

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3. Contingency EP

As a means to absorb emergency with minimum inconvenience

Example: contingency examination centres during the monsoon season

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4. Compulsive EP

A detailed account on what should be done Rigid, but necessary Motivational instrument: congratulation if successful

and punishment if failed Example: school finances

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5. Manipulative EP

Manipulating various strategies and instruments to get maximum results

Among the strategies used: deals, trades and personal inducements

Example: school cooperatives

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6. Indicative EP

Giving the right signals in the hope that they (the actors) in turn will take appropriate actions

Instrument: Check list E.g. PTA activities

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7. Incremental EP

Is planning that takes short steps, correcting mistakes as it proceeds

Such a process, while constituting acceptable short-term adaptability, is accumulative in nature

A sufficient body of mistakes will force the planner to take a completely comprehensive approach.

On the other hand, such planning, if successful, should accumulate a sufficient body of experience to enable the educational planners to attempt comprehensive planning

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8. Autonomous EP

Is planning pursued by itself and not as a part of any other planning.

Example: the teacher might exercise her/his own teaching strategies.

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9. Ameliorative EP

To put things in their original form without considering what would happen.

Its aim is to return to the status quo. E.g. School fee

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10. Functional EP

Focuses on a particular aspect of the total educational problem.

Essentially, this type of planning is segmented in nature, but still functions as a part of the total planning effort

Example: education for special children

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11. Educational Programming

Specifies the target groups, the program requirement, and the resources needed to achieve a specific objective.

Example: tuition classes