THE DESIGN PROCESS A PRIMER - Making Permaculture ......Designer and educator Victor Papanek observed that “design is basic to all human activities”2. We believe that everyone

THE DESIGN PROCESS A PRIMER

RESILIOSTUDIO

REV 1_ MARCH 2017

INTRODUCTION

“Design Thinking is a mindset... Thinking like a designer can transform the way you approach the world when imagining and creating new solutions for the future: it’s about being aware of the world around you, believing that you play a role in shaping that world, and taking action toward a more desirable future. Design Thinking gives you faith in your creative abilities and a process to take action through when faced with a difficult challenge.” Design Thinking for Educators

“Design is basic to all human activities - the placing and patterning of any act towards a desired goal constitutes a design process.” Victor Papanek

The Design Process: A Primer_ Rev 1

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• Provideanintroductionandoverviewofthedesignprocess.• Providearesourcethatdevelopsasharedunderstandingand

basisforexpertsandnon-designexperts.• Provideguidanceforpeopleandorganisationswanting

tosolveproblemscreativelythroughastructureddesignprocess.

• Provideasetoftoolsandmethodsthatcanbeappliedtowiderangeofchallenges.

• Offerawiderangeofreferencesforpeopletofollowupandexploreforthemselves.

PURPOSE OF THIS PRIMER

ASSUMPTIONSTHE DESIGN PROCESS CAN BE APPLIED TO A WIDE RANGE OF HUMAN ENDEAVOURS Adesignprocesstypicallyinvolvesprogressingthroughasequenceofphasesthatbeginbyidentifyingadiscrepancybetweenthecurrentsituationandadesired(future)state.Thisdesignprocessinvolvesdefiningandanalyzingthe‘challenge’,generatingconcepts,evolvingideasandimplementingasolutionorsolutionsthatwillreducethegapbetweenthecurrentsituationandthedesiredstate.Bycrystallisingthisgeneralprocessdowntoanessentialsequenceofphases,itispossibletoconceiveofastructuredprocessthatcanbeappliedtoawiderangeofhumanendeavours.

WHAT IS DESIGN?Atitspinnacle,designis“an interactive, imaginative process for creating something that has never existed before”1.Atitscore,design is a process for creatively solving problems.Designsolvesproblemsby:• Providingfunctionandutility-forexampleavesseltohold

water,orabatterytostoreenergy.• Providingavisionanddirectionforwherewewouldlike

tobeinthefuture-forexampleanartist’simpressionforafuturepossiblestate,orasocialforumforaddressingchallengesandidentifyingsolutions.

• Givingformandmeaningtoactions,objects,environmentsandconversations-forexampleaMāoripouacknowledginglocalhistory;ancestorsandlandscapes;creatinganinfographictoexplainacomplexsocial/scientificissueorpredicament;plantingnativespeciestopromoteawarenessaboutlocalecology;organisinganeighbourhoodstreetparty;workingasplacemakerswithlocalcommunitiesorasdesignactivistsaimingatmakingchangeinculturalbehavioursandattitudes.

EVERYONE IS CAPABLE OF DESIGN DesignerandeducatorVictorPapanekobservedthat“designisbasictoallhumanactivities”2.Webelievethateveryoneiscapableofusingthedesignprocesstocreativelysolverealproblems.Likeanyskill,somepeoplearenaturallymoregiftedthanothersinabilitiescoretodesign(suchascreativity,empathy/intuitionandsystemsthinking)howeveritisnonethelessaskillthatcanbetaught,practicedandlearnt.

OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN PROCESSThisresourcedefineseightphasesofdesign-Initiate;Discover;Interpret;Ideate;Refine;Implement;Communicate;andReflectandEvaluate.

Eachphasehasanumberofstrategies,methodsandtoolsthatcanbeutilisedtoresolvetheissuesandopportunitiesthatariseineachphase.Thenumberofdesignphasesandthestrategies,methodsandtoolsutilisedforanygivendesignprocessisdependentonarangeoffactorssuchasthecomplexityoftheproblem,thenumberofpeopleinvolved,thetimeframesunderconsiderationetc.Designersneedtorecognisewhichstrategies,methodsandtoolsareappropriatetouseatwhattime.

INITIATEThedesignprocessbeginsbyrecognizingthatthereisachallengeoropportunitythatneedsaddressing,i.e.thereisadiscrepancybetweenthecurrentsituationandthedesiredstate.Oncethechallengehasbeenidentifiedandthecommitmenttoaddressithasbeenmade,thenextstepinvolvesarticulatingitinawaythatthoseinvolvedoraffectedcanunderstand.Inthisphasethefoundationsforthedesignprocessareestablishedbystartingtodefinethecontextinwhichthechallenge/opportunityissituated,clearlydefiningandarticulatingthechallenge,generatingabrief,andcreatingaprojectplan.

DISCOVERInthisphaseofthedesignprocessthedesignersworktoenrichanddeveloptheirunderstandingofthechallenge.TheDiscoverphaseisaboutgatheringusefulandrelevantqualitativeandquantitativeknowledgerelatedtothechallenge.Thisknowledgegatheringexercisecollectsmaterialfromarangeofsourcesandthrougharangeoftechniquesincludingfirsthandresearchsuchasobservation,interviewingandfocusgroupsaswellassecondarysourcesincludingcasestudiesandexistingdatasets.

INTERPRETInthisphasethefocusisonmakingmeaningoftheinformationcollectedduringtheDiscoverphaseinordertorefinetheunderstandingofthechallengeanditscontext.Through


consideredinterpretationthemes,patterns,insightsandopportunitiesbegintoemerge.Understandingtheparametersofthechallengeandtheneedsofthosemostimpactedbythechallengeiscriticaltodevelopingeffectivesolutions.AkeyoutcomeoftheInterpretphaseisdefiningneedsandinsightsandmakingthemactionablebyframingthemasopportunities,whichtypicallycomeintheformofwrittenstatements,diagrams,maps,insightsetc.

IDEATEOncethedesignchallengeandthecontextisbetterunderstood,constraintsandopportunitiesareframed,andideasforsolutionsaregenerated.TheIdeatephaseiswhatpeoplemostcommonlyassociatewithdesign-itisthephasewhereasmanyideasaspossiblearegeneratedandexperimentedwith.Atthisstagethinkingexpansivelyanddeferringjudgementaboutpossiblesolutionsisessential-noideaistoosmallor‘outthere’atthisphaseintheprocess.Ideascanbegeneratedandrecordedthrougharangeofmediumsincludingdrawings,models,audio/visualrecording,writtennotesetc.

REFINEThisphaseischaracterizedbyrevision,filtering,selectionandhoningofthemostpromisingideastotakeforward.Designersdeveloptheirleadingconcepts,refinetheirthinkingandtesttheirideasfurther.Withrefinementcomesnewdiscoveriesandadesignerwilloftenexperimentwithdifferentiterationsandmovebackthroughdifferentdesignphasesinrapidsuccessionatthispointintheprocess.Oncevariationsandalternativesonleadingconceptshavebeenexplored,theconceptisfinetunedandpreparedforimplementation.

IMPLEMENTInthisphasethefocusisonexecutingthedesign-eitherinwholeorinpart.Strategiesforimplementationvarydependingonthenatureoftheproblemanditscontext.Implementationstrategiessitonacontinuumbetweenpragmaticand‘sequential’,oftenreferredtoasthewaterfallmethod,andemergentand‘generative’alsoknownastheagilemethod.Sequentialimplementationstrategiesarebasedontraditionalprojectmethodologieswhereeachphaseofthedesignprocessiscompletedbeforethenextphasebeginsandthereislimitedopportunitytorevisitandreiteratethepreviousphaseoncethedesignhasprogressed.Generativeimplementationstrategiesemphasisedevelopingandtestingideasassoonaspossibleallowingthedesignresponsetoemergethroughtheprocess.Agenerativeprocessinvolvesmovingthroughoutthephasesofdiscover,interpret,ideate,refineandimplementinrapidsuccessiontotestpartoralloftheproposedsolution,inordertolearn,reiterateandevolvethedesignquickly.Generativeprocessesprovidelesscertainty

butallowfortheprocesstochangeemphasisanddirectioninresponsetonewandemergentdiscoveries.

COMMUNICATIONCommunicationisanessentialcomponentofanydesignprocess.Gooddesignrequiresdesignerstocommunicate,expressandtestthoughtsandideasregularlyandeffectivelythroughouttheprocess,oftenwitharangeofstakeholders.Communicationinvolvesdefining,discussing,tellingstories,listening,providingfeedback,agreeingandresolving,andpresentingideasanddevelopmentsduringthedesignprocess.Duringthedesignprocessvisual,oralandkinaestheticformsofcommunicationwillbeemployedandpresentationsandrepresentationswillbeusedtocommunicatearangeofinformationtostakeholders.

REFLECTION AND EVALUATIONAsthedesignprocessunfolds,newlearnings,insightsandevaluationsaremade.Thesenewperspectivescanandoftendohavesignificantimpactsonthedesignsolutionbeingdeveloped.Designisareflectivepractice.Documenting,incubatingandevaluatingthedesignprocessinvolvesawiderangeofmethodsforrecordingandcriticallyreflectingonevents,experiences,perceptionsand/orfeelings,toassessdesignconceptsandpracticeinrelationtothedesignbrief,theprojectplan,thecontext,thebudgetetc.isanessentialpartofthecreativeandproblem-solvingprocess.Reflectionandevaluationisessentialtoeffectivelearning,forconnectingtheorywithpractice,andforformingaplatformforcreatingnewknowledge,theoriesandmethodsofworking.Reflectionandevaluationalsoinvolvetheongoingidentificationofpersonalandculturalbiasesandblindspotsthatmaycompromisethedesignoutcomesandpreventthoseinvolvedinthedesignprocessfromrecognisingorselectingthemostappropriatesolutionstothechallenge.

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Reflect & Evaluate

Comm

unicate

Implement

Refine

InitiateThere is a problem to solve.

Articulate the problem, define the context, define the challenge, generate a brief,

create a project plan.Discover

Sense, observe and learn about your challenge. Look

at many different sources to find out as much about your

challenge as you can.

InterpretRefine your understanding

of the challenge. Define insights and make them

actionable by framing them as opportunities.

IdeateGenerate a range of diverse ideas and concepts. Think

expansively and defer judgement.

Refine your thinking, test your ideas and concepts and

select and fine tune your most promising concepts.

Make ideas tangible. Test and/or launch concepts in

the real world.

THE DESIGN PROCESS

Figure 1_ A graphic representation of the design process emphasizing the cyclical and iterative nature of the design process.


KEY CONCEPTS


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COLLABORATION

VIABILITY AND FEASIBILITY

EMPATHY

ART + SCIENCEDesigninvolvesafluidintegrationofthesystematicobservationsandanalyticalinsightsofsciencewiththeexpressive,intuitive,technicalskillandcreativityofart-designisbothanalyticalandcreative.

Alldesignprocessesarecollaborativeandithasbecomeclearthatworkingwithothersistheonlywaydesignerscanworktowardsensuringthattheproposedsolutionswillbesociallyandculturallyresponsiveandcontinuallyimplemented.Effectivedesignersfostercollaborationamongdiversedisciplinesandconstituencies-theyfeedandsupportprojectsandinitiativesinwhicheveryone–designprofessionalsandnon-designexpertsalike–areinvolvedthroughouttheprocessandhaveownershipofthesolution.

Designresponsesneedtorespondtomorethanjustthechallenge,theymustbefinanciallyviableandtechnicallyfeasible.WhetherthedesignisaDIYprojectathome,anewproductforasocialenterpriseorabusinessofferinganewrangeofdesignservices,adesignmustbecosteffectivetoimplementandaffordabletoendusers.Thedesignmustalsobewithinthetechnicalcapabilitiesofthosemanufacturingandthoseusingit.Thereislittlepointdesigningsomethingthatcannotbeimplementedoristoocomplextouse.

Empathyistheabilitytounderstandandsharethefeelingsofanother.Empathyfuelsconnectionandunderstanding.TheresaWiseman3identifiesthefourdefiningattributesofempathyastheabilitytoseetheworldasothersseeit,tobenon-judgmental,tounderstandanotherperson’sfeelings,andtocommunicateyourunderstandingofthatperson’sfeelings.

Itisveryrarefordesignerstosolvechallengesthatonlyimpactoraffectthemselves.Therefore,understandingthepointsofview,valuesandneedsofothersiscriticaltodevelopingeffectiverealworldsolutions.Designersneedtobeabletoempathisewithotherpeoplewhoarecoretothedesignsolutionandarelikelytohavedifferentbackgroundsandlifeexperiencesthanthedesigners,aswellasdevelopanempathicunderstandingofthe‘naturalworld’andallitslifeforms.

TRADE-OFFSThomasSowellonceobservedthat“therearenosolutions.Thereareonlytrade-offs.”Whenoneelementisoptimisedindesign,itoftencompromisesotheraspectsofthedesignsolution.Thedesignprocessesofteninvolvesmakingdecisionsthattradeoneoutcomeoffagainstanother-forexample,farmersseekingtomaximiseyieldarelikelytoreduceothervaluabletraitssuchassoilfertilityandstresstolerance;athletesoftenmustchoosebetweenprioritisingeitherspeedandagilityontheonehandandstrengthandenduranceontheother;andabridgethatmaximiseslightnessandefficiencyofmaterialswilltypicallycomprisedurabilityandresilienceofthestructure.Whileitmaynotbepossibletoreconcilealltrade-offs,itiscriticalthatdesignersareawareandconsciousofthechoicestheymakeduringthedesignprocessandattempttounderstandthepossibleimplicationsofchoosingtopreferenceoneormoreoutcomesoverothers.

RESILIENCEThegreekphilosopherHeraclitusonceobservedthat“changeistheonlyconstantinlife”.Ourworldinthe21stcenturyischangingrapidlyandthechallengesareincreasinginscaleandcomplexity.Resilienceisthecapacityofasystemtoabsorbdisturbanceandreorganisewhileundergoingchange,soastoretainessentiallythesamefunction,structure,identityandfeedbacks4.Changescanrangefrombusinessasusualsmall-scaledisturbancesthroughtounprecedentedeventsrequiringfundamentalculturaltransformation5.Designingforresilienceinvolvesdevelopingsolutionsthatareresponsiveandadaptivetoforcesthatcanbeforeseenandalsotoforcesthatcannot.This

requiresanunderstandingofglobal,regionalandlocalsystemsanddynamicsaffectingthedesignchallengeaswellassystemsliteracytounderstandthequalitiesandcharacteristicsofaresilientsystemandstrategiesforachievingthem.Designerswillneedtoincreasinglyadaptandrespondtoachangingrealityandresiliencethinkinghasbecomeanecessarytoolinthedesigner’stoolkit.

Resiliencethinkinganddesigningforresiliencecanbeenhancedbydevelopingliteracyskillsrelatedtothe‘4E’s’-Environment,EnergyEconomicsandEquity.Thesedriversaresignificantandomnipresentinfluencesonmostofthechallengesfacingsocietytoday.Withoutanunderstandingofthe4E’sandanappreciationoftheinfluencestheyexertonourworld(atarangeofscales)21stcenturydesignersriskcontributingfurthertosystemicvulnerabilities,failuresandtippingpointsthroughinappropriateornaivedesign‘solutions’.


Initiate Discover Interpret Ideate Refine Implement

Reflect & Evaluate

Communicate

DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT THINKINGThedesignprocessinvolvesaseriesofdivergentandconvergentprocesses.ThedivergentphasesaretypicallytheDiscoverandIdeatephases,andinvolveexploringawiderangeofopportunitiesandpossibilities-itisexpansiveandexploratory.Theconvergentphasesinvolveevaluatingpossibleoptions,selectingandmakingdecisionssotheprojectcanprogress-itinvolvesthenarrowing,distillationandrefinementofideasandunderstanding.

Figure 2_ The design processes represented as a sequence of divergent and convergent phases. Note the Communication and Reflection and Evaluation occur throughout the process.

Communicate

Reflect & Evaluate

DiscoverInitiate ImplementInterpret Ideate Refine

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ITERATIVE + EXPERIMENTAL PROCESSDesigninvolvesexperimentation,testingsolutionsandtakingrisks.Alldesignersmakealotofmistakes.Thisisagoodthing-everymistakebringswithitanopportunitytodiscoversomethingnewaboutthechallengeandtherangeofsolutionstoaddressit.Thetrickistomanagetheexperimentsandriskssothattheyare‘safetofail’andthatanyfailuresareseenasopportunitiestolearn.Whilethedesignprocesstypicallyhasabeginning,amiddleandanend,itisseldomalinearprocess.Newinsightsthroughiterationandexperimentationoftenrequirethattheprojectbriefisreviewedandrewrittentoaccommodatenewknowledgeandunderstandingofthechallenge,promisingideasarereassessedorevenabandoned,newideasarecreatedandtesteduntilanadequatesolutionisreachedor,asoftenoccursindesign,theprojectrunsoutoftimeand/orbudgetandtheleadingconceptatthetimeistakenforward.

Figure 3_ Discoveries are made throughout the design process. While a designer seldom starts the whole process over every time a new discovery is made, the designer will often quickly interpret the finding, ideate a new or incremental improvement to the existing design and reintegrate the insight into the design. This process can occur in a matter of seconds, or it could take much longer to integrate the discovery into the developing design.


Strategiesforimplementingadesignhaveafundamentalbearingonhowtoapproachthedesignprocess.Implementationstrategiessitonacontinuumbetweenpragmaticand‘sequential’atoneendandemergentand‘generative’attheother.

SEQUENTIAL Sequentialimplementationstrategiesarebasedontraditionalprojectplanningmethodologieswhereeachphaseofthedesignprocessiscompletedbeforethenextphasebeginsandthereislimitedopportunitytorevisitandreiteratethepreviousphase.Thismethodologyisoftenreferredtoasthe‘waterfallmethod’andisbestsuitedtoadesignprocesswheretheoutputthatisbeingdesignedismuchmoreknown.Thedesign‘challenge’istypicallycentredaroundthatknownoutput,ratherthanachallengewhichinvitesawideandunknownrangeofdesignresponses.Astherearefewopportunitiestorevisitpreviousdecisions,acomprehensiveprojectplanmustbecreatedatthebeginningoftheprocessandfollowedcarefully.Sequentialimplementationstrategiesprovidecertaintyandreduceriskofgoingovertimeand/orbudget.Sequentialimplementationstrategiesarearebestusedforlargeand/orcomplexprojectswithprovenmethodologies/predictableandrepeatableprocesses.Projectsconducivetothisstrategyofteninvolveabuiltoutcomeorproductandofteninvolvemultiple‘experts’

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEIGIES

Project InceptionPurpose is stated, context is defined, the challenge is articulated, brief is generated, and project plan is created.

Phase OneInformation is gathered with an emphasis on application. While divergent, the discovery phase in sequential methodologies tends to be more targeted and less open ended than in generative processes.

Phase TwoInformation is analysised and synthesised with an emphasis on narrowing options for ideation.

Phase ThreeA range of concepts are generated and explored. Ideas tend to be incremental improvements on already existing practices and solutions rather than completely new ideas.

Phase FourLeading concepts are selected and refined for implementation.

Phase FiveProject is completed and depending on the nature of the project it is deployed / released / opened / launched etc. for use.

Initiate

Discover

Interpret

Ideate

Refine

Implement

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and/orprofessionalswhocontributetowardthedesignandimplementationofthesolution.Projectsthattypicallyfollowasequentialmethodologyincludethedesignandconstructionofmediumtolargescalebuildingsandinfrastructure6;thedesignanddeploymentofpublicpolicy;andthedesignoftechnologiessuchasacar,ormedicalequipmentsuchasapacemakeroranMRIscanner.Discoveriesaremadethroughouttheprocessbutratherthanstartingthewholedesignprocessoverfromthebeginningorrepeatingentirephases,insightsareinterpretedandfedbackintothedevelopingdesignasanewideaorincrementalimprovementwithoutstartingthewholeprocessover.

GENERATIVEGenerativeimplementationstrategiesemphasisethedevelopmentandtestingofideasassoonaspossibleinthedesignprocess.AgenerativeprocessinvolvesmovingthroughthephasesofDiscover,Interpret,Ideate,RefineandImplementrepeatedlyandinrapidsuccessioninordertotestpartoralloftheproposedsolutionandlearn,reiterateandevolvethedesignquickly.Generativeprocessesprovidelesscertaintyintermsoftimeframesandbudgetbutallowfortheprocesstochangeemphasisanddirectioninresponsetonewandemergentdiscoveriestocomplexchallengesthatneedtobediscoveredthroughexperimentationanditerationi.e.interactingdirectlywiththechallenge.Examplesofprojectsandmethodsthatuseagenerativemethodologyincludesoftwaredevelopment(oftenreferredtoas‘agile’7),tacticalurbanismprojectsinthepublicrealm,adaptiveecosystemmanagement,social/innovationlabs,designandbuildhomesandgardens,and‘backyard’inventorsdevelopingsmall-scaleappropriatetechnologies.

HYBRID PROCESSESWhilesequentialandgenerativeprocessescanbeconceivedastwoendsofacontinuum,inmanycasesaprojectwillsitsomewherealongthecontinuumandincorporateaspectsofboth.Forexample,amasterplanforacitydistrict,alargeparkorfarmmightcreateanoverallvisionandgenerallayoutandarrangementofusesandformsandorganisethesiteintodiscrete,manageableareasthatcanbedesignedandimplementedinsequenceorinparallel.Eachareainturncouldadoptagenerativeprocessthattestsrealoutcomesthroughadaptivemanagementorprototypingprocessesbeforeimplementingmorepermanentoutcomes.Likewiseasocialenterprisecouldexperimentwithdeliverystrategiesforlocallyproducedfoodtoschoolchildrenaspartoflargersequentiallyimplementedpolicyinitiativeforhealthandwellbeing,ordesignerscantestvariousenduserpreferencesforvariousaspectsofuserinterfacesforsoftwarethatishousedwithinhardwarethatisdevelopedusingmoresequentialimplementationstrategies.

Left - Figure 4_ The sequential methodology represented as the ‘waterfall’ method. Once a phase is complete the decisions are effectively made and the process moves forward with little opportunity to iterate previous phases.

Below - Figure 5_ Example generative process emphasizing testing and iteration throughout the design process and phases.

Project Inception

Problem is articulated, context is defined, the challenge is articulated, brief is generated, and project plan is created.

Iteration One

Emphasis on discovery, interpretation and ideation. Concepts are tested as quickly as possible.

Iteration Two

Discoveries and insights are reintegrated into new wave of ideation and prototyping of concept.

Iteration Three

Discoveries and insights are reintegrated into new wave of ideation and refinement and concepts are piloted.

Iteration Four

Discoveries and insights are reintegrated into new wave of refinement and project is implemented.


CAPITALCapitalmeansdifferentthingsindifferentcontexts-here“capital”issynonymouswith“wealth”and/or“storesofvalue”-itishowsystemsandcommunitiesaccrueandstorewealthandenergyovertime.Respondingtothesignificantchallengesofthe21stcenturyoutlinedabovemeanthatdoinglessharmisnolongergoodenough-designersmustdo‘good’andleavethingsbetter8.Aswellasdoingthingssmarterfromhereonin,designershavearesponsibilitytoactivelyrehabilitatethehistoricdamagealreadyinflictedontheplanet,societyandawiderangeofcommunitiesbyincreasingtheecologicalcarryingcapacityoftheenvironmentandbuildingrealwealththroughallformsofcapital–natural,cultural,social,built,knowledgeaswellasfinancial.

NATURAL CAPITALNaturalcapitalreferstothefunction,integrityandproductivecapacityoftheecosystemsinagivenarea.Fromananthropocentricpointofview,italsoreferstothequantityofnaturalresourcesavailableforhumanutilitysuchasenergy,minerals,soils,treesetc.aswellastheservicesafunctioningecosystemprovide.Thesefunctionsincludefilteringandpurifyingwaterandregulatingofwaterquantity,compostingandcyclingofnutrients,creatingandmaintainingsoils,biologicalproductivityanddiversity,pollinatingplantsandcontrollingpests,regulatingtheatmosphereandclimateandsequesteringcarbon.Alloflifeisdependenton,andapartofnaturalcapital-itisthebasisofallotherformsofcapital.

CULTURAL CAPITALCulturalcapitalreferstothestoresofwealthbuilt,storedandincrementallyaddedtobyacultureovermultiplegenerationsandincludesthingslikelanguage,customs,technologies,laws,decisionmakingprocesses,art,literatureandmusic.

BUILT CAPITALBuiltcapitalreferstophysicalstockssuchasbuildings,infrastructuresuchasenergy,transport,waterandcommunicationnetworks,tools,machinesandalltechnologicalsystems,productsandenvironments.Inessenceitreferstoanyuniquelyhumanmadeenvironmentorartefact.Builtcapitalisdevelopedthroughtheapplicationoftheothersixformsofcapital.Durability,resourceandenergyavailability,andsustainabilityareimportantconsiderationsforthedevelopmentandlongtermmaintenanceofbuiltcapital.

SOCIAL CAPITALSocialcapitalisoftendefinedasthe“connectionsamongindividuals-socialnetworksandthenormsofreciprocityandtrustworthinessthatarisefromthem”9.Simplyput,socialcapitalisthecollectiveabilityofagrouptoworktogethertoachieve

something.Socialcapitalincludessharednorms,values,attitudes,beliefsandsenseofpurpose;establishedrolesandsocialnetworkssupplementedbyrules,proceduresandprecedents;bondsbetweenpeopleinsimilarsituations;bridgesbetweensimilarpeopleindifferentsituations;aswellaslinksbetweenpeopleofdifferentpowerorstatus.

Wheretraditionalcommunitiestypicallyselforganiseinspecificlocationsconnectedtoaphysicalplace,intheInformationAgesocialcapitalcanincludecommunitiesofinterestthataregeographicallydisparatebutsharesomethingincommonsuchasaninterestinaparticularsportoron-lineforum.

HUMAN CAPITALHumancapitalreferstothecapacityofanindividualorpopulationtoparticipateinandcontributetosociety(oftenconceivedofthroughtheproductionofgoodsand/orservices).Itincludesalloftheknowledge,habits,skills,experience,socialandpersonalityattributes,includingcreativityaccruedbyindividualsoverthecourseoftheirlifeaswellasthehealthofpeopleandpopulations.

KNOWELDGE CAPITALSometimescalled‘intellectual’,‘instructional’or‘technical’capital,knowledgecapitalreferstotransferablestoresofknowledgethatcanbeutilisedtobuildotherformsofcapital.

FINANCIAL CAPITALFinancialcapitalreferstostoresofmoneyineithertangible/physicaland/ordigital/abstractforms.Whilemoneyisaformoffinancialcapital,moneyisnotcapitalinitsownrightbutamechanismforallocatingandcontrollingotherformsofcapital10.

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$

SEVEN FORMS OF CAPTIAL

Figure 6_ From bottom to top - natural captial, cultural captial, built captial, social captial, human captial, knowledge captial and financial captial.


REALMS OF DESIGN“Everything is designed. Few things are designed well.” Brian Reed

Ecological design is the “design of human settlements that incorporates principles inherent in the natural world in order to sustain human populations over a long span of time. This design adapts the wisdom and strategies of the natural world to human problems. Implicit in this study there is a larger question - what is the role of humanity in the greater destiny of the earth?” Nancy and John Todd

“Ecological wisdom does not consist in understanding how to live in accord with nature; it consists in understanding how to get humans to agree on how to live in accord with nature.” Ken Wilber

“A sustainable technology is a technology which, when employed productively by humans, results in no loss of ecosystem carrying capacity, resource availability, or cultural integrity” Robert Thayer


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Thedesignprocesscanbefurtherexploredandadaptedtodifferentrealmsofdesign-theBiosphere,SociosphereandTechnosphere.Itisimportanttoknowwhichrealmorrealmsyouaredesigningintoensurethemostappropriatedesignlenses,strategies,methodologiesandtoolsareutilised.

THE BIOSPHEREThebiosphereisatermusedtodescribetherealmoflifeonearth.Itincludesalltheecosystemsoftheplanet-theanimatekingdomsoflifeincludingallplants,animals,fungi,protista,andbacteria;theinanimatecontextforlife-thelithosphere,geosphere,hydrosphereandatmosphere;andtherelationshipsandinteractionsbetweenthem.ThebiosphereispoweredbysolarandcosmicradiationaswellasheatfromtheinterioroftheEarth,andlefttoitsowndevices,islargelyself-regulating.Goodpracticedesigninthebiospherecanbebroadlydescribedasecological design.

Ecologymeansdifferentthingstodifferentpeople.Hereecologyissimultaneously:a. ascientificendeavourintothenaturalsciencesaswellasthe

socialsciencesandhumanecology;b. ametaphorfordescribingourexistentialunderstandingof

theworld;andc. anapplieddisciplinethatutilisesecologyandecological

understandingasinspirationandmediumfordesign.

Ecologicaldesignreferstoanapproachofdesigningwithandforthefunction,healthandwell-beingofthewholelivingsystem,incorporatesallthreeoftheaboveunderstandingsofecology.Itrequiresareframingofhumanity’splaceandroleinthenaturalorderofthingstobeoneofmanycohabitantsandbeneficiariesofanintegralandhealthyecosystem,ratherthanthedominantorpriorityspeciesinthatsystem.Ecologicaldesignassertsthattheecologicalhealthandcarryingcapacityoftheplaceswelivearethefoundationofhealthandwell-beingforthepeoplewhoinhabitthem.

Realmsofknowledgemostrelevantandusefultoecologicaldesignincludebiology,theearthsciences,ecology,evolutionarybiology,spatialgeography,morphologyandlocalplace-basedexperienceandwisdom.Ecologicalliteracyiscoretoecologicaldesignandtherearearangeoflensesadesignercanadopttohelpdiscoveralreadyexistingecologicalsolutions,patternsandprinciplesofbiologyandecologythatcanbeappliedtodesign.

Environmentalfeedbackscanbeveryslowsoitcanbedifficulttoknowiftheproposedsolutionhasbeensuccessful-forexample,ittakesaverylongtimeforthewaterinawatercatchmenttocleanonceithasbeencontaminated.Carefulobservationandmonitoringofdifferentenvironmentalindicatorsiscritical-waterquality,densityanddiversityofspecies,presenceoffoodsourcesthroughtheyear,percentageofcarboninsoiletc.Whileenvironmentalratesofchangetypicallyhappenveryslowly,ecosystemsandlocalenvironmentscanchangeveryquicklyduetodisturbance.Firescanburnthroughaforestwithinhours,toxicspillscandevastateextensivecoastlinesorwatercatchmentswithindays,droughtscantransformlandscapesovermonthsoryearsandrisingtemperaturescanchangewholeecosystemsoverdecadesandcenturies.

LENSES FOR ECOLITERACY11 A naturalist lensinvolveslookingtonatureasnaïveinquirertobuildgeneralknowledgeandunderstandingofnaturalpatternsandprocessesandforinterestandinspiration.

Alocal lensisessentialtohelpdesignersseeeveryplaceasunique.Withthislenswemightaskquestionslike:• Howdolocalspecies,traditionalpeoplesand

ecosystemsadapttolocalconditions?• Canlocalknowledgemakesenseofobservations?

Anecological lenshelpsdesignerslooktonaturetounderstandtheinterrelationshipsandpatternsinnatureaswellasfoundationalecologicalprinciplessuchasecologicalrhythms,stocks,flows,andsinks.Questionsdesignersmightaskfromthislensinclude:• Doesthisremindusofanyotherpatternorsolutionin

nature?• Whatarethecoreecologicalprinciplesgoverningthe

behavioursoforganismsinthissystem?

The functional lensallowsdesignerstodrawinspirationfromhownaturesolvesproblemsbyaskingquestionslike:• Howmightnaturesolvethischallengeinother,similar

situationsorcontexts?• Howmightnaturearesolve/respondtox?• Howdoesnatureresolve/respondtox,giventhe

context/constraintofyandz?• Howdoesnaturesolvethischallenge?• Howdoesnatureadapttochanges?• Whatdoesnaturenotdo?


THE SOCIOSPHEREThesociospheredescribestherealmofhumansociety,cultureandpsychology-itincludesallsocio-cultural,politicalandeconomicsystemsandstructuresthatdefineandinfluencehumanbehavioursandinteractionsinanygivencultureandsociety,aswellastherelationshipsandinteractionsbetweenthem.Allformsofcapitalareeitherharnessedand/orcreatedthroughthesociosphere.Thesociosphererequiresthebiospheretoprovidethenaturalmaterialsandprocessesthatallowhumanstomeettheirneeds,worktogetherandcreatehumansocieties.Designingeffectiveresponsestochallengeswithinthesociosphereiscommonlydescribedassocial innovation.

Socialinnovationisconcernedwithcreatinganddeliveringnewideas,strategies,concepts,organisationalsolutions,policies,services,products,spacesandcommunicationstomeetasocialneed.Examplesofneedsthatsocialinnovationsmayattempttoaddressareequityandinequality,workingconditions,educationandcommunication,communitydevelopment,sanitation,poverty,healthandwellbeing.Designinthisrealmisledbysocialdemandsratherthanbymarketand/orautonomoustechno-scientificresearch.Socialinnovationisoftencreatedcollaborativelyandideallyledbytheactorsdirectlyinvolvedinthechallengeratherthanbyexternalexpertsand/orspecialists.Itrequiresdesignerstounderstandtheimportanceofcultural,social,behavioural,emotionalandenvironmentalcontexts.

Co-designisakeyfeatureofeffectivesocialinnovation.Itisaparticipatoryprocessofworkingwiththosemostaffectedbytheissueunderinvestigationratherthandesigningfor them.Theroleofthedesignexpertinco-designistofacilitatecollaborativedesignprocessesandsupportthoseaffectedbythechallengetocontributedirectlytothedesignofeffectiveinterventionsorsolutions.Thosemostaffectedbyachallengecouldbeanindividual,afamily,acommunitygroup,awholesectorofsocietyoraparticulardemographic.

Realmsofknowledgewhichsupportsocialinnovationincludepsychology,sociology,anthropology,linguistics,politicalscience,politicsandeconomics.Ethnographic ResearchandEmpathy Mappingareexamplesofmethodsandtoolsusedinthesociospherethatcanprovidegreatinsightsintocommunity’sandindividual’swants,needsandperspectiveswhichinformeffectivesocialdesignsolutions.

Withinthesociospherefeedbacksandratesofchangeoccuracrossawiderangeoftimescales-whereculturalcapitaltendstoevolveslowlyovermanygenerations,socialcapitalcanbebuiltovermuchshortertimeframes,oroverseveralgenerations,andintheoryhumancapitalcanchangeveryquickly,overyearsandevenmonthsintoday’sfastpaced,globallyconnectedsociety.

CO-DESIGN• Meansthatprojectsaredevelopedjointlybetween

thedesignersandthosemostaffectedbytheissueorchallenge.

• Issynonymouswithgenuineparticipationanddeliberative/directdemocracy.

• Requiresthatthedesigners’skillsandknowledgebeintegratedwiththerealworldexperienceofthosemostaffectedbythechallengeorissueunderinvestigation.

• Requiresdesignerstotaketheavailableinformationtomakemeaningoftheprocessandtocreativelygiveformtosolutions.

• Doesnotstiflethecreativeprocessordilute‘puredesign’,butratheractivelyrecognisesthattheneeds,values,andperceptionsofthosemostaffectedbythechallengearecriticaltoeffectivedesignresponses.

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THE TECHNOSPHEREThetechnosphereisatermusedtodescribetherealmofhumantechnology-itincludesstonetools,controllingfire,weaponry,fabricsandclothing,cookingandfermentation,musicalinstruments,boatbuildingandsailing,agriculture,damsandirrigationnetworks,factories,microchips,geneticmodificationandengineering,birthcontrol,robotics,syntheticmaterials,ArtificialIntelligence,medicalequipmentandinterventions,computerprogrammesandviruses,andeverythingelsethatcomprisestheprocessesandoutputsofhumantechnology.Thetechnosphereincludesallbuiltcapital,usesnaturalandsocialcapitalinitscreationandmaintenance,andevolvesthroughculturalandknowledgecapital.Thetechnosphereisdependentonandadirectresultofprocessesandinteractionsinthebiosphereandsociosphere-humantechnologyrequiresrawmaterials,naturalprocesses,geneticinformationandstoredenergy,aswellasthecoordinationofhumanrelationships,labourandknowledgetocreate,maintainandretrofitit.Effectiveandresponsivedesigninthetechnospherecanbedescribedasappropriate technology.

Appropriatetechnologyreferstothedesign,constructionandapplicationoftechnologiesthatareresponsivetoand‘appropriate’forthespecificcontextinwhichtheyareused.Theroleofthedesigneristodesigntechnologicalsolutionsthatarefitforpurposewhileconsideringtheethical,socio-cultural,economicandenvironmentalcontextinwhichthetechnologywillbeused.Inpractice,thismeansusingthesimplestleveloftechnologythatcaneffectivelyachievetheintendedpurposeinaparticularlocation.Appropriatetechnologyistypicallysmall-scale-itissimpleenoughthatpeoplecanmanageitdirectlyandonalocallevel.Thisinvolvesmakinguseoflocalresources,skillsandtechnologythatareavailabletoprovideforhumanneeds,suchasgasandelectricity,water,food,andwastedisposalwhilelimitingthetechnology’simpactontheenvironmentandrequiringfewerresourceswhichcandecreasemaintenanceandreduceoverallcosts.

Realmsofknowledgemostrelevantandusefulforappropriatetechnologyincludephysics,materialsscience,engineering,architecture,anthropology,mathematicsandchemistrywhilespecificskillsincludecraft,manufacturing,construction,programmingand‘tinkering’.

Feedbacksandratesofchangeofdifferenttechnologiesdiffersignificantlywithinthetechnosphere.Builtcapitalsuchasinfrastructurecanchangeovercenturiesandevenovermillennia(e.g.MegalithictemplesofMalta,Egyptianpyramids,Stonehengeetc.)whileotherformsofbuiltcapitalsuchassingleusedisposableconsumablescanchangewithinhours.Feedback

fromlargeinfrastructureprojectsforexample,alsohappenatvarioustimescales.Userbehavioursandcollectivepatternsofuseforhighwaysemergeoverweeks,monthsandyearswhileperformanceanddurabilityfeedbackmightemergeafterdecades.FeedbackonInformationTechnologythroughuserexperiencecanbereceivedalmostinstantaneouslywhiletheimpactsthesetechnologieshaveoncultureandsocietymaytakedecadesorgenerationstoemerge.

“Good designers must always be avant-gardists, always one step ahead of the times. They should – and must – question everything generally thought to be obvious. They must have an intuition for people’s changing attitudes. For the reality in which they live, for their dreams, their desires, their worries, their needs, their living habits. They must also be able to assess realistically the opportunities and bounds of technology.” Dieter Rams


APPENDICES


18RESILIOSTUDIO

A_ GLOSSARYADAPTIVE MANAGEMENTAstructured,iterativeprocessofdecisionmakinginthefaceofuncertainty,withanaimtoreducinguncertaintyovertimeviasystemmonitoring.

AGILEAmethodofdesignandprojectmanagementthatischaracterizedbythedivisionoftasksintoshortphasesofworkandfrequentreassessmentandadaptations.

BIOMIMICRYAnapproachtoinnovationthatseekssustainablesolutionstohumanchallengesbyemulatingnature’stime-testedpatternsandstrategies.Thegoalistocreateproducts,processes,andpolicies-newwaysofliving-thatarewell-adaptedtolifeonearthoverthelonghaul.

ECOLITERACY / ECOLOGICAL LITERACYTheabilitytounderstandthenaturalsystemsthatmakelifeonearthpossible.Tobeecoliteratemeansunderstandingtheprinciplesoforganizationofecologicalcommunities(i.e.ecosystems)andusingthoseprinciplesforcreatingsustainablehumancommunities.

EMPATHY MAPPINGTheprocessofrecordingandinterpretingyourobservationsfromanempathicpointofview.Thepurposeofempathymappingistosee,experienceandunderstandthechallengethroughthepointofviewofthosedirectlyimpactedbyorinfluencingthischallenge.Mappingempathicobservationsallowsdesignerstoorganisetheirthoughtsinaspecificmannercentredonthewords,actions,thoughtsandfeelingsofthetargetaudiencethedesignerneedstounderstand.

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCHTheinvestigationofaculturethroughanin-depthstudyofthemembersoftheculture;itinvolvesthesystematiccollection,description,andanalysisofdatafordevelopmentoftheoriesofculturalbehavior.

PERMACULTUREAsystemoflandscape,technologicalandsocialdesignprinciplescenteredonsimulatingordirectlyutilizingthepatternsandfeaturesobservedinnaturalecosystems.

PROTOTYPINGPrototypingisaspecificgenerativestrategythatinvolvestestingsmallscaleexperiments,‘rapidfire’examplesor‘mockups’ofanideatolearnmoreaboutthechallengeandtestandexplorepossiblesolutions.Prototypingalsoprovidesdesignersanopportunitytotestsmalleraspectsofamuchlargerprojectand/orforcollaborators,keystakeholdersandenduserstoexperience,testandfeedbackintothedesignprocessearlyandoften.

RESILIENCE THINKINGAnapproachtomanagingcomplexsystemswhichrecogniseshumanandnaturalsystemsascomplexentitiescontinuallyadaptingthroughcyclesofchange,andseekstounderstandthequalitiesofasystemthatmustbemaintainedorenhancedinordertoachievesustainability.Itexplainswhygreaterefficiencybyitselfcannotsolvemanymodernenvironmental,resource,technologicalandsocialchallenges.Twocentralthemesunderpinresiliencethinking:AdaptiveCycleandThresholds.

TACTICAL URBANISMAdesignmethodologythatinvolvesanumberoftemporary‘designexperiments’,oftendescribedasthe‘lighter,‘quicker,cheaper’approachtoplacemaking.These‘experiments’testthedesign,programmeandarrangementofapublicspace(suchasastreet)inalow-cost,low-riskandlow-commitmentway.Theaimisthattheseexperimentsaremeasuredforeffectivenessandthosethatworkareeitherleftinplace,orimplementedinamorepermanentmanner.


B_ END NOTES INTRODUCTION1. Birkeland,J.(2008).Positive development: From vicious circles

to virtuous cycles through built environment design. LondonUK:Earthscan.

2. Papanek,V.(1971).Design for the real world: Human ecology and social change. NewYork,NY:PantheonBooks.

KEY CONCEPTS3. Wiseman,T.(1996).Aconceptanalysisofempathy.

Journal of Advanced Nursing, 23(6),1162-1167.Retrievedfromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/227941757_A_concept_analysis_of_empathy

4. Walker,B.,&Salt,D.(2006).Resilience thinking: Sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing world.Washington,DC:IslandPress.

5. Comfort,L.K.,Boin,A.,&Demchak,C.(Eds).(2010).Designing resilience: Preparing for extreme events. Pittsburgh,PA:UniversityofPittsburghPress.

6. Medium to large projects refer to any building project larger than small - medium family home and includes most public infrastructure projects such as streets, parks, dams, bridges etc.

7. Beck,K.,Beedle,M.,vanBennekum,A.,Cockburn,A.,Cunningham,W.,Fowler,M.,...Thomas,D.(2001).Principles behind the agile manifesto. Retrievedfromhttp://agilemanifesto.org/principles.html

8. Braungart,M.,&McDonough,W.(2002).Cradle to cradle: Remaking the way we make things. NewYork,NY:NorthPointPress.

9. Putman,R.D.(2000).Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community.NewYork,NY:Simon&SchusterPaperbacks.

10. Greer,J.M.(2005).How civilizations fall: A theory of catabolic collapse. Retrievedfromhttp://ecoshock.org/transcripts greer_on_collapse.pdf

REALMS OF DESIGN11. Baumeister,D.(2014).Biomimicryresourcehandbook:A

seedbankofbestpractices.Missoula,MT:Biomimicry3.8.

20RESILIOSTUDIO

C_ REFERENCES + RESOURCESDESIGN THEORY • Alexander,C.(1964).Notes on the synthesis of form.

Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.• ChangingMinds.(2015).Creating Minds.Retrievedfrom

http://creatingminds.org/• Lidwell,W.,Holden,K.,&Butler,J.(2010).Universal principles

of design: 125 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design. Beverly,MA:Rockport.

• Riverdale,&IDEO.(n.d.).Design Thinking for Educators. Retrievedfrom http://www.designthinkingforeducators.com/

• TEDConferencesLLC.(n.d.).Tim Brown: Designers - think big!Retrievedfromhttps://www.ted.com/talks/tim_brown_urges_designers_to_think_big

DESIGN THINKING TOOLS• IDEO.org.(n.d.).Design kit resources: The field guide to

human-centered design.Retrievedfromhttp://www.designkit.org/resources/1

• Kumar,V.(2013).101designmethods:astructuredapproachfordrivinginnovationinyourorganization.Hoboken,N.J:Wiley.

• Nesta.(n.d.).Development impact and you (DIY): Practical tools to trigger & support social innovation. Retrievedfromhttp://diytoolkit.org/

• Nesta.(n.d.).Prototyping framework: A guide to prototyping new ideas.Retrievedfromhttp://www.nesta.org.uk/publications/prototyping-framework

• StanfordUniversityInstituteofDesign.(2016).Tools for taking action.Retrievedfromhttps://dschool.stanford.edu/resources

KEY CONCEPTS• Fleming,D.,&Chamberlin,S.(2016).Leanlogic:adictionary

forthefutureandhowtosurviveit.WhiteRiverJunction,VT:ChelseaGreenPublishing.

• Martenson,C.,Taggart,A.,&Kiyosaki,R.T.(2015).Prosper!: how to prepare for the future and create a world worth inheriting: more information you can’t afford to live without. Scottsdale,AZ:RDAPress.

• Walker,B.,&Salt,D.(2006).Resilience thinking: Sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing world.Washington, DC:IslandPress.

ECOLOGICAL DESIGN • Baumeister,D.(2014).Biomimicry resource handbook: A seed

bank of best practices. Missoula,MT:Biomimicry3.8.• Holmgren,D.(2002).Permaculture: principles and pathways

beyond sustainability. Hepburn,Victoria:HolmgrenDesignServices.

• Marsh,W.M.(2010).Landscape planning: environmental applications.Hoboken,NJ:Wiley.

SOCIAL INNOVATION• Camponeschi,C.(n.d.).Enabling city. Retrievedfromhttp://

enablingcity.com/• LEANSTACK.(2017).Business model canvas optimised for

lean startup: Lean canvas. Retrievedfromhttps://leanstack.com/leancanvas

• Manzini,E.,&Coad,R.(2015).Design, when everybody designs an introduction to design for social innovation. Cambridge,MA:TheMITPress.

• NewEconomicsFoundation.(n.d.).New economics foundation. Retrievedfrom http://neweconomics.org/

• SocialLaboratoriesLtd.(n.d.).The social labs revolution.Retrievedfrom http://social-labs.com/

• ThePresencingInstitute-OttoScharmer.(2015).Presencing Institute. Retrievedfromhttps://www.presencing.com/

• TransitionNetwork.(2016).Transition network.Retrievedfromhttp://transitionnetwork.org/

• Wisdom2.0.(2014).From ego-system to eco-system economies: Otto Scharmer.Retrievedfromhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcbB1I__BmM

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY• Beck,K.,Beedle,M.,vanBennekum,A.,Cockburn,A.,

Cunningham,W.,Fowler,M.,...Thomas,D.(2001).Principlesbehindtheagilemanifesto.Retrievedfromhttp://agilemanifesto.org/principles.html

• Braungart,M.,&McDonough,W.(2002).Cradletocradle:Remakingthewaywemakethings.NewYork,NY:NorthPointPress.

• DeDecker,K.(n.d.).Low-techMagazine.Retrievedfromhttp://www.lowtechmagazine.com/

• InternationalLivingFutureInstitute.(2017).The Living Future Institute Homepage. Retrievedfromhttps://living-future.org/

• Alsosee:• InternationalLivingFutureInstitute.(2017).Living

Building Challenge.Retrievedfromhttps://living-future.org/lbc/

• InternationalLivingFutureInstitute.(2017).Living Community Challenge.Retrievedfromhttps://living-future.org/lcc/

• InternationalLivingFutureInstitute.(2017).Living Product Challenge.Retrievedfromhttps://living-future.org/lpc/

THE DESIGN PROCESS A PRIMER - Making Permaculture ......Designer and educator Victor Papanek observed that “design is basic to all human activities”2. We believe that everyone

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