The Daoist Hero’s Tale: Moral Doctrine in the Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan Stories of Lü Dongbin

The Daoist Hero’s Tale:

Moral Doctrine in the Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan Stories of Lü Dongbin

A Thesis

Presented to

The Division of Literature and Languages

Reed College

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Arts

Antonio C. Marín

May 2015

Approved for the Division

(Chinese)

Jing Jiang

Acknowledgments

I would like to begin by acknowledging the Dao without which none of this

would be possible. Next, I thank my parents for all their patience, care, and support as I

traveled the world in search of answers to questions I had never really made clear to

them. I thank my older brother for teaching me the value of being player two. I thank

Victoria James, whose thoughtfulness and importance to my heart, mind and body cannot

be described. I thank my family, friends, and kindred spirits. I thank Ye Ayi and my 道家

at 興毅純陽聖道院, my wonderful hosts in Taiwan and fellow seekers. I would also like

to thank Yaxin Zhang for reminding me how exciting my thesis topic was, when even I

had nearly forgotten. I would like to thank and acknowledge Reed College and the

department of Chinese Literature, specifically Jing Jiang (for always keeping it 100),

Alexei Ditter and Hyong Rhew, who always believed in my capacity to write this thesis,

despite my best attempts to prove them otherwise. I would like to thank and acknowledge

Jennifer M. Byers for ruining a perfectly good spa day in Kunming for exactly the right

reasons, even though I did not understand it then. I would like to thank Stephen Kory for

sharing his excitement for divination and for always being willing to talk (inconstant)

Dao with my colleagues and me. I thank Douglas Fix for his insistence on referring to

Reedies as “colleagues”. I would like to thank Dave Barrett for teaching me the

importance of making time for Taichi. I would like to thank and acknowledge Inspectah

Deck, GZA, RZA and the Wu Tang clan for their inspiration and motivation (ANTFW).

Finally, I would like to thank you, the reader, for taking the time out of your busy day to

read this specific document.

Preface

In my own narrative, I am entirely composed of stories. It is through that

framework that I begin my search. It is a search to understand, a search to expand beyond

boundaries unexplored, and a search for true pedagogy. That is the search that brought

me to the topic of the Eight Immortals, or as I prefer to stylize the term after the work of

Robert Campany, the Eight Transcendents of Daoism. In the following chapters, I will

seek to answer a number of questions about the Eight Immortals as pertains to their

importance to oral traditions, religious implications, popular memory and veneration.

The story of how I stumbled upon Wugou Daoren’s Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan and

how it came to be the topic of my senior thesis is in some ways as exciting as the Ba Xian

De Dao Zhuan itself. It is unclear whether the subject of xian first arose in my Chinese

Humanities class or my Tang poetry class, but for some reason the idea of “transcending”

resonated with some part of me. As I began searching for what would one day become

my thesis topic, I of course started my search where most people from my generation

start searching: the internet. Perhaps it is because of this somewhat impulsive reaction to

curiosity that I was exposed to the plethora of stories about the Eight Immortals freely

circulated online. Though my skills with Mandarin were only just developing, I managed

to navigate to a website that had posted the entirety of Wugou Daoren’s Ba Xian De Dao

Zhuan. It was at this point that I suddenly remembered the names of these characters

from a television show that my roommate in Beijing enjoyed watching. I wondered to

myself whether or not these could be the same characters. I wondered why they were so

popular, whether or not they had any real connection to Daoist beliefs or practices, and

why I had not encountered any mention of them in my studies.

I sent the text via email to my professor, Alexei Ditter, who was patient enough to

sit down with me and begin reading. When I told him my intentions to write a thesis on

Wugou’s text, he laughed and told me that I would have to read all of it. I accepted his

proposition and agreed to undertake the task, despite not truly understanding the depth

and complexity of the work. It took me months to read and twice as long to figure out

how to say anything coherent about it.

This thesis should in no way be considered a complete study of Lü Dongbin, or

even a complete study of Wugou Daoren’s Lü Dongbin. This thesis should be considered

as a starting point, a Yellow Millet Dream, an attempt to wake up the reader to the world

of the spirits and immortals that still exists in the hearts and minds of the people as much

as in the books and movies. This is the tap to a wellspring of meaningful, vivid, and

relevant tales that represent a tradition of alternate histories influenced by the cosmic and

popular.

Throughout the course of this argument I will be following the Chicago Manual

of Style’s guidelines for in-line citations. For those readers unfamiliar with this method, it

reads (Last Name Page Number) for secondary sources and (Title Page Number) for my

primary text. As rendered in the text below, (Pu 3) would correspond to the third page of

Pu Jiangqing’s Ba Xian Kao. Likewise (BXDDZ 1) would correspond to the first page of

the Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan (here the title is abbreviated to save space and trees).

While this method is sometimes considered clumsy, I have chosen to employ it in

this instance in light of the changing landscape of the publishing/editing field. Files that

employ the use of footnotes are often misaligned when converted between file formats as

is required when editing in cloud-based software. I considered endnotes as a solution, but

found that flipping between pages was not always simple when viewing in a digital

format. As such, the simplest solution was to restrict citations and integrate important

notes into the main body of the text.

Table of Contents

Morality and Cosmology in the Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan ............................................... 1  

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1  

Prophecy of Decline ...................................................................................................... 12  

Prophecy of a Savior ..................................................................................................... 15  

Past Lives, Present Lives .............................................................................................. 17  

Familial Obligations and the Conflict of Embodiment ............................................... 23  

A Bodily Conundrum .................................................................................................... 31  

Rejecting the Trodden Path ........................................................................................... 32  

The Way Out ................................................................................................................. 34  

Transcending the Mind: Learning about perception, redemption, and completion in Lü Dongbin’s Dao ........................................................................................................... 41  

Lü Dongbin and the White Snake ................................................................................. 42  

Lü Dongbin’s Three Tests of Baimudan ....................................................................... 45  

Lü Dongbin Visits He Xiangu’s Grotto ........................................................................ 52  

Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 57  

Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 59  

Abstract

Broadly construed, this thesis is an examination of the (re)creation and spread of

Daoist moral doctrine in 19th century China through the vehicle of popular literature. In

this thesis I analyze the novel entitled Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan or The Biographies of the

Eight Immortals Attaining the Dao, by the author Wugou Daoren. Using stories from the

life of Lü Dongbin, the youngest of the Eight Immortals, I argue that the Ba Xian De Dao

Zhuan is a text written for the dual purpose of spreading the stories of the immortals and

for teaching Daoist moral doctrine through said stories. I begin by describing the

relationship between morality and cosmology that frames the earliest parts of Lü

Dongbin’s story. Next I examine the relationship between physical embodiment and

morality as it pertains to the early adolescence and young adult life of Lü Dongbin.

Finally, I scrutinize the interactions between Lü Dongbin and the three major female

characters in his story, He Xiangu, Baishe, and Baimudan, in an attempt to understand

how cosmology, morality, and embodiment factor into Lü’s journey towards transcendent

immortality.

“列公聽者， 從來說神仙本是凡人做，只怕凡人心不堅’”

－無垢道人

To my nephew, Aiden Cole Marín

Born on the same day as this thesis

Morality and Cosmology in the Ba Xian De Dao

Zhuan

Introduction

China’s Eight Immortals (八仙 ba xian), or Eight Transcendents, in order of

appearance according to Wugou Daoren’s tales are Zhang Guolao (張果老), Zhongli

Quan (鍾離權), He Xiangu (何仙姑), Cao Guojiu (曹國舅), Li Tieguai (李鐵柺), Lan

Caihe (藍採和), Han Xiangzi (韓湘子), and Lü Dongbin (呂洞賓). In various formats,

these figures and their characters have been present in cultural artifacts since the early

Han dynasty (206 BCE-9CE, 23-220) (Pu 3). Since that time, the Eight Immortals have

been described and depicted in oral tales, short stories, poems, plays, operas, television

dramas and video games. In each instance and incarnation, they are portrayed in varying

ways and used to express a plethora of distinct ideas. It seems every generation has its

own version of the Eight Immortals and because of this flexibility, the traditional

characters, or at least forms of the Eight, remain relevant to contemporary Chinese

society. Of their various exploits, the Eight Immortals as a group are perhaps most

popularly famous for the stories of their crossing over and/or return to the mythical island

of Penglai (蓬萊). This story is the last chapter of the one hundred chapters that make up

the Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan.

The subject of this study is a novel about the Eight Immortals that was written in

the twilight of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) and published at the dawn of the post-

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imperial Republic of China. The mysterious and enigmatic author, an otherwise unknown

Daoist practitioner-adept (Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan 1, from this point BXDDZ),

anticipating the fall of the dynasty recorded these tales as a means of protecting and

preserving an authoritative record of his Daoist tradition of narrative and as a way to

revive and revitalize belief in Daoist moral teaching in an ideologically volatile era. By

weaving together elements of traditional storytelling and elements from various traditions

of Daoist belief, Wugou Daoren (無垢道人 wugou daoren) creates a text that is meant to

instigate and participate in a revival of religious Daoism. For the purposes of this study, I

will focus on the story of one immortal in particular, Lü Dongbin 呂洞賓. In this chapter

I will analyze the storytelling and moral doctrinal elements of the eightieth and eighty-

first chapters of the BXDDZ to demonstrate the way in which Wugou Daoren weaves

those elements together to inspire a renewal in the belief of Daoist teachings in the hearts

and minds of his readers.

According to the author’s appended preface, the text of the The Biography of the

Eight Immortals Attaining the Dao (八仙得道傳 Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan), also known as

the Complete Book of the Eight Immortals (八仙全書 Ba Xian Quan Shu) (BXDDZ 1),

was completed in 1868. The author, Wugou Daoren, states in his preface that the stories

are based on folk tales that were handed down from generation to generation for hundreds

of years (BXDDZ 1). According to the editor-appended preface, the original manuscript

of the text was destroyed during the events of the Tai Ping rebellion (1850-1864) and

then reconstructed and recompiled by Wugou Daoren in 1868. That manuscript then

remained unpublished until 1935 (BXDDZ 1). The story of how this manuscript came

into existence and the obstacles it faced in its production is one that, rather than call into

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question the veracity of the text, is meant to bestow an air of mystery to the work.

Whether or not any of it is fabricated would be difficult, if not impossible, to prove. But

the fact that such a story is included in the preface to the work is indicative of the way

such texts would have been marketed to potential readers. The editor alludes to the

possibility that this work was spared by heavenly powers when he presents this text as

one that has survived the perils of war and destruction.

The preface of the BXDDZ states that Wugou Daoren was an abbot at the famed

White Cloud Monastery (白雲觀 Baiyunguan) in Beijing, who originally hailed from E

mei Mountain (峨眉山 Emeishan, BXDDZ 1). His name is not to be understood as one

given at birth, but rather as a stylized name chosen in a religious setting that transforms

into/doubles as a stylized element of the work as a whole. The translation that I offer for

the characters that constitute his name literally mean without-soil/stain-Dao-person.

Without-soil is another way of saying pure. The word purity has been given many

different denotations and connotations in the history of its use, but I would like to draw

particular attention to the usage of the word “purity” in describing moral qualities.

Wugou's name emphasizes the fact that morally, he is without blame or without soil and

thus is trustworthy. When he then adopts the mantle of narrator, the reader is given the

sense that Wugou is delivering a tale as pure as he himself claims to be. Wugou derives

authenticity from his moral authority in order to create an authoritative text. The doctrinal

renewal that Wugou Daoren seeks to achieve through writing is also a form of moral

purification.

As a morally invested narrator, Wugou seeks to correct the tales of the Eight

Immortals by creating an authoritative compendium of their stories. Wugou states in his

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self appended preface, “Those who study [the Eight Immortals] after me, have the facts

and forget their origins, which are of Daoist (daojia) concern and also address the

responsibilities of one’s body” “後之學者，容有數典而忘祖者，是道家之忧，亦吾身

之責也” (BXDDZ 1) Wugou claims he wishes to create a trustworthy account of the

Eight Immortals that remains true to the Daoist nature of the tales. The compiler’s

preface claims that Wugou Daoren wrote his text in part to rectify the tales of the Eight

Immortals and in part to communicate the high level teachings of his Daoist abbey,

paying particular attention to novices. For example, the “Tale of Baimudan” is singled

out in the preface as one of the stories that was corrected (BXDDZ 1). This story will be

addressed in greater detail in later chapters, but the author of the preface states that the

title of the story changed from “Lü Dongbin’s Three Teases of Bai Mudan” “呂洞賓三戲

白牡丹” to “Lü Dongbin’s Three Tests of Bai Mudan” “呂洞賓三試白牡丹”. Rather

than a title for a story of flirtation, this title becomes the story of a test of character and

eligibility for intervention by the immortals.

According to the compiler’s preface, Wugou himself was no ordinary man.

Orphaned and destitute after the death of his father and the remarriage of his mother,

Wugou was taken in by a cultivated Daoist abbot named Zhi Yuan (志元), who

recognized his talented nature when Wugou was only a child. Due to this talented nature,

Wugou was able to quickly and completely absorb all of Zhi Yuan’s “mystical arts” (深

習學功, BXDDZ 1), thus gradually increasing his understanding of the Dao. Once his

reputation began to increase among the local people, Wugou took to traveling (so as not

to be bothered), and made himself difficult to contact. Despite this, there was one

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government official (觀察 guancha), named Lu Jingfu (陸敬甫) who was saved from

death when Wugou intervened on his behalf. Lu then became his disciple and lived until

he was 80 years old (BXDDZ 2). It was to this disciple that Wugou initially transmitted

his work in the hopes that it would one day be passed on to the general public. From this

story, it is clear that Wugou lived many of the experiences described in his Ba Xian De

Dao Zhuan and it is from these lived experiences that he derives his authority as a keeper

and transmitter of the stories of the Eight Immortals.

Wugou establishes trustworthiness and authority in his storytelling through more

than just his name alone. At the beginning of the eightieth chapter the narrator makes

some statements that frame the narrative to come as verifiable truth. The narrator begins

by dismissing casual hearsay that Zhang Tianshi and other celestial masters sometimes

fight demons with their urine (尿 niao, BXDDZ 495). The reason why this technique

works in the story, according to hearsay, is that yang qi is concentrated in the celestial

master's urine. The narrator claims that he does not know anything about the validity of

this method. Through this statement he absolves himself of the potential accusation that

his stories are nothing but outlandish superstition. Wugou Daoren further refrains from

making claims about the legitimacy of these practices. He does this in order to establish

his own tale as one that is true in opposition to what the readers may have heard

elsewhere. He finally states that if the readers do not believe that the events he is about to

describe are true, they can “go travel to Longhu Mountain and verify” (可到龍虎山上去

調查一番, 真真假假,就可徹底明白了) (BXDDZ 495). Because the narrator urges the

audience to consider this story in a truthful light, the comparison to hearsay represents on

a narrative level his version of the story as verifiable truth. This is one instance where

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Wugou Daoren purifies the story of dubious information. These opening remarks are a

device that frames the story in the element of truth and establish Wugou as a reliable

narrator. By establishing validity in his own narrative, Wugou also establishes validity in

the stories and the doctrine.

The scholar Xun Liu, in his book Daoist Modern, states, “During the seventeenth

century… the Longman sect of the monastic Quanzhen sect (全真道 quanzhendao, also

known as Complete Reality) at the White Cloud monastery in Beijing witnessed a

remarkable moral and institutional renewal” (Liu 35). The BXDDZ participated in the

development of these moral renewals. This text is not simply one of moral renewal.

Rather, it is one of a greater renewal in Daoist teachings. The author uses literary and

storytelling elements to represent the teachings or doctrine of Daoism in a way that helps

the reader understand and relate to the teachings.

There are multiple schools or sects of religious Daoism. Incorporated into Wugou

Daoren’s text are representations of doctrinal elements from many of those schools. In

one section of the story the narrator introduces Celestial Master Zhang (張道陵 Zhang

Daoling c. 34 to c. 156 CE), also known as Zhang Tianshi (張天師), the founder of the

Celestial Masters (天師道 Tianshidao) school of religious Daoism. His role in this story

is that of a sheriff-like figure, a protector, and enforcer of the laws of heaven (BXDDZ

495). The historical Zhang Tianshi was the leader of what would become known as the

Five Pecks of Rice Movement. This movement came about at the end of the Han Dynasty

as a religious Daoist revival in response to the fall of Han social hierarchies and state

Confucian practice (Hendrischke 140). Its adherents claimed a desire to purify the world

of what they perceived to be decadence and greed. In this tale, Zhang Tianshi disciplines

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the world of ghosts and demons with the goal of maintaining the way of Heaven. By

incorporating Zhang Tianshi into his tale, Wugou Daoren makes his text relevant to those

practitioners who claim belief in that lineage, or permutations of that lineage, of religious

Daoist tradition. He also connects the figures of the Eight Immortals back to one of the

earliest known forms of religious Daoism.

Wugou Daoren also makes his text relevant to those who claim belief in the

Perfect Realization lineage of religious Daoism. The Perfect Realization school,

sometimes called the Complete Reality (全真 Quanzhen) school, originated in northern

China around the twelfth century. Its origins are often attributed to Wang Chongyang (王

重陽) who claimed to have encountered immortals (Komjathy 45). By incorporating

many different schools and lineages of religious Daoism thought, Wugou Daoren is able

to broaden his target audience to include anyone with any possible experience with

religious Daoism. Wugou unifies all the previous teachings of Daoist sects in one

continuous story, and this enables him to relate his message of revival to as many people

as possible.

The style of writing also helps Wugou Daoren relate his message to a broad

audience. The narrator ends the eightieth chapter by encouraging his readers to read the

next chapter if they are interested in finding out what Lü’s father had to say. Wugou then

begins the eighty-first chapter by briefly describing the incident saying, “Now the story

goes Lü Dongbin spoke to his father an other worldly and great statement…” (BXDDZ

501) Wugou begins and ends every chapter with similar phrases. This style of writing,

while certainly not unique to this story, is worth noting because of the way in which

Wugou Daoren takes advantage of the form for his own purposes. Firstly, in the preface,

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Wugou Daoren claims that these tales where handed down orally from one generation to

the next (BXDDZ 1). By beginning and ending every chapter with these types of

statements, not only is Wugou creating an incentive for his readers to continue with the

story, he is also mimicking an oral style of delivery. Because Wugou always reminds his

readers of what happened in the last chapter, he makes the tale accessible for those who

might not have heard the events that immediately preceded that chapter. This text then

serves a double purpose: not only can it be read in quiet study, but also it can be read

(individually or sequentially) aloud to many listeners. The second notable detail about

this style of writing is its didactic qualities. Wugou Daoren writes this work with the

intention that it be shared among many people; the more people hear and share the tale,

the more the book can participate in the revival and renewal of Daoist beliefs.

This mimicking of an oral technique has been historically important to the

spreading of the stories of Lü Dongbin. In his book "Images of the Immortal: The cult of

Lü Dongbin at the Palace of Eternal Joy," Paul R. Katz claims, "The Perfect Realization

Movement's [c. 12 century] success appears in large part attributed to faith in the spiritual

powers and benevolent nature of Perfect Realization masters and the immortals like Lü

Dongbin these masters adopted as patriarchs of their movement"(Katz 71). Katz

attributes the spread of and continued belief in the powers of Lü Dongbin in large part to

the masters who circulated his tales for over 600 years until Wugou Daoren wrote them

down. Though never explicitly claiming to be a master of the Perfect Realization School,

Wugou Daoren presents himself as an authority on the stories of the Eight Immortals and

Daoist moral teachings in general. As such he is fulfilling the role of the master by

spreading and reviving the tales of Lü Dongbin. Katz later claims, "Perfect Realization

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masters spread their doctrine through a wide range of media including sermons and

lectures, poems and songs, fiction, drama, and the visual medium" (Katz 71). Katz states

that one of the ways doctrine was spread was through works of fiction. In his preface,

Wugou claims that in order to allow beginners to study the Daoist doctrine, he has,

through a process of conscious mimicking, attempted to copy the style of popular

literature at the time (BXDDZ 1). Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan then falls into this stylistic

category of fiction. Despite his use of the word zhuan (傳), a term typically understood

and usually translated as biography (often with a didactic connotation), Wugou Daoren

instead writes with a religious agenda in the genre of a popular novel. Ba Xian De Dao

Zhuan is a text written for the dual purpose of spreading the stories of the immortals and

for teaching Daoist doctrine through said stories.

Another acceptable translation of the term zhuan in this context would be the

word “transmissions” (Cahill 23), following the work of Suzanne E. Cahill, who defines

zhuan as “texts of teachings that have been transmitted from one person (or deity) to

another” (Cahill 23). This is applicable to the BXDDZ because the editor’s preface

asserts that the text was written after Wugou Daoren had received the complete teachings

of a Daoist fashi (法師, abbot) named Zhi Yuan (志元), and then subsequently passed the

text on to a former bureaucrat named Lu Jingfu (陸敬甫), recompiled by one Di’an

Daoren (滌庵道人), and finally edited and published by Xu Qinfu (許廑父). Through

recounting this lineage of caretakers and overseers, the text can be understood as a

transmission from a master to his disciples and the use of the term zhuan in the title of the

text can be understood as possessing the qualities of a heavenly transmission.

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Throughout the course of the BXDDZ, Wugou Daoren recounts the stories of the

Eight Immortals and explains the intimate details of how the Eight eventually came to be

grouped together. The novel begins with the oldest of the Eight and proceeds

chronologically, slowly folding one immortal’s story into another’s. Though a recount of

the exact details of all of these stories is beyond the scope of this project, the most

frequent form of first contact from one immortal and another (as will be demonstrated in

later chapters), is through some form of pedagogy. That is to say that the reason why the

Eight Immortals are grouped together is because they have been masters to, or students

of, one another and helped each other achieve transcendence.

The way this transcendence is rendered in Wugou’s story is referred to as dedao (

得道). This term can be variously translated as “attain the Dao” or “obtain the Dao”.

Though the term dedao is of central concern to these stories, it is never fully expounded

upon or described in detail. Rather, there are simply moments in the text where the

narrator states that a character has attained the Dao, usually after completing a benevolent

task or overcoming a morally charged obstacle. Once a character has attained the Dao,

they no longer act contrary to the Dao thereby achieving one of the most sublime goals of

religious and philosophical Daoism, unity with the cosmic Dao. For the purposes of this

work, dedao can be considered the goal of the characters of the story. It can also be

considered the end result of abiding by the teachings and living lives similar to those of

previous transcendents contained in the BXDDZ.

The story of one of the Eight Immortals, Lü Dongbin, begins in chapter eighty

with the delivery of a prophecy of decline and renewal. Though this section of the tale is

a continuation of a larger story, it is also a beginning. It is a beginning that starts with a

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prophecy of the end of the reader’s known world. The beginning is signified by the birth

of a hero. Wugou Daoren tells the reader in the eightieth chapter that the world is

plummeting into chaos as a result of a cosmic imbalance of yinqi (陰氣) and yangqi (陽

氣). Lü Dongbin, reincarnation of the powerful Donghua Dijun (東華帝君) is prophesied

to restore cosmic balance to the universe.

The eighty-first chapter of Wugou Daoren’s Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan continues

following the character of Lü Dongbin. After a few years studying under Zhongli Quan,

his private tutor, Lü angers his father when he delivers his judgment of the value of

Confucian classic texts. In his evaluation, Lü claims that the concepts taught in these

texts are not the true way to lasting order. Wugou says that his father gets angry, but

refrains from going into details just yet. If the eightieth chapter was the point at which a

prophecy is delivered, the eighty-first is the point at which that prophecy begins to be

fulfilled, after what at first appears as a hindrance. Before our intrepid hero Lü Dongbin

can learn to save the world, he must first come to understand what it means to have a

specifically proscribed role within that world. In order to do this, he must make a life

altering decision, forsaking the Confucian path of his father for the Daoist path of his true

self.

Beginning with a prophecy of decline that describes the impending doom as a

result of immorality and consequent cosmological imbalance, the stage is set for the birth

of a savior figure. This figure is connected from one Daoist to another through past and

present lives. In his present life he must also grapple with the question: How should one

save the world and lead people back to the Dao, while fulfilling Confucian obligation to

one’s family? The process of being born into the world (via physical, human body)

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though necessary to the process of saving the world creates ties to family members. In

order to save that family and the rest of the world, those ties must be turned away,

rejected in both words and actions. In an ideological sense, that which must be rejected is

Confucian teachings, but in a practical sense it can be described as worldly concerns.

Prophecy of Decline

In the eightieth chapter, the immortal Zhang Guolao informs Zhang Tianshi of the

impending cosmic doom. Zhang Guolao appears and reveals to Zhang Tianshi the

coming disaster in a scene that depicts the two figures as old friends. Zhang Guolao

claims that the yin and the yang qi of the universe are in the process of being thrown out

of balance. This is a situation that was vaguely intuited by Zhang Tianshi’s lingguan 靈

官. Lingguan are spiritual officials, essentially assistants to a spiritual superior. In this

case, their master is Zhang Tianshi. The two lingguan discuss the situation involving

Zhang Faguan (張法官), an official who was previously a disciple of Zhang Guolao but

who has wronged the ghosts and whom the ghosts now rightfully resent. Because of this,

Zhang Tianshi showed them leniency even when they were trying to harm him. The

lingguan cannot decide whether showing compassion towards them is right or not. On

one hand, the lingguan understand that Zhang Faguan has wronged the ghosts and that

they seek justice as retribution. On the other hand, as spiritual protectors the lingguan

must keep ghosts in their place. This compassion, they worry, could be the root of a

bigger disaster, namely one that plunges the earth into destructive yin chaos and blurs the

lines between ghost and human.

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The message that Zhang Guolao delivers is no light warning. He is not simply

informing Zhang Tianshi (and the readers) of the workings of the universe and the

importance of balance. Rather, as Zhang Guolao states, “This is not a joking speech, for

the future will certainly hold this day”(BXDDZ 495). In stating that the future will hold

the day when the world falls out of balance, Zhang Guolao is delivering the prophecy of a

future that cannot be avoided without powerful intervening action from the immortals. In

this case prophecy is employed as a literary device that creates interest in the proceedings

of the chapter. This interest keeps readers engaged and learning about the workings of

Daoist cosmology and its connection to morality.

The main plot conflict in the story of (the as of yet unborn) Lü Dongbin will be,

as mentioned above, the fact that there are rising levels of yin qi in the universe that

threaten to destroy the balance between yin and yang (BXDDZ 496). When this happens

the entirety of heaven and earth will be plunged into a chaotic period presided over by

ghosts. The root of this issue, Zhang Guolao explains, is that people’s hearts are currently

too corrupted. This is the point at which Zhang Guolao makes a connection between the

Yin-yang theory and morality. According to Zhang Guolao, (BXDDZ 496) a pure heart is

not just associated with yang qi, but actually contributes to the amounts of yang qi in the

universe. As a result, people’s sinful actions are not only corrupt, but are also generating

yin qi at dangerous levels. Officials are taking bribes, commoners are no longer being

filial, and lasciviousness abounds (BXDDZ 496-97). With each transgression the cosmos

are thrown further and further out of balance. Because this is an issue of grave

consequence, and one caused by the evil in the hearts of many people, it makes sense that

14

the solution can only be one that affects positive change in the hearts of the people. One

possible solution to this problem is through moral rectification or purification.

Zhang Guolao also explains that there are two different types of chaos. Each

affects particular types of change in the universe, across all realms, human, ghost, or

otherwise. These two types of chaos are diametrically opposed to each other in nature.

The good (yang) chaos that was present at the primordial beginnings anticipates the

creation of the universe. According to Zhang Guolao this kind of chaos is characterized

by the purity of people's hearts. On the contrary, the bad (yin) chaos precipitates the

destruction of the universe, as it leads to the blurring of lines and the descent into another

kind of cosmological chaos. Zhang Guolao says that this type of yin chaos is generated by

moral impurities in people’s hearts (BXDDZ 495). The disappearance of proper

cosmological harmony is characterized by blurred lines between humans and ghosts,

living and nonliving, order and chaos, and generally undistinguished characteristics

between all things in the universe. Daoist cosmology and moral views are connected to

such an extent that if the morals are blurred, so too are the cosmological principles

keeping the universe ordered. A renewal of Daoist morals and teachings in general are

the way to keep the universe balanced and orderly. Wugou uses this exposition not only

to explain the plot elements of this qi imbalance, but also the beliefs of religious Daoist

cosmology and morality.

The actions that are a result of misguided hearts run the gamut of moral

transgressions. The first action specifically mentioned as a result of the increase in yin

energy is the corruption of officials. Promoting the uprightness of officials seems to have

a bit of a Confucian slant. Confucianism and Daoism at the time of the writing of this

15

book should not be considered mutually exclusive. Many of the notions of morality seem

to fall along the same lines as those of Confucian morality. When discussing what the

world would look like if overwhelmed by yin chaos, Zhang Guolao says that the officials

will be corrupt and the people will no longer be filial. Neither of these concepts, that is

purging political corruption and enforcing proper reverence in hierarchical relationships,

could be considered strictly Daoist. However, this text proves that neither should such

ideas be solely tied to Confucian belief and practice. Rather, by this time many of the

Daoist ideas of morality were influenced by the Confucian ideas and vice versa. This

being the case, if the text is to serve as Daoist revival literature, then it must be

considered in a larger light than simply that of moral renewal as it expands out to

cosmological renewal as well.

The far reaching implications of Zhang Guolao’s association between the moral

state of the age and upset levels yin and yang qi in the cosmos suggests this text is part of

something more than simply a renewal of morals. By connecting to and correlating with

the cosmology of Daoism, this text becomes a renewal of Daoist teachings as a whole.

Not only does the text impart a moral message through recognizable storytelling

techniques, it also educates the readers about Daoist cosmological beliefs and historical

personages in context. Through this education, Wugou Daoren seeks to participate in the

larger renewal of Daoist teachings and moral beliefs.

Prophecy of a Savior

There is also a major development in the larger plot in the eightieth chapter. This

chapter, in accord with its title, makes good on the promised birth of Lü Chunyang (呂純

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陽). Lü Chunyang, also known as Lü Dongbin (呂洞賓), is the hero born into this

troubled time. Zhang Guolao has prophesied his birth claiming that he is to be the one

who renews morals and revitalize Daoist teachings. The narrator says that he was born in

the Tang Dynasty, during the reign of Empress Wu (武則天 Wu Zetian 690-705 CE). As

implied by his epithet, chunyang, which literally means “pure yang”, Lü is born with a

natural abundance of pure yang qi. It is in this chapter that Wugou tells his readers that

Lü is the reincarnation of the immortal Donghua Dijun (東華帝君). Donghua Dijun was

a powerful immortal who instructed many others in the methods of transcendence. It is

for this reason that he is to be reborn as the savior Lü Dongbin and it is because of his

connections in previous lives that Lü becomes involved with the Eight Immortals. Lü is

born into a family with a long-standing tradition of government service based on the

mastering of Confucian teachings (BXDDZ 499). But he is about to break with this

tradition and embrace the renewal and revival of Daoist teachings. In this section, Wugou

uses Lü’s prophesied birth and the fulfillment of prophecy as a storytelling device that

advances the overall plot and allows Wugou to continue to deliver moral teachings.

As a savior figure, Lü not only claims a desire to save his father and family, but

also a desire to save the whole world. Lü boldly claims that he wishes to “take all people

born in the world and usher them together into the great Dao” (BXDDZ 501). He further

claims, “If there is even one person who does not obtain the Dao, I will not allow myself

to obtain the Dao” (BXDDZ 501). By positioning Lü Dongbin in this light, Wugou

depicts Lü as a savior figure and also explains why Lü remains in the mortal world even

after attaining the Dao. This idea of an immortal acting as a savior for humankind is part

of a larger trend in religious Daoist doctrine that, according to some scholars, originates

17

from Buddhist thought (Pu 6). Katz states, “One of the cornerstones of Perfect

Realization doctrine was faith in the existence of immortals who were willing to assist

devoted adepts in attaining immortality” (Katz 75). While I would not go as far as to

equate attaining immortality to obtaining or entering the Dao (though immortality is often

one result of obtaining the Dao), the notion that an immortal could come to help faithful

practitioners achieve a spiritual goal is persistent in the Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan. In this

chapter, Zhongli Quan has come to help Lü by expressing concern over Lü’s political

success because he fears it may hinder his ability to obtain the Dao. In previous chapters,

figures such as Lao Zi and Zhang Tianshi make semi-frequent appearances in order to

help ordinary people attain the Dao. Historically speaking, Lü was particularly connected

to the idea of helping others attain the Dao. Katz writes, “Lü’s knowledge of interior

alchemy receives far less attention than his compassion for others (慈悲 cibei) and

miraculous powers” (Katz 62) and later states that Lü Dongbin “acted out of compassion

for all humankind” (Katz 79). This portrayal of Lü Dongbin is in accord with Katz’s

description of Lü as a compassionate figure. As a child, Lü is filled with youthful hopes

and dreams about saving the world and reviving the Dao in the hearts of all. Lü’s hopes

then serve as a vehicle for the author’s message of Daoist revival. Wugou Daoren uses

this story element to express morally charged teachings about compassionate immortals.

Past Lives, Present Lives

During a conversation between Zhongli Quan and Lü, another plot point is

revealed. The young Lü intuits the true identity of Zhongli Quan. Lü tells Zhongli Quan

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that he believes Zhongli Quan is an immortal. Lü then proceeds to list his reasoning

behind this belief. Lü cites a number of stories from earlier in his life and explains why

he believes this to be the case. Part of this explanation is the story of Zhongli Quan’s

arrival at Lü’s house. Lü describes Zhongli Quan’s arrival as mysterious, even

miraculous. Zhongli Quan arrives at the house looking ragged and requesting to see the

head of the household, Lü’s father. Lü’s father, seeing the ragged state of Zhongli Quan’s

clothing, agrees to help him. After exchanging just a few lofty words, Lü’s father is

inspired to complete respect for this ragged traveller. Zhongli Quan then asks to serve as

Lü Dongbin’s in-house tutor and Lü’s father accepts (BXDDZ 502-03). To the young Lü

this is one of the signs that his teacher is no ordinary man. Like the Daoist immortals

portrayed in other tales, Zhongli Quan seems to appear out of thin air, drawn to Lü’s

house by some form of destiny. While the true motivations of Zhongli Quan remain

mysterious to other members of Lü’s household, for Lü it is clear why Zhongli Quan has

come. Lü believes that this mysterious stranger is here to teach him the Dao so that he

might use it one day to save the world. In actuality, this is only partially true. Though

Zhongli Quan is definitely there to guide and assist Lü as he learns how to save the

world, he is also there to make sure that Lü’s extraordinary talent does not distract him

from his original mission. Through foreshadowing and recollections of the past, Wugou

Daoren keeps readers engaged with Lü’s story and by extension his exposition on Daoist

moral doctrine.

There is another aspect to Lü Dongbin’s tutor that is worth revisiting in the

context of doctrinal renewal. Wugou Daoren tells his audience in one brief sentence, that

for five years Lü Dongbin was educated privately by one of the Eight Immortals, Zhongli

19

Quan (BXDDZ 499). This detail, mentioned however briefly is important in several

ways. Firstly it shows an innate connection to the Eight Immortals. That is to say, by

placing Zhongli Quan in the immediate vicinity of Lü Dongbin from an early point on,

the relationship is already established and easier to imagine. Secondly, it makes Zhongli

Quan into a figure of guidance. Because he is Lü’s teacher and Lü later displays an

affinity to Daoism, it is easy to infer that Zhongli Quan had some hand in the creation of

that affinity. In other words, Zhongli Quan has a hand in the revival of Daoist beliefs in

Lü himself. Finally, it highlights the importance of teaching Daoist beliefs from one

Daoist to another. This is echoed on multiple levels of the relationship between Lü and

Zhongli Quan. Wugou Daoren says that Lü is actually the spirit of Donghua Dijun, who

was Zhongli Quan’s teacher in the immortal realm. Now Donghua Dijun is born into the

human realm in the form of a young boy. Zhongli Quan is also there with his master

taking up the role as the tutor of the precious boy. A revival of Daoist teachings requires

those who are willing and able to teach. Zhongli Quan embodies this idea in the text, and

Wugou uses his character to relate the doctrinal message of teaching the Dao to others.

In the eighty-first chapter, while in conversation with Zhongli Quan, Lü describes

himself as “foolish” and “clever, but mischievous” (BXDDZ 503). He describes how he

had already scared off a number of teachers who were unable to guide him on to the

correct path. Zhongli Quan, however, is able to successfully educate Lü. After

completing this recount of their history, Lü directly states that he believes Zhongli Quan

is certainly an immortal from heaven who has connections to Lü through previous lives

and who has come to usher Lü through the gates of the Dao (我想師傳一定是位天上神

仙,許是前生有約,特地下凡來教诲弟子,引弟子入道門來的 BXDDZ 503). This is yet

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another depiction of the miraculous observational and deductive powers of the young Lü.

This is also a depiction of the resilience of connections formed through the Dao. In

previous chapters the author explains that Zhongli Quan and Lü Dongbin are indeed

related through interactions in previous lives. Donghua Dijun was Zhongli’s master and

would later be reborn as Lü Dongbin. This depiction of student master relationships

echoes the Confucian leanings of Lü’s father, but at the same time, transcends

Confucius's five relations by connecting individuals across lifetimes. This is yet another

way that the author frames the story in such a way as to assert the superiority of Daoism.

Whereas the Confucian relationships only connect groups in life and in death, the Daoist

version of these five relationships can extend all the way through death and rebirth. This

depiction of Daoist doctrine is one that claims Daoism’s doctrine as superior to, though

not fundamentally incompatible with Confucian doctrine.

This connection also forms a metaphor for the rebirth and revival of Daoism.

Wugou asserts through this tale that the teachings of Daoism can form the basis for

connections and relationships that transcend the mortal realm. Thus the teachings of

Daoism can be restored to believers even if they have been separated from the tradition in

this or other lifetimes. Through the connections between Lü and Zhongli, Wugou

demonstrates that the Dao persists through all realms and can be renewed by those who

seek to renew it. When compared to Confucian relations then, this depiction is meant to

display the superiority of and inspire the reader’s fervor for Daoist doctrine. Since

Daoism is clearly superior to Confucianism, the reader is urged to trust in Daoism, just as

Lü does.

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It is important to note that Zhongli Quan does not readily admit his immortal

status. He poses questions to the young Lü Dongbin such as “How could the world of

people have immortals?” and “How could an immortal run to the ordinary world to

substitute for people in teaching?”(BXDDZ 503). These questions are not meant to

dissuade Lü, but rather they are meant to make him question further, in hopes that he

might realize his own place among the immortals. These questions also serve an

additional purpose for the reader. Zhongli Quan is asking questions that are similar to

questions a non-believer might ask, but he is simultaneously the living answer to those

questions. Zhongli Quan is acting as a type of living proof that the immortals do still have

a hand in the realm of humans and that they can affect and manifest change. He is also

proof that the immortals are compassionate. As such the moral doctrinal teachings of

Daoism are still relevant to the world and should be revived in order to maintain harmony

and cosmic balance.

Familial Obligations and the Conflict of

Embodiment

The content of the eighty-first chapter of the Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan is focused on

themes of embodiment. In this chapter, Wugou Daoren begins by telling the reader a

more detailed version of the story that ended the last chapter. In this retelling, certain

details are elaborated upon so as to reinforce notions of renewal. The narrator begins by

telling the reader exactly what Lü’s father had to say after Lü expressed his opinions

about the Confucian classics. Lü’s father is offended by Lü’s remarks and begins

questioning how his son could even dare to disagree with the great master Confucius

(BXDDZ 501).

The objective of this chapter in Lü’s story is to teach the reader about the

importance of following the path of the Dao in comparison to the path of the Confucian.

Adding to the complexity of this lesson is the acknowledgement that the Confucian path

is and has been the mainstream doctrine in China for hundreds if not thousands, of years.

Adding yet more complexity to the story is the issue of filial piety and respecting the

wishes of one’s elders/parents. As made clear by the first chapter of the Xiaojing, or the

Confucian Classic of Filial Piety, a text dating back to approximately 400 BCE, “Your

physical person with its hair and skin are received from your parents. Vigilance in not

allowing anything to do injury to your person is where filial reverence begins ”

(Rosemont 105). According to the Confucian views, the physical body is a gift from

one’s parents and as such it is one’s duty to guard the physical body as a sign of

24

reverence for one’s parents. Religious Daoists, however, have called into question this

notion of filial piety since at least the fifth century. As Isabel Robinet paraphrases The

Daoist Cannon 465 33b, “The parents who give birth to us are not our ‘true’ parents, nor

is our body our own. It is only a temporary abode. Whoever attains the Dao no longer has

a shape or body, which is the source of all trouble and his ego or person is now one with

his spirit and forms with it his ‘true [body]’” (Robinet 156). Whereas the Confucian path

takes one’s birth parents and ancestors to be the epitome of hierarchical superposition and

one’s physical body to be the path to proper moral cultivation, the Daoist path reveres the

cosmic as true parents and treats the physical body as a vessel that traps the spirit and

prevents moral cultivation. Since these beliefs are clearly at odds with one another,

Wugou writes his story to valorize the Daoist viewpoint and uses the story of Lü

Dongbin’s embodiment to illustrate this argument for the uninitiated.

In this section of his life, Lü learns how and why to prioritize his goals, and most

importantly learns that if he is to fulfill his destiny as a Daoist hero, he must forsake his

family obligations. The main conflict of this segment of the story is Lü’s struggle to

understand why he must be reborn as a man. In addition to this struggle, Lü explores

what roles he must adopt as a man in a Confucian society and finally comes to understand

why he must inhabit a bodily form. In order to save the world, he must learn to leave his

world behind. In order to do this, first he must fully understand the social and personal

entanglements that come with a human body. By acting out this struggle, Lü’s story can

serve as an example for those attempting to or wishing to follow the Dao.

As a result of his divine favor, Lü is a natural scholar and prodigy and this is, in

part, the reason why this conflict arises in his story. Like many eminent figures before

25

him, Lü is capable of reading all of the advanced classics at a surprisingly young age and

is further able to memorize them in their entirety. Moreover he formulates judgments

about the texts that are wise beyond his years (he still has not yet hit the age of 8 at the

time). Lü claims that the texts espousing Confucian doctrine are "shallow and vulgar"

(BXDDZ 499). He further states that while the Confucian canon can help people stay

governed and orderly (治 zhi, BXDDZ 500) for some amount of time, such texts really

only help as long as everyone obeys the rules/doctrines of Confucianism to the utmost

extent. As such, Lü Dongbin depicts Confucianism as a temporary social fix, rather than

the lasting cosmic solution. To Lü Dongbin, if society truly wants to experience perfect

harmony and lasting order, a revival in Daoist beliefs is necessary to maintain said

cosmic harmony. Wugou uses Lü’s prodigious childhood as a storytelling element that

once again keeps readers or listeners intrigued. He also cleverly sets up a comparison of

Confucian and Daoist doctrine. This belief in Confucian doctrine as a temporary solution

is one that Lü will eventually come to exemplify in his own life, as he later takes up the

burden of filial piety only to see through its idealism and realize its parochial nature.

In Lü’s opinion, true wisdom lies in the Lao Zi’s Dao De Jing. Lü claims that

through the study of Lao Zi’s text, people would be capable of achieving lasting order (則

萬年常治 zewannianchangzhi, BXDDZ 500). After comparing the relative merits of the

texts of both Confucianism and Daoism, Lü arrives at the conclusion that the Daoist texts

contain the way to true wisdom and, by extension, lasting order. Lü’s arrival at this

conclusion is indicative of the revivalist nature of the text. Taking a critical view of

Confucianism, Wugou Daoren promotes the writings and teachings of Daoism through

the voice of the character of young Lü Dongbin. He then continues to make Lü into the

26

exemplar of this argument against Confucian doctrine by depicting him as at first

successful in and ultimately rejective of his seemingly ideal Confucian life.

In this passage, Wugou Daoren once again asserts the superiority of Daoist

teachings. He does this through contrasting the character of a staunch Confucian father

with his Daoist son. Lü’s father holds firm beliefs about the moral, ethical, and social

practices espoused in the Confucian canon. Wugou depicts Lü’s father’s actions as being

in perfect accord with Confucian ritual behavior. He has the ability to maintain propriety

and ritual courtesy despite his son speaking against what Lü’s father refers to as the way

of “our China” (BXDDZ 501) and the China of the sage emperors. Here a respected

Confucian scholar is demonstrated as being capable of adequately expressing his own

beliefs about proper relationships. He is further depicted as a typical, well rounded, well

respected government official. Lü’s father is also the archetypal figure of authority and in

the Confucian understanding, is to be respected and obeyed at all times. For his part, Lü

declares his deep belief in the five Confucian relations (BXDDZ 501) at a later point in

the chapter and this belief is at least part of the reason why Lü consents to follow the

Confucian path for such a long amount of time. Lü feels a Confucian obligation to his

father and his lineage to gain prestige as an imperial bureaucrat and to produce a viable

male heir.

Lü’s only goal in fulfilling these obligations is ultimately to persuade his father to

enter into the true, everlasting, Dao. Lü believes he must follow the Confucian path as a

necessary step in his process of transcendence, and does not yet realize that such a path

runs not only contrary to, but is even inhibitive of his own goal of ushering humanity into

the Dao. To some extent, he is correct. First he must learn about the pleasures,

27

responsibilities, and meaning of success in the human world and then he must learn that

no matter how powerful he might be, even Lü of Pure Yang cannot have both the ideal

Confucian life and the ideal Daoist life. By depicting Lü’s father as an archetypal

Confucian authority figure, Wugou portrays Lü in a more complex version of the filial

son (孝子 xiaozi) role, wherein he must learn that Daoism alone is the way to true, lasting

order. Wugou uses storytelling techniques such as character development and archetypal

figures to set up a comparison of Daoist and Confucian doctrinal teachings. He further

explores the complexities of the relationship between these two doctrines through

dialogue between characters. Finally, he uses Lü Dongbin’s tale as a parable depicting

the pitfalls and distractions that befall the adherents to the Confucian path.

In the next passage, Lü speaks frankly and in private with his teacher, fellow

immortal Zhongli Quan. Lü explains to Zhongli Quan that his words were not intended to

anger his father. On the contrary, he wished to help his father by persuading him to enter

the Dao (感勸爹爹入道 ganquandiedierudao, BXDDZ 501). Lü claims that his father

by contrast, really only desires worldly fame and honor for his son and the continued

prestige of his lineage. In this passage, Lü becomes the medium for Wugou Daoren’s

message within the context of Lü’s own family. Lü is shown as desiring to spark a Daoist

revival in his own lineage at a time when that tradition has largely been forgotten or

neglected. In the same way, Wugou Daoren hopes to inspire a renewal of Daoist beliefs

in the hearts of his readers. In this passage, Wugou uses character dialogue and character

development to continue spreading his message about Daoist moral doctrine.

Since Lü is born into a family with a long-standing Confucian tradition, he

becomes a voice of Daoist revival for them as well. His birth into that family represents a

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Daoist revival in his own lineage. Wugou Daoren tells the reader that upon hearing of

Lü’s opinions on the Confucian classics, Lü’s father is initially greatly angered by the

boy's impudence (BXDDZ 499). He tests Lü on his comprehension and is amazed to find

out that his son has memorized the texts “from beginning to end”(從頭到尾

congtoudaowei literally “from head to tail”, BXDDZ 499). Despite this indication of total

comprehension, Lü still does not agree that Confucian teachings are the best way to

wisdom and enduring order. By the end of the chapter, Lü’s father is still angry about his

son’s views on Confucius. Lü’s clear exaltation of the Dao, however, is concretized.

From this point forward, his family lineage, through their first-born son, becomes one

that is connected (or reconnected) to the Dao, in a way that parallels what Wugou Daoren

hopes to renew in his readers. Once this reconnection is established, it remains the theme

of Lü’s life for the remainder of the story.

While Lü may understand the significance of Daoist texts to his life, he fails to

understand fundamental conflict or incompatibility between the two systems. Zhongli

Quan explains to the young Lü Dongbin that his father’s Confucian beliefs place filial

piety and loyalty to established state/sovereign hierarchies at the top of his list of moral

obligations (BXDDZ 501). As a result, Zhongli Quan explains, Lü’s father is afraid of his

son disobeying those two important moral principles: firstly loyalty to family traditions

and secondly respect for the five sacred relationships of Confucian teachings. Zhongli

Quan, a Daoist immortal is portrayed as being able to fully comprehend, consider, and

discuss the Confucian classics even though such texts are not a part of the Daoist

tradition. By setting up the situation in this way, Wugou Daoren demonstrates that where

Confucian doctrine is partial, Daoist doctrine is both comprehensive and profound.

29

Unlike Lü’s father, Zhongli Quan is able to recognize the merits and the flaws of texts

that are not part of his own tradition and discuss them without losing faith in his own

tradition’s teachings or rigidly rejecting the alternative opinions of opposing doctrines.

Equally adamant about his own beliefs (which in the context of this story could be

considered realities, especially for an immortal such as himself), Zhongli Quan is able to

explain the Confucian beliefs in relation to the Dao by claiming that they serve different

purposes. He further claims that in a single life one cannot follow both paths to their

distinct conclusions. Through this explanation, Wugou Daoren once again asserts the

superiority of Daoist doctrinal teachings in their ability to provide lasting order. Because

Zhongli Quan’s belief system can reconcile the differences between the two systems

without out-rightly rejecting major tenets of either, his is shown to be more flexible and

enduring. This assertion finally leads to a desire to renew those teachings in the hearts of

his readers.

Lü’s father’s beliefs not only prevent him from thinking outside of his Confucian

learning, they also completely eliminate even his ability to recognize miracles such as the

appearance of Zhongli Quan. For example, as Lü rises through the political ranks, Lü’s

father begins to worry that Lü’s career success will go to his head, making him arrogant

and thus less appealing to his superiors. Lü’s father then expresses these worries to

Zhongli Quan over a few cups of wine. Zhongli Quan in response tells Lü’s father that

while his concerns over arrogance are good, his reasoning is shallow. Zhongli Quan then

recites a few lines of verse about the difficulty of attaining the Dao and encountering true

immortals, but after seeing that it has gone over Lü’s father’s head he excuses himself on

the grounds of being too drunk. Though Zhongli Quan goes out of his way to explain a

30

moral point to Lü’s father (even to the extent that he risks exposing his status as an earth-

bound immortal), Lü’s father is completely unable to recognize the miraculous nature of

the situation.

These lines of verse are of further interest in that they echo a point made by Katz

in connection to the traditions of immortals in Daoism, with specific relation to Lü

Dongbin. Katz writes, “Subsequent stories focus on Lü’s travels throughout China in a

variety of disguises, with an overall emphasis on the themes of recognition and

conversion/salvation” (Katz 86). Though the tales mentioned by Katz actually have to do

with other people recognizing/not recognizing Lü as immortal, the theme of recognition

is no less relevant when considered in relation to this section of the text. In a previous

section, the young Lü has the ability to recognize Zhongli Quan as an immortal and this

ability is one that sets him apart from others, particularly his father. After delivering his

poem about encountering true immortals, Zhongli Quan laughs and says to Lü’s father,

“You don’t get it”(BXDDZ 504). Through this interaction, Lü’s father is established once

again as a firm adherent to Confucian doctrine who is thus stubbornly blind to deeper

truths. His concerns about his son are primarily political in nature. Furthermore, his

misdiagnosis of the issue of Lü’s arrogance is reflected in his inability to recognize

Zhongli Quan as an immortal. The character of Lü’s father is the archetypal

representation of an inability to recognize. Just as Lü’s father cannot tell that his son’s

arrogance is holding him back spiritually (rather than politically), he also cannot tell that

Zhongli Quan is an immortal. This interaction is meant to reinforce Wugou’s depiction of

the self-limiting nature of Confucian doctrine and display the power of Daoist doctrine,

through the depiction of Lü’s father’s inability to recognize.

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A Bodily Conundrum

This section also parallels the following section, wherein Zhongli Quan finds his

way back to his bed, and Lü eventually discovers him. Fearing that his teacher will catch

a cold he fetches a blanket for Zhongli Quan and proceeds to tuck him in. As he does,

Zhongli Quan says to Lü, “This human life, when drunk, is like heaven. Can you

accompany me on my travels to heaven?”(BXDDZ 505) Lü considers this a joke and

responds by saying, “I have only an ordinary, muddy, human body; how can I obtain

ascension to heaven?” This passage is intended to inform Lü of the illusory satisfaction of

human life firstly through the bodily form, which is actually a form of entrapment, and

secondly through worldly fame or success which is actually an obstacle to obtaining the

Way. This response preempts Zhongli Quan’s assertion that Lü was originally from

heaven and that this human life is like a trap. Zhongli Quan then finally concludes by

exclaiming, “This world is terrifying! This world is terrifying!”(BXDDZ 505) before

falling asleep. While Zhongli Quan exhibits a disregard for his human body, Lü Dongbin

demonstrates his belief in his connection to his physical human body and by extension to

his life a as a filial Confucian bureaucrat. To Zhongli Quan, the body that he inhabits

while fulfilling the role of Lü’s teacher is simply a vessel that does not need protection or

care. To Lü the physical body of his teacher is, like his own physical body, a gift from

one’s parents that is in constant danger from the elements of the physical world and thus

cannot be wantonly abandoned.

Through his decision to assist his teacher and his admission of the “ordinary”

condition of his own body, young adolescent Lü is depicted as being overly concerned

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with his mortal human form, as compared to the young child Lü Dongbin who was more

concerned about his fashen (法身, law body, BXDDZ 502). The fashen is a concept that

represents the moral body of a physical person that is kept intact or destroyed in accord

with one’s adherence to or abandonment of moral behaviors. As a young boy, Lü shows

concern for both his literal (physical) and his figurative (fashen) body. He expresses this

concern though his conversation with his teacher, wherein Lü asks what will happen if he

is required to get married and have sex in order to fulfill his obligation. Zhongli Quan,

assuages his fears by saying that Lü’s pure yang will be enough to impregnate a woman

and therefore he does not need to be afraid of injuring his physical or figurative body.

When framed in this light, Wugou uses Zhongli Quan’s character to convey the message

that not only is the circle (translated as “world” above) of flesh considered limiting and

constraining and thus inherently unappealing, it is also something that must be abandoned

and left behind in order to enter the Dao. Because this is the case, maintaining the

integrity of the physical body is not as important as maintaining the integrity of the

figurative, moralistic body. Wugou uses this framing as yet another reason why Daoism

should be revived in the reader’s world.

Rejecting the Trodden Path

For Lü, forsaking his career and family (not even to mention his physical body) is

a task certainly easier said than done. Following the section that describes Lü’s academic

prowess, the reader might not be surprised when the narrator claims that Lü, at the age of

twelve years achieved the number one position in his (进士 jinshi) examinations for the

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highest imperial positions. Lü then went on to be a successful government official. He

married into a respectable family at the age of fifteen and two years later had a child. This

is meant to depict Lü’s ascent to power as one that is navigated with ease. National

examinations were notorious for their difficulty and for Lü to have passed with such high

marks at the age of twelve would be considered incredible and miraculous. Despite this,

Lü does not seem to have even the slightest bit of difficulty in achieving such a great

honor. Through this depiction, Lü is established as a character possessing great abilities.

These advanced abilities at first appear to help him but, in the end, make it all the more

difficult when Lü must forsake what comes easily to him in order to achieve his self-

avowed purpose of reviving the Dao and helping others obtain it. Wugou sets up a

conflict in his story wherein the protagonist who has nearly everything, must learn to turn

away from his privileged life in order to achieve his greatest goal, his most primal desire,

and his prophesied destiny. In addition to creating storytelling tension, this technique

allows Wugou to teach about Daoist views toward worldly success and provides an

alternative to Confucian ideals of his own contemporary China.

Lü’s acquisition of political power and worldly prestige in the eighty-first chapter

is not merely connected to his miraculous and abundant talents. Lü states that he wants

both to achieve his own goals of saving the world and fulfill his obligations to his father

in order to persuade him to enter the Dao. Lü has a political career and a family by the

time he is seventeen, not out of his own desire but out of obligation to his father. In this

passage, Lü fulfills his obligations to his father and is tempted by the ease with which

that fulfillment comes and lapses into a phase of delusion and distraction. As such, the

most difficult thing he must do is to forsake his obligations to his father, his family, and

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his political career. This is the primary struggle in this chapter and the issue from which

Lü must be awakened. This struggle is the archetypal struggle between the reclusive

Daoist who eschews worldly participation in exchange for spiritual transcendence and the

ability to save the world. Here, identifiable characters play out this struggle in a way that

is accessible to a lay audience.

The Way Out

In the eighty-first chapter, Lü’s father is depicted as well intentioned but

ultimately myopic. While he is concerned about the prospect of arrogance, it is for

worldly reasons that he seeks to avoid this arrogance. In this way he limits his

understanding of arrogance to his Confucian, political, world. In response, Zhongli Quan

attempts to broaden Lü’s father’s understanding by expressing Daoist doctrine through

the vehicle of poetry. Zhongli intones:

A true immortal willing to transmit the Dao is not easy to encounter, whenever you wish to return I am willing to accompany you.

In my own words I reside across the blue sea, on none other than the first peak of Penglai.

[You] don’t worry that about chasing pleasures and frequent jokes, [though] being easily distracted and having too many thoughts can harm one’s spirits.

When one has free time one can crook one’s fingers and count from the beginning, how many people have arrived at the Qingping [quiet tranquility] Sea?

传道真仙不易逢，几时归去愿相从。

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自言住处连沧海，别是蓬莱第一峰。

莫厌追欢笑语频，易思离乱可伤神。

闲来屈指从头数，得到清平有几人？

(BXDDZ 504)

This poem is presented in the heptasyllabic couplet form, with four couplets

forming the body of the poem, resembling the descriptions of Stephen Owen’s Tang

Dynasty regulated verse. The poem roughly follows the tonal prosody of regulated verse

and exhibits the tell-tale third couplet zhuan (轉), or twist. In this version of the Tang

poem however, rather than conveying the characteristic sense of Tang wit often conveyed

through the poems of Li Bai and Du Fu, this poem uses the zhuan as a vehicle for

teaching about the Dao. Though a person educated in the Confucian tradition such as

Lü’s father would undoubtedly be familiar with the form and style, the content of this

poem proves to be incomprehensible for Lü’s father, but only as a result of his self-

limiting beliefs (BXDDZ 504). Ultimately, Zhongli Quan’s main concern is with Lü, not

Lü’s father, and so Zhongli does not bother explaining the true meaning of the poem to

Lü’s father.

Paralleling the conversation between Zhongli Quan and Lü’s father, Zhongli

Quan attempts to broaden Lü’s understanding when he invites him to travel to heaven out

of concern for his master turned pupil. Implicit in this invitation is the implication that Lü

has the ability to leave his body (at least figuratively speaking) and go to heaven. In fact,

earlier in the story the young Lü even claimed that he periodically travels to heaven and

receives lessons from the immortals there in his dreams (BXDDZ 503). By this point in

Lü’s life, he sees the obstacle of his human body as the reason why he cannot go to

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heaven with Zhongli Quan, and thus is limiting himself to this world. Wugou uses this

interaction to convey the Daoist doctrine of belief in transcendence and the ability to go

beyond or rise above the self-limiting mindset of the worldly realm.

Traces of Daoist doctrine exist not only in interactions between characters in the

Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan, but also directly in the settings of major events in the story.

Through the various stories contained in the BXDDZ, both the reader and Lü learn the

values of acting in accord with the times and places, while still adhering to the

unchanging Dao. In Lü’s story specifically, by examining the physical and temporal

settings and the major actions that take place in these settings, Lü learns how to act freely

in accord with principles of timeliness as opposed to limiting constraints of the physical

body through awakening to follow the Dao. This knowledge is more than simply learning

about how to act in a righteous or upright way on earth, as the frequent changes in setting

between the celestial and the earthly realm point to a greater cosmic significance. These

changing settings and times inform the reader’s understanding of why Lü wishes to act in

accord with the Dao, thereby granting them the ability to see the importance of acting in a

timely manner in their own lives.

In addition to the parabolic aspects of this tale, the settings of the tales in this

story are deeply connected to their literary operation. By liberally mixing cosmic and

mundane locales, Wugou transforms Lü’s tale from an obscure local fable to a form more

immediately relevant to a mass audience. He utilizes stark and abrupt changes in settings

to indicate a break from one scene to another. He plays with time and popular belief

about the passage of time in the immortal context, in a way that allows for temporal

settings to change drastically within mere minutes, allowing for a story that takes full

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advantage of momentous events from Chinese history. Finally he addresses the divide

between the man-made urban setting and nature made cosmic settings of mountainous

regions in a way that highlights the importance and relevance of Daoism in the

contemporary times.

While certain events in the life tale of Lü Dongbin might be referred to as

fortuitous or serendipitous, a sort of “happy accident” that occurs in the story, other

events are depicted in a more active/intentional way. Briefly stated, timeliness or acting

in a timely manner will mean acting when the conditions for such action are ripe, or will

yield the most benefit. Implicit in this understanding of timeliness is an understanding

that conditions for an action can exist in such a way as to be more or less advantageous. It

does not necessarily mean acting in accord with “the seasons” for an action, but it does

recognize the presence of such time frames, and natural seasons are often used as

metaphors to describe timely action. As the influential Daoist scholar Ge Hong (ca 320

CE) states in the section about immortals in the Inner Chapters of his Baopuzi (抱樸子),

“It is said that in the summer there is sure to be growth, but this is just when the

shepherd’s-purse and wheat wither. It is said in the winter there is sure to be fading, yet it

is the time when bamboos and thuyas flourish” (Ware 36). These seeming contradictions

are given as examples to support his ultimate statement, “To be sure, life, death,

beginning and ending do form the grand framework, but there are differences and

variations” (Ware 36). To know timeliness then could be conceived of as understanding

the continuity and change in the grand framework and the differences and variations and

being capable of acting upon that understanding.

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To think of this phenomenon in yet another way, it can be understood as the

ability to act according to an understanding of one’s own individual deviations from what

is above referred to as “the grand framework.” To quote Ge Hong once more, “Our

bodies are our very own, but we never come to understand how our hearts and wills

become what they are. An allotment of life is ours, but we never understand how its

actual measure is achieved” (Ware 38). In this passage the “our” in question refers to the

human subject, and as this writing is a treatise on the distinctions between the human and

xian, this distinction can be considered one of the defining differences. It can be said

then, that at least since the time of Ge Hong, those who believed in the existence of xian

also believed that these xian fully understood how to discern and eventually achieve the

actual measure of their allotment of life. This belief is grounded in the belief that

immortals also fully understand how and why their own allotment of life differed from

other beings in existence and so is not bound to one restrictive understanding of

timeliness or acting in a timely manner. This then is what separates Lü from the average

person, or the fanren (凡人) described in the opening passages of the story and often

brought up as the foil of the xian immortals. From a young age, Lü is aware of what the

full measure of his life is to be and though he gets distracted for a while, he ultimately

acts in accord with his transcendent understanding.

To begin examining temporal and physical settings in Lü’s story, we must

naturally begin at the beginning. The first setting in the case of Lü’s story is the semi-

mythical time when Zhang Daoling receives news of the cosmic imbalance from Zhang

Guolao. While Lü does not physically exist in the earthly realm at this point, this semi-

mythical setting forms the basis of the reader’s understanding of Lü. Firstly, by beginning

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the story of Lü in a semi-mythical time and place, Wugou cues in the readers to the

notion of understanding one’s allotment in life. As mentioned in my previous chapter, at

this point in time, Zhang Daoling fights demons with the assistance of his two lingguan.

By starting Lü’s story in a time and place different and distinct from the normal, the

reader is made privy to the deviations from the mundane that will take place in Lü’s

lifetime. This passage also conveys the notion that people who are connected with the

Dao are able to discern deviations in their life as well as the lives of others as exemplified

by Zhang Guolao promising the birth of Lü (BXDDZ 498). This passage demonstrates

the notion that those connected with the Dao come to know the deviations of their own

and others’ paths.

Following this passage, the setting rather abruptly shifts a few hundred years in

the future, at the family home of Lü Dongbin. With this setting change comes a stark

change in the kind of action that happens in the story. At this point, the action becomes

focused more on what could be called earthly concerns as opposed to heavenly or cosmic

concerns. Though the actions taking place are largely centered on Lü, a character

undeniably endowed with mystical and cosmically divine powers, they are rather

surprisingly mundane. For the first part of his life, until he is functionally an adult, Lü’s

actions are mostly restricted to studying Chinese classic texts and arguing with his father

or teacher about their merits (BXDDZ 501). Though the narrator mentions the

remarkable speed with which the young Lü is able to read and even memorize the

classics (BXDDZ 501), not much detail is given to explaining the larger significance

behind his understanding of the texts. Still, this is an essential time for the young Lü as it

is also the time when he learns of home, family, obligation and physical embodiment.

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At this point in the story, despite his various advantages, Lü has not yet fully

attained the Dao and so does not recognize his ability to act in accord with timeliness and

transcend his physical form, nor does he understand his allotment in life. Despite this, the

home becomes the setting in which Lü begins to learn about these principles and becomes

aware of his otherworldly motivations and abilities. As such, this home setting must be

considered and examined as an integral part of Lü’s character and a fundamental part of

his understanding of the physical world of man. It is in this home setting that Lü first

realizes (or remembers) his own mission, which is to save the world by guiding it back to

the Dao. This realization begins with Lü’s intent to save his father who does not see the

same value in the Daoist texts that Lü studies. Thus in this section of the story, Lü does

not act on any notions of timeliness (mostly due to the necessarily restricted nature of

childhood), but is still acting in accord with the Dao. From this experience Lü begins to

learn the extent of his allotted life and begins to understand the purpose of his

embodiment.

This setting also grounds the story in larger political actions that will become

relevant again later in Lü’s story. The narrator states specifically that, “that time was after

the political events of Tang Dynasty empress Wu” (BXDDZ 499). This is a notable detail

as in Lü’s later life, through his dealings with another of the Eight Immortals, Zhang

Guolao, he becomes involved in the political happenings that eventually result in the

Anlushan Rebellion and the eventual collapse of the Tang Dynasty.

Transcending the Mind: Learning about

perception, redemption, and completion in Lü

Dongbin’s Dao

As previously established, one purpose of the BXDDZ is to act as source of

parabolic education and instruction for those unfamiliar with the moral doctrines of the

various branches of religious Daoism. These doctrines, as part of a religious and

philosophical tradition of unity, pertain to all aspects of human being and address specific

situations with the intent of imparting life instructions to the reader. An important aspect

of life addressed in the chapters describing Lü Dongbin’s story is sex and sexuality. This

is reflected in the popular and racy narratives that are incorporated, but ultimately

corrected by the author’s narrative. These topics are connected and interwoven with both

the primary mission and defining characteristics of Lü Dongbin. In the following

chapter, I argue that Wugou Daoren’s Ba Xian De Dao Zhuan represents a learning

journey for Lü Dongbin and ultimately the reader. Through his interactions with three

female characters from three different realms (human, demonic, and immortal), Lü learns

about perception, redemption, and completion. I will use these three terms as a guide for

examining the cosmic dimensions of the tales.

One of the main lessons that Lü learns is that sexuality (be it deviant, debased, or

otherwise) is, on a cosmic level, actually about opportunities for moral reform and

cultivation. As such, it is helpful while approaching these chapters to consider at all times

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the poly-narratives or multiple perspectives that are present in each one of Lü’s tales. He

learns the importance of having a guide, thereby advancing his mission to become a

guide himself. Finally, by learning about these concepts and their salvific qualities, Lü

comes closer to fulfilling his destiny to save mankind.

Lü Dongbin and the White Snake

Lü Dongbin first learns about notions of perception through his interaction with

Baishe. In this section, the popular narrative of Baishe is corrected by the revelations of

He Xiangu’s narrative. Baishe was formerly a member of the cult of the demons, known

as the mojiao (魔教), a faction that has been fighting against the immortals of the

celestial bureaucracy for thousands of years. In her most recent life, she takes the form of

a human woman as she attempts to repay the kindness that saved her life. Due to her

demonic past, described as karma (緣 yuan, BXDDZ 564) in the text, she is doomed to a

tragic life in which she murders her husband. He Xiangu reveals that Baishe can still be

shown to the right path because of an innate ability to perceive and a wish to repay

kindness. According to the immortal He Xiangu, even one iota of good intention on

Baishe’s part can eventually lead to redemption.

He Xiangu uses a story from Baishe's past to demonstrate to Lü and the audience

that Baishe is capable of recognizing kindness. He Xiangu tells Lü, “That snake spirit

[Baishe], after she was vanquished, unwittingly ended up in the hands of a fisherman.

She was [later] fortunate enough to have found a good hearted person, who purchased her

in order to set her free” (BXDDZ 565). This act, described in the text as fangsheng

(放生), is typically associated with Buddhists, but the practice of purchasing an animal to

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free it would be seen as an act of great compassion in Daoist practices as well. Indeed

that is how Baishe perceives the act, for as He Xiangu continues to tell Lü, “Because of

this [act], the snake spirit, at any point in time, could not forget it and wanted to repay

this man's great virtuous deed” (BXDDZ 565). In this first segment of the story, Baishe

recognizes a trait that her character lacked in a previous depiction as a vanquished

demon: the ability to perceive kindness directed at herself in the deeds of others which

would in turn, trigger a desire to repay that kindness.

Through Baishe’s story, Lü also learns of redemption. Because Baishe has

perceived the kindness of the fisherman and wishes to repay it, she resolves to do

whatever it takes to repay his kindness. To her, this is not a form of redemption for the

misdeeds of her past; rather it is simply a debt that needs to be repaid. The Immortal He

Xiangu says in the text, "This matter [of the White Snake and the fisherman] happened

already a thousand years ago, and since then [she] has requested permission from the

leader of the demonic cult and has been reborn as a person, in order to use that body as an

instrument to repay the kindness" (BXDDZ 565). By the time this story is being revealed

to Lü, Baishe has already been working on this for thousands of years, just to be reborn

as a human. She neither expects nor consciously desires the reward of reunion with the

Dao, and merely acts that one simple good intention. And yet, this forms the first step in

the redemption of her deeds, as the text goes on to say, "But the snake demonesse’s

(Baishe’s) ways were too evil, she had hurt too many people. Her life decided long ago

that [Baishe] could not follow her heart's wishes to become a pure and good person"

(BXDDZ 565). Because Baishe still seeks to fulfill her heart's wishes, she is doomed to

botch this particular attempt at reciprocity. Nevertheless, the very fact that Baishe tried,

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(to such a protracted extent) to repay a simple kindness is demonstrative of her capacity

for morally good behavior and is indicative of a potential for future success. He Xiangu

states, "This little bit of a kind heart, that which compared to ordinary members of the

demonic cult is not the same, was therefore enough to move the heart of heaven to permit

her to reform herself and enter and be guided onto the path of righteousness” (BXDDZ

566). Though it is not yet her time to truly become good, and though she does not

understand the bigger picture of redemption, Baishe is shown to have taken the first steps

towards redemption. From this, Lü learns a valuable lesson about the universal nature of

salvation; one need only take the initiative in an act of kindness and cosmic forces will

come to one’s assistance.

The final lesson that Lü learns from Baishe’s story is that of completion and

refinement in the sense of the combination and collaboration of forces or dispositions

moving towards a goal. In the beginning of the chapter, Baishe is depicted as a

quintessentially evil character. In many ways, she can be seen as representative of evil.

She fought against heaven with unwavering loyalty to the demonic cult and was

vanquished for her actions. She is however, still eligible for redemption as a result of her

chance encounter and interaction with the good person who purchased and freed her in

her life as a snake. Though Baishe only has a “little bit of good heartedness” (BXDDZ

566) in her, she would not have been able to recognize or perceive her will to act on that

kindheartedness had her life’s path not intersected and combined with the kindhearted

actions of the man who set her free. It is the combination of their two disparate moral

standpoints that brings about the fruition of Baishe’s good intentions, represented by her

rebirth as a human. The interaction and combination of forces that are required to create

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the seeds of goodness is a theme in this section of Lü’s story. Just as fate is an integral

part of Baishe’s restoration to goodness, it is an integral part of Lü’s story as well.

Through learning about Baishe, Lü learns the importance of combining opposite forces to

bring about the refinement and cosmic completion of oneself.

Lü Dongbin’s Three Tests of Baimudan

The concepts and moral lessons that Wugou expresses through the tale of Baishe

are also present in his version of the story of Lü Dongbin and Baimudan, referred to as

“Lü’s three tests of Baimudan” (LüChunyang sanshi Baimudan 呂純陽三試白牡丹,

BXDDZ 585). In this tale, Lü demonstrates his understanding of perception, redemption,

and completion through his interactions with Baimudan, daughter of the ill-fated Baishe,

and Zhang Guolao. Throughout this tale, Wugou cleverly plays on (what he considers the

common misconception of) the erotic nature of this situation in order to create interest.

He then directs that interest into a demonstration of the moral and cosmic forces at play

in order to again teach moral lessons revolving around the concepts of perception,

redemption, and completion. After teaching these lessons, he acknowledges the other

versions of the story and as he has done before, seeks to rectify the story and restore Lü’s

good name, once again demonstrating the revisionist qualities of this work. In this way,

Wugou incorporates the racy, eroticized narrative, and then introduces his own narrative

of restoration.

In order to understand the conceptions with which contemporary readers would

have approached “Lü’s three tests of Baimudan,” attention must first be drawn to the

context in which this story is situated. At this point in the story, Lü has already received

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the message from He Xiangu explaining that in order to progress in the realm of the xian,

he must resolve his fated connections (BXDDZ 564). One such connection is that

between Lü and a “beauty of the nation endowed with heavenly grace”(BXDDZ 587-88),

with whom he is destined to fall in love. This connection to a national or widely

recognized beauty has many undertones, especially considering the temporal setting of

the story. “Lü’s three tests of Baimudan” happen during the Tang Dynasty and

specifically mention Anlushan (安祿山 BXDDZ 587), a general famed for his role in the

rebellion that marked the downward turning point of the Tang Dynasty. In fact, the term

"beauty of the nation endowed with heavenly grace" (guosetianzi 国色天姿) is evocative

of Tang poet Bai Juyi's poem entitled "Song of Everlasting Sorrow," which is about the

love affair that some say caused the An Lushan Rebellion. In Bai's poem, the emperor

Xuanzong laments the end of his relationship with the famed beauty Yang Guifei who

was ordered to hang herself, despite his intense love for her, in order to save the country

from his own distracted rulership. This phrasing sets the story on what would seem at

first to be familiar and understandable grounds. After being treated to this explanation,

the reader would expect the story to unfold in a similar pattern, being fueled by

unrestrained desire and eroticism referred to as "midnight tyranny" (Watson 23) in Bai

Juyi's poem.

This however, is only the hook for this story, the initial pull that draws in the

reader’s attention and allows Wugou to preach and teach his moral lessons of the Dao,

while simultaneously preserving the moral integrity of Lü Dongbin. Lü first demonstrates

his understanding of the importance of perception through “Lü's three trials of

Baimudan”. The first lesson, framed by notions of perception, is depicted in Lü's

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understanding of what defines a xian immortal. His perceptions and understanding of

what constitutes a xian are displayed in his interactions with his companion Zhang

Guolao. Lü says, in response to Zhang's suggestion that they will need to leave the

capital, “Although I have obtained a lover, we are just now in the thick of it, so at this

time how can I leave the capital city?” (BXDDZ 587). To this question, Zhang Guolao

responds in turn with his own question, asking with great laugh, “Spirits and immortals

have lovers too? You must be telling stories.” Lü then “becomes serious” (BXDDZ 587)

and replies saying, "How can spirits and immortals not have lovers? It would not be a

great matter, if you so desire, to just come for a walk with me, so that you may know that

my lover is certainly a bona-fide national beauty endowed with heavenly grace, and you

may understand why I am thusly so deep in love" (BXDDZ 587-8). Here, Lü displays his

understanding of perception (as a being who, at this point in time, has already achieved

transcendence) in the way that he leads Zhang to believe that he has a romantic

relationship that may also be physical. Lü realizes that Zhang does not perceive the

entirety of the situation and takes advantage of that lack of perception to further Zhang’s

interest in Lü’s lover. Similarly (and intentionally), this style of banter creates interest for

the readers as well, who by this point in the story may be wondering the same thing as

Zhang Guolao: what business would a transcendent have with a common (albeit

uncommonly beautiful) prostitute?

This passage then, serves two purposes: firstly it demonstrates Lü's understanding

and perception of what it means to be a xian. As indicated by his response to Zhang

Guolao's question, Lü's understanding of a xian is ultimately not so different from a

regular person. A xian has lovers simply because a xian has a physical body that has

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obligations to other physical bodies and it is on these grounds that Lü declares, “how can

immortals not have lovers?” Lü and Zhang’s status as a xian only allows them to perceive

the full reality behind any given situation and act according to that perception. It does

not, however, exempt them from regular human entanglements such as falling in love or

needing to fulfill promises made to others. Lü's perception of this situation allows him to

realize its connection to his desire to rid himself of those entanglements and to act on that

desire.

Secondly, this passage creates a tension in the perception of the reader that needs

to be resolved before Lü can leave the city. In Lü's invitation to go walking he

specifically uses the term guangguang 逛逛, or to have a stroll. In an earlier passage, Lü

is described as fengliu 风流 or refined, tasteful, charming or even romantic (BXDDZ

587). When Zhang speaks with Lü, taking a stroll gives the impression of coded

language, which is reflected in Zhang’s response. The stated purpose of the stroll is given

only as to see for oneself, but given the previous few lines between the two immortals,

the implication is that these two xian would be walking around the capital city checking

out the local brothels. This is displayed when the Zhang responds to Lü "because what

[Lü] said was so peculiar (qitu 奇突)", saying "I'll just go out to amuse myself (wanwan

玩玩) with you for a bit" (BXDDZ 588). Zhang acknowledges the dubious nature of Lü's

proposition and his timid response expresses his doubt about Lü's intentions. It is clear

that Zhang’s interest is piqued. In this way, not only does Wugou make a point about the

nature of Lü's perception, he also plays with the reader's perception of the situation by

phrasing the action in specific and intentional ways that lead even the secular readers

right into his espousal of moral lessons.

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Before transitioning to his lesson on redemption, Wugou continues to allure the

readers down this path of false licentiousness. In this description Wugou invokes the

notion of perception through the words of Zhang Guolao. In response to Lü's suggestion

that the two immortals’ clothes would arouse suspicion in such a romantic atmosphere,

Zhang says, “Apparently you still are not revealing your true identity, it is thus clear that

you treat people with a complete lack of sincerity. How then can you be regarded as a

lover?” (BXDDZ 588). Here Zhang alludes to the notion of perception as it relates to Lü

and Baimudan’s relationship through his teasing of Lü. It is clear from his reaction that

Zhang understands the importance of truthful perceptions (and presentations) in the

process of attaining the Dao, as well as in relationships with others. But this statement

can also be interpreted as a slight against Lü's understanding of his relationship,

suggesting that his lack of sincerity would make him a poor lover. Lü's response is at first

speechlessness and then laughter (BXDDZ 588), suggesting that Lü is also able to

perceive the humor in his situation.

Following an outfit change, Lü transforms into a handsome young scholar and

Zhang transforms into a middle-aged merchant. They arrive at a brothel, where they are

mistaken by the owner as high-class [and potentially wealthy] customers, and escorted to

a veranda, which quickly becomes populated by beautiful young women. It is here that

Zhang first spots a courtesan described as unrivaled in natural charm and beauty

(BXDDZ 588). Lü informs him that this is his lover, known as Baimudan or White

Peony. In this passage Wugou again plays with perception as the two main characters are

only allowed into the brothel on account of misrecognition by the owner. He also teases

the reader with his description of Baimudan, supposedly as perceived by Zhang Guolao

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who, as previously stated, did not believe xian capable of having lovers and yet finds

himself enamored by Baimudan’s charm and beauty.

As the situation escalates, with Baimudan escorting Lü into a private room,

decorated with all the accoutrements of a high-class courtesan laid out in front of a

vanity. Though still laughing, it becomes clear that Zhang begins to believe Lü is in

serious danger. It is with Zhang's shift in perception, from lighthearted joking to genuine

concern, that Wugou begins to shift his attention to the concepts of redemption and

completion. Zhang says to Lü, "I'm not laughing at anyone else, I'm laughing at how

deeply you've fallen in love. Do you not fear sinking into the Avici hells?" (BXDDZ

588). Zhang is concerned that the way in which Lü is engaging with Baimudan could

have dangerous consequences and so he seeks to warn his fellow xian. But Lü

demonstrates his intent through his response saying, "A peony flower on the fallen dead

makes a ghost that is also refined and elegant. Is she not called White Peony? I am

willing to die on her behalf" (BXDDZ 588). In this statement, Lü declares that we would

die in order to save Baimudan from the fate of becoming a ghost, even at the risk of

going to hell himself. This demonstrates his commitment to helping redeem others as

well as his understanding of the Daoist nature of redemption.

There is yet another form of redemption at work in this scene. Lü demonstrates

his understanding of the universal nature of redemption by considering Baimudan as a

candidate for salvation. After this first interaction with Baimudan, Zhang and Lü leave

the brothel and return to the secluded place where they first transformed into common

clothing. Here, Lü explains his plan for testing Baimudan in order to secure her

redemption. He reveals that as he was talking with Baimudan, he was also testing her

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heart saying, "I have already tested her twice. The first time was to test this person's

conscience because in her childhood, she was ruthless towards her mother. These kinds

of heartless feelings are not appropriate. But at that time, because this counted as self

defense it was not counted against her...." (BXDDZ 589). Lü asserts that because of the

extenuating circumstances between Baimudan and her mother, these actions counted as

self-defense, therefore Baimudan is not beyond redemption. He goes on to reveal, "One

day, I pretended to be sick and about to die, I saw her crying, calling for a doctor, and

asking for a diviner, [demonstrating] that way that she was truly sincere" (BXDDZ 589).

Because of the way she called for help on behalf of Lü, he has determined that she does

indeed have a good and sincere heart, and that her affections are genuine. Zhang

however, remains unconvinced, remarking sarcastically in response, “She can become the

prostitute among immortals” (BXDDZ 589-90). This demonstrates Zhang’s perception of

Baimudan as sexually debased, and thus even if she wanted to achieve transcendence, her

station in the world of immortals would be embarrassingly low. He cannot conceive of

Baimudan in any state other than one of sexual servitude, which he believes disqualifies

Baimudan from being worth saving.

In his second test, Lü seeks to prove Baimudan’s courage. However, Lü claims

that because of the life that he has witnessed Baimudan living, he is already satisfied with

this test. He says, “In the second test, I would moreover think of a way to test her

courage, but she has already determined to leave behind her [old] life. In this regard I am

extremely satisfied” (BXDDZ 590). Lü view’s Baimudan’s determination to continue

living through her already difficult life as a sign of her sincere heart and therefore as a

sign of her capacity for redemption.

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While these tests demonstrate Baimudan’s capacity for redemption, they also

demonstrate a similar lesson of completion as appeared in the tale of Baishe. After

passing Lü’s tests, Baimudan eventually becomes a xian herself. Without Lü’s

intercession, this may not have ever happened as demonstrated above by Zhang’s

reactions to Lü’s attempts to help her. Just as Baishe would not have felt the need to

repay the good man’s kindness if he had not been there to rescue her in her time of need,

so too Baimudan would not have been able to become a xian had it not been for her own

determination in combination with Lü’s understanding of the nature of redemption.

Through these tests, as well as through his willingness to help Baimudan, Lü

demonstrates his understanding of redemption.

Finally, Wugou seeks to rectify Lü’s image through this retelling of the story. He

says, “Later on, when the eight immortals were assembled, Zhang told this story to them

all. Among them, Lan Caihe the most mischievous, and Han Xiangzi played a joke”

(BXDDZ 590), and their joke resulted in the corruption of this tale and the widespread

rumors of Lü’s licentiousness. As Wugou did before with the story of Zhang Tianshi, he

once again takes the opportunity to “set the record straight” and restore Lü’s reputation.

Lü Dongbin Visits He Xiangu’s Grotto

Finally, through his interactions with the immortal goddess He Xiangu (何仙姑),

Lü Dongbin learns about notions of combination and completion. One tale to consider in

regards to Lü’s understanding of completion and refinement is the story of how he came

to embody the literal meaning of his name, "Dongbin" whom the text calls, "the visitor in

the grotto" "洞中之賓"(BXDDZ 565). After being educated by Zhongli Quan, an

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incarnation of one of the Eight Immortals, Lü realizes that his life’s trajectory as a

political figure and family man is no promising path to save mankind. He leaves society

in order to achieve his purpose of uniting humanity with the Dao. During one of his

travels, footmen of the demonic cult throw Lü into a "valley-ditch" (BXDDZ 565). Lü

does not just fall into any valley, but rather specifically tumbles into a grotto (洞).

Grottos are significant to this story for a number of reasons. Firstly, they have long been

associated with Daoism and Chinese spirituality at large, as places where wise people can

learn the secrets of longevity. Secondly, as one might expect, most of the other immortals

in Wugou’s text attained the Dao while practicing in a grotto. Finally, the image of the

grotto is a stark contrast to the image established by Lü’s character. Whereas Lü is the

sword carrying embodiment of pure yang, the grotto into which he falls is the physical

locality of the womb. One way to analyze this situation is by considering He Xiangu’s

position as a teacher or guide for Lü. The immortal He appears when Lü needs guidance

and tells him important information about both Baishe and Baimudan as well as

instructing him in what would become his signature sword style. Another way to consider

this relationship is as a combination of opposite, but non-opposed forces.

While taking refuge in this grotto, the spirit of the "ever yearning" (渴念已久

BXDDZ 564) He Xiangu appears to Lü. Her appearance complicates the matter in a

number of ways. He Xiangu is not only a member of the Eight Immortals, but notably is

the group's only female (with the possible exception of the typically androgynous Lan

Caihe). This is further complicated by the not-so-coincidental imagery of the setting of

this incident, for this is none other than the grotto in which He Xiangu attainted the Dao.

As such, Lü finds himself in a both incredibly sacred and an incredibly personal space.

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In a previous chapter, I described the young Lü's fascination with preserving the

integrity of his "fashen" ("法身") or law body, a term colloquially used to mean virginity.

In response to his concerns, Lü's teacher at the time, Zhongli Quan, tells Lü he can be at

ease because, due to his endowment of pure yang qi, he would only need to apply

intentionality to the endeavor of impregnating a woman. In the passage where Lü falls

into the grotto, this prophecy is played out on a larger, allegorical and representative

scale. Lü's unintentional tumble into He's grotto (which sounds like pure double

entendre), is a fulfillment of Zhongli's words in its depiction of happenstance and

serendipity. As a result of Lü's pure yang, he is fated to fall into He's grotto and, just as

Zhongli suggested, this is due in no part to his own intentions.

The Daodejing states that followers of the Dao should be like water (Section 2,

78), never moving against the path of least resistance but always benefiting all those in

the immediate proximity. Lü does not try to seek out He Xianggu’s “Jade Room Grotto”

(BXDDZ 566) but rather allows for the opportunity to present itself, thus demonstrating

his belief that he is following the Dao. For example, when Lü Dongbin responds to He

Xiangu’s revelations, the text states on numerous occasions, “Dongbin nodded his head”

(BXDDZ 565, 566, 567, 570) before voicing his response. This gesture indicates the

degree to which Lü’s sense of aplomb is informing his understanding of the situation.

The gesture also demonstrates one of his character’s main traits: his willingness to work

together. Lü Dongbin finds himself deep in a grotto, receiving a miraculous transmission

from an immortal and responds to her words of wisdom with cooperation. The act of

falling into a grotto, thereby following the path of least resistance, and agreeing to work

together with the mysterious is demonstrative, in some sense literally, of this passage of

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the Daodejing. As such, this scene serves as another example of the parabolic nature of

this tale.

As Lü listens to He Xiangu describe Baishe’s story, he himself undergoes a

similar transformation as Baishe in terms of completion. Previously, Wugou has made it

clear that Lü is the embodiment of chunyang “pure yang” and that this is why he is the

one who can restore the imbalance of cosmic yin. But it would be an oversimplification to

arrive at the conclusion that Lü is incapable of behaving in such a way as to exemplify

yin forces as well. In the passage immediately before the revelations about Baishe, Lü is

“bound up like a zongzi”(BXDDZ 559) by demonic ruffians, who then throw him into

He’s grotto. Lü is depicted as being wise enough to recognize when he is “hopelessly

outnumbered” (BXDDZ 558) and so he does not fight back against the demons. This is

demonstrative of his understanding of following the path of least resistance and thereby

his ability to employ yin tactics when the timing is appropriate. His ability to act in

accord with both yin and yang principles is demonstrative of his understanding of the

greater way.

Falling into He Xiangu’s grotto is also an important symbol that, while at first

seemingly mundane, proves to be wrapped in the threads of destiny. The act of falling

into the grotto represents the act of entering the womb, thus making Lü's name into a

sexually charged double entendre and transforming his body into a display of gender

relations in a Daoist context. In this symbolic representation, there is recognition of the

fact that in order to attain the Dao, an individual must synthesize and combine the forces

of yin and yang qi. To this effect, Lü’s fall into the grotto represents the combination of

yin and yang, active and passive principles. But this is certainly not the only example of a

56

combination and synthesis of forces that is required to further refine or complete an

object.

In Wugou’s work, the savior figure Lü Dongbin purges the world of excess yin (

陰) by fighting the sources of evil. Lü’s method of fighting, his magical sword, is also

another connection to the implied sexuality that runs throughout the story. Wugou has

already mentioned once that certain male figures (Zhang Daoling) endowed with

tremendous amounts of yangqi have at least been rumored to fight demons with their

urine (BXDDZ 495). The ability to fight evil with bodily fluids is noteworthy in and of

itself, but the explicit use of urine forms a connection to the phallic that cannot be

overlooked. The image of the phallus can be connected directly to Lü’s story as well

through examining the imagery connected to his character. Lü Dongbin is often depicted

wearing a sword on his back, which he uses to fight hungry ghosts and evil demons. This

is also his method of combat in Wugou’s text. The sword is so integral to the character of

Lü Dongbin that W. Perceval Yett’s refers to the “two edged magic sword” as Lü

Dongbin’s “emblem” (Yetts 773). This hyper masculine, overtly phallic imagery is then a

fundamental part of Lü’s iconography for the contemporary reader.

And yet this masculine, phallic power is to be regarded as incomplete. Without

He Xiangu, Lü would not have his sword and without Xuannü (玄女, lit. mysterious

woman), Lü would not have a technique. It is He Xiangu who produces the sword and

instructs Lü on its usage. According to He Xiangu, the one known as “The Fire Dragon

Perfected” (火龍真人) originally pioneered the method. While the sword method was

extremely powerful, “its method was incomplete, being solely capable of changing and

moving in accord with one’s heart and mind” (但其法未備，只能變化隨心，往來如意

57

BXDDZ 568). In order to prevent the excess of this active principle, the mysterious Xuan

Nü (玄女, lit. Mysterious Woman) learns the method and transforms it in a few symbolic

and practical ways.

Through obtaining this method, she adds some of her power (BXDDZ 568), thus

“bringing the method to completion” (BXDDZ 568). In it’s final form, the blade is

manipulated not by the mind through intention, but rather by the spirits that govern the

cosmos. Secondly, the method allows for the blade to be stored in the heart, “treasured

until it appears” (BXDDZ 568) at the next instance of need. This method then, is the

ultimate master weapon for restoring balance. Because of the processes involved in its

creation, this sword method is representative of the balance between the masculine and

feminine. Though it still embodies the phallic image of masculinity and is wielded by a

man of pure yang, the weapon itself is symbolic of combined forces working in

tandem. It is the forged creation of the two most primal of divine essences, combined in

perfect harmony and mixed at the perfect times. It is a blade that “can be used to save the

world” (BXDDZ 568) and it has been guarded, waiting for the arrival of the one person

capable of using it, Lü Dongbin.

Conclusion

By employing storytelling elements such as prophecy, framing devices, and plot

driven conflicts, Wugou Daoren relates a story that captures the attention and the

imagination of his audience. He then combines these storytelling elements with elements

of religious Daoist doctrine, such as explanations of cosmology and depictions of

58

compassionate immortals struggling with the real human problems of embodiment,

sexual desire, and moral cultivation so as to create a story that transcends the realm of

fiction and enters into the place of parable. By combining these two elements, Wugou

produces a text that participates in a larger renewal of Daoism in Chinese culture. As the

scholar Xun Liu claims in his Daoist Modern:

In contrast to the widely held perception of a general decline in cloistered and

liturgical Daoism since the Song Dynasty, recent studies have shown that Daoism

during the late imperial period was characterized by robust institutional renewal,

innovative writings and extensive circulation in Chinese culture and society of

Daoist concepts, techniques and influences through the proliferation of Daoist

scriptures and books. (Liu 35)

These chapters and indeed this entire book are a part of the aforementioned

renewal. The innovation with which Wugou combines doctrinal and story elements is the

main tool by which he seeks to revive Daoist concepts in the world of popular culture. As

such the author writes these stories to appeal to a broad cross-section of Chinese society,

in hopes of restoring their faith in Daoist beliefs and practice.

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