The Crusades - Wikispacesmrweyer.wikispaces.com/file/view/24_Crusades.pdf/298124038/24... · The Mediterranean region at the time of the Crusades ... Saladin In 1169 Saladin, one

The Crusades:The Crusades:Christian Christian Holy WarHoly War

(AD 1095(AD 1095--1291)1291)and the Rootsand the Roots

of Jihadof Jihad

(1995) (1995) (2001) (1984)(2001) (1984)

(2003) (2004) (2003) (2004) (1951)(1951)

Christian Christian Northern IberiaNorthern Iberia

IslamicIslamicSouthern IberiaSouthern Iberia

(Andalus)(Andalus)

FranceFrance

EnglandEngland

ItalyItaly

SicilySicily

MoroccoMorocco

IfriqiyaIfriqiya

BarqaBarqa

EgyptEgypt

PalestinePalestine

SyriaSyria

AnatoliaAnatolia

Black SeaBlack SeaByzantineByzantine

BalkansBalkans

GermanyGermany PolandPoland

HungaryHungary

The Mediterranean region at the time of the CrusadesThe Mediterranean region at the time of the Crusades(end of the 11(end of the 11thth--century A.D.) century A.D.)

““WESTWEST”” ““EASTEAST””

Medieval EuropeMedieval Europe

The Middle EastThe Middle East

Muslim world:Muslim world:Chronically divided into petty Chronically divided into petty warring statelets under titular warring statelets under titular suzerainty of the Great Seljuk suzerainty of the Great Seljuk Sultan at Mosul, including:Sultan at Mosul, including:

a. Turkish amirates, orsmall Islamic states, inAnatolia and Armenia,

b. atabegs (rulers) of Syria and northern Iraq

c. Palestine

Confident, however, of military superiority over the Byzantines.

Secure in their superior Secure in their superior wealth, science, technology, wealth, science, technology, material culture, great cities material culture, great cities and farand far--ranging trade ranging trade networks.networks.

No expectation that a horde No expectation that a horde of heavily armed religious of heavily armed religious fanatics would descend upon fanatics would descend upon them from Western Europe.them from Western Europe.

The ChristianThe Christianand Muslimand Muslim

Worlds, c. ADWorlds, c. AD10951095

** main point of premain point of pre--Crusade conflictCrusade conflict

**MosulMosul

Islamic soldiers defend a fortified city against Crusader knightIslamic soldiers defend a fortified city against Crusader knights.s.

Islamic armiesIslamic armies:

Included as many Central Asian Turkish mamlukmamluk or African ghulamghulamslave-origin professional soldiers as could be afforded. The rest consisted of local Turks, Kurds, Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Persians, ArmeniansArabs, Persians, Armenians.

Success of Islamic armies against the Crusaders reflected their superior organization, logistical support, discipline and tactics; like the Byzantines, the Islamic armies the Islamic armies were heirs to a sophisticated were heirs to a sophisticated military tradition where military tradition where ‘‘men of the men of the swordsword’’ were supported by were supported by ‘‘men of men of the pen.the pen.’’

Islamic states also learned that the only way to overcome the Crusader states was by steady reduction of steady reduction of their fortified towns.their fortified towns.

Strategy and tactics were greatly influenced by ecological factors (summer heat, winter rain, water, pasture, harvest times).

Routes of the main groups in the First Crusade

Siege of AntiochSiege of Antioch3 June, 10983 June, 1098

Siege of JerusalemSiege of Jerusalem15 July, 109915 July, 1099

The Mediterranean Sea and Routes of the Crusader Campaigns

Crusader Armies:Crusader Armies:Relatively prosperous Relatively prosperous participants;participants; not a means of escape for poor knights seeking their fortune overseas.

Aside from knightly cavalryknightly cavalry, infantry was made up of:

----professional soldiers, professional soldiers, ---- prosperous peasants, prosperous peasants, ---- townsmentownsmen.

Role of women was largely as financial backers.

Command structure was essentially amateur, though the king, as overall leader in king, as overall leader in later Crusadeslater Crusades, consulted with his leading barons and the Masters of the Military Orders.

The ChristianThe Christianand Muslimand Muslim

Worlds, c. ADWorlds, c. AD10951095

KnightsKnightsTemplar andTemplar and

HospitallerHospitaller

The logistics of the Crusades: 13th-century illustration showing two wagons loaded with helmets, mail coats, shields, and bags of food. From the uprights above the wagon hang a water bucket, a helmet, and cooking pots.

Romantic View of the CrusadesRomantic View of the Crusades

Peter the Hermit preachingPeter the Hermit preaching Baptizing the heathenBaptizing the heathen

1. Defeat in 1071 of Byzantine army by the Seljuk Turks at the battDefeat in 1071 of Byzantine army by the Seljuk Turks at the battle le of Manzikirtof Manzikirt—following which the the Empire was racked by political chaos, civil war and the loss of virtually the whole of Anatolia. In 1095, the Byzantine king Alexius Comnenus, sent a message to Pope Urban IIByzantine king Alexius Comnenus, sent a message to Pope Urban IIasking for Western mercenary troops. asking for Western mercenary troops.

2. Pope Urban IIPope Urban II:: preached a sort of armed pilgrimage which would help the Byzantines and also retake the Holy Land—to liberate Jerusalem from the ‘infidels.’ More ordinary people and budding knights were caught up in the hysteria than were the ruling classes.

Origins of Origins of First Crusade:First Crusade:

Pope Urban II on Pope Urban II on his way to Clermont,his way to Clermont,25 October 1095, 25 October 1095, where he would where he would ‘‘preachpreach’’ thetheFirst CrusadeFirst Crusade

Capture ofCapture ofAntiochAntioch

(Turkey),(Turkey),3 June 10983 June 1098

Antioch:Antioch:Holy LanceHoly Lance

‘‘foundfound’’ in the in the CathedralCathedral

First Crusade: Negotiate with Egypt?First Crusade: Negotiate with Egypt?

As the Crusaders took areas in the northern Levant, the EgyptianAs the Crusaders took areas in the northern Levant, the Egyptians:s:-- Retook Jerusalem and PalestineRetook Jerusalem and Palestine-- Tried to negotiate an antiTried to negotiate an anti--Seljuk alliance with CrusadersSeljuk alliance with Crusaders

The Crusaders, for their part, were totally disinterested:The Crusaders, for their part, were totally disinterested:- Too close to their goal of Jerusalem- In a ‘high state of religious enthusiasm’

Result: siege and capture of the Holy City, on 15 July 1099Holy City, on 15 July 1099,followed by the first of several major battles between Fatimid armies and Crusader forces on the coastal plain near Ascalon.

The First Crusade had been crowned with what was even then regarded as an almost miraculous success—a success which would not be repeated.

Jerusalem and the Jerusalem and the ‘‘True CrossTrue Cross’’

Capture of Jerusalem.Capture of Jerusalem.15 July 109915 July 1099

Christian torture of prisoners (Muslims, Jews,Christian torture of prisoners (Muslims, Jews,other Christians other Christians ……) in Jerusalem) in Jerusalem

The fate of the Jews of Jerusalemfate of the Jews of Jerusalem was no less atrocious. When the city walls overhanging their houses collapsed and blond knights began to pour through the streets, the Jews panicked. Re-enacting an immemorial rite, the entire community gathered in the main synagogue to pray. The Franj barricaded all exits … and the temple was then put to the torch. Those who managed to escape were massacred in the neighboring alleyways. The rest were burned alive.

The sack of Jerusalem, starting point of a millennial hostility between Islam and the West, aroused no immediate sensation. It would be nearly half a century before the Arab East would mobilize againsnearly half a century before the Arab East would mobilize against the t the invader, and before the call to jihad issued by the invader, and before the call to jihad issued by the qadiqadi of Damascus of Damascus ……would be celebrated in commemoration of the first solemn act of would be celebrated in commemoration of the first solemn act of resistance. resistance.

Jerusalem, 15 July, 1099Jerusalem, 15 July, 1099

Massacre of Christian prisonersMassacre of Christian prisoners

ANTIOCHANTIOCH

EDESSAEDESSA

TRIPOLITRIPOLI

JERUSALEMJERUSALEM

MosulMosul

SELJUKSSELJUKS DANISHMANDIDSDANISHMANDIDS

AleppoAleppo

DamascusDamascus

JerusalemJerusalemAscalonAscalon

In strategic terms the Crusader States were vulnerable, In strategic terms the Crusader States were vulnerable, forming an arc of territory from the unclear forming an arc of territory from the unclear eastern frontier of the County of Edessa to the eastern frontier of the County of Edessa to the southern tip of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.southern tip of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

1.1. To the north were the newly established To the north were the newly established Anatolian states of Danishmandids and Seljuks.Anatolian states of Danishmandids and Seljuks.

2. 2. To the east lay the great city of Mosul, which To the east lay the great city of Mosul, which would become the powerhouse of the first Islamic would become the powerhouse of the first Islamic countercounter--Crusade.Crusade.

3. 3. Tucked inside the curve of Crusader territory Tucked inside the curve of Crusader territory was the seemingly vulnerable Syrian city of was the seemingly vulnerable Syrian city of Aleppo which the Christians never took.Aleppo which the Christians never took.

4. 4. Further south was another great Syrian city, Further south was another great Syrian city, Damascus, which again the Crusaders never took.Damascus, which again the Crusaders never took.

Krak des ChevaliersKrak des Chevaliers

Krak des Chevaliers stronghold, County of Tripoli: the Hospitallers, who were given the castle in 1144, undertook extensive repairs here. It fell to the Mamluks in 1271.

As the shock of the First Crusade wore off, the Islamic military elite Islamic military elite returned to its traditional responsibilities ofreturned to its traditional responsibilities of jihadjihad or the defense and or the defense and recovery of Islamic territory.recovery of Islamic territory. Crusader States in the heart of the Islamic world were regarded as an affront rather than a threat.

Islamic conquest of EdessaIslamic conquest of Edessa: Under the rule of Imad al-Din Zangi in 1128 Edessa was conquered, sending shockwaves throughout Western Christendom and resulting in the preaching of the Second Crusade by St resulting in the preaching of the Second Crusade by St Bernard of Clairvaux.Bernard of Clairvaux.

The Second Crusade met its end in Turkish AnatoliaSecond Crusade met its end in Turkish Anatolia, except for a small group that came by sea to Palestine which also failed.

Crusades and Crusades and JihadJihad::

Crusades and Crusades and JihadJihad: Saladin: Saladin

In 1169 Saladin, one of the greatest of all Islamic leaders, camIn 1169 Saladin, one of the greatest of all Islamic leaders, came to power:e to power:

1. Became commander of the Syrian forces in Egypt, 2. Soon added Damascus to his realm along with southern Palestine

(freed Islamic pilgrimage route from Egypt to the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina)

3. This enhanced his credentials as a leader of the jihad. 4. In 1187 he wiped out a Christian army in the battle of Hattin and retook

Jerusalem.

Result: The Third Crusade.Result: The Third Crusade.

Amin Maalouf, Amin Maalouf, The Crusades Through The Crusades Through Arab EyesArab Eyes (translated from the Arabic (translated from the Arabic to English by Jon Rothschild):to English by Jon Rothschild):

Foreword:Foreword:

The basic idea of this book is to tell the story of the Crusades as they were seen, lived, and recorded on ‘the other side’—in other words, in the Arab camp. Its

content is based almost exclusively on the testimony of contemporary Arab historians and chroniclers.

The Arab historians spoke not of Crusades, but of Frankish wars,The Arab historians spoke not of Crusades, but of Frankish wars, or or ‘‘the the Frankish invasionsFrankish invasions——namely, wars of invasion by the Franj. namely, wars of invasion by the Franj.

I have sought to write, from a hitherto neglected point of view, what might be called the ‘true-life novel’ of the Crusades, of those two centuries of turmoil that shaped the west and the Arab world alike, and that affect relations between them even today.

The Cannibals of MaThe Cannibals of Ma’’arra (1098):arra (1098):

The leaders of Maleaders of Ma’’arra made contact with Bohemondarra made contact with Bohemond, the Frankish commander, who promised to spare the the Frankish commander, who promised to spare the lives of the inhabitantslives of the inhabitants if they would stop fighting and withdraw from certain buildings. Desperately placing their trust in his word, the families gathered in the houses and cellars of the city and waited all night in fear.

The Franj arrived at dawn. It was carnage. For three The Franj arrived at dawn. It was carnage. For three days they put people to the sword, killing nearly 10,000 people days they put people to the sword, killing nearly 10,000 people and taking and taking many prisoners.many prisoners.

““In MaIn Ma’’arra our troops boiled pagan adults in cookingarra our troops boiled pagan adults in cooking--pots; they impaled pots; they impaled children on spits and devoured them grilled.children on spits and devoured them grilled.”” The inhabitants of towns and villages near Ma’arra would never read this confession by the Frankish chronicler Radulph of Caen, but they would never forget what they had seen and heard. The chronicler Usamah Ibn Munqidh, born in the neighboring city of Shayzar three years before these events, would one day write:

““All those who were wellAll those who were well--informed about the Franj saw them as beasts informed about the Franj saw them as beasts superior in courage and fighting ardor but in nothing else, jussuperior in courage and fighting ardor but in nothing else, just as animals t as animals are superior in strength and aggression.are superior in strength and aggression.””

The Cannibals of MaThe Cannibals of Ma’’arra (1098):arra (1098):

Was this view of the Franj unjust? Did the Western invaders devour the inhabitants of the martyred city simply in order to survive? Their commanders said so in an official letter to the pope the following year: ““A A terrible famine racked the army in Materrible famine racked the army in Ma’’arra, and placed arra, and placed it in the cruel necessity of feeding itself upon the it in the cruel necessity of feeding itself upon the bodies of the Saracensbodies of the Saracens..”” And the Frankish chronicler Albert of Aix, who took part in the battle of Ma’arra, reported that:

““Not only did our troops not shrink from eating dead Not only did our troops not shrink from eating dead Turks and Saracens; they also ate dogs!Turks and Saracens; they also ate dogs!””

Epilogue: The Effect of the Crusades on Epilogue: The Effect of the Crusades on Western Europe and the Islamic WorldWestern Europe and the Islamic World

… In all domains the Franj learned much in the Arab school, in Syria as in Spain and Sicily. What they learned from the Arabs was indispensable in their subsequent expansion. The heritage of Greek heritage of Greek civilizationcivilization was transmitted to Western Europe through Arab intermediaries … In medicine, astronomy, medicine, astronomy, chemistry, geography, mathematics, and architecturechemistry, geography, mathematics, and architecture,

the Franj drew their knowledge from Arabic books, which they assimilated, imitated, and then surpassed. Many words bear testimony to this even words bear testimony to this even today: zenith, nadir, azimuth, algebra, algorithmtoday: zenith, nadir, azimuth, algebra, algorithm … In the realm of industry, the Europeans first learned and then later improved upon the processes used by the Arabs in paperpaper--making, leathermaking, leather--working, textiles, and the working, textiles, and the distillation of alcohol and sugardistillation of alcohol and sugar——two more words borrowed from the two more words borrowed from the Arabic language.Arabic language. Nor should we forget the extent to which European agriculture was enriched by contact with the Orient: apricots, scallions, apricots, scallions, watermelon:watermelon: the list of words derived from Arabic is vast.

Although the Crusades ignited a genuine economic and cultural revolution in Western Europe, in the in the Orient these holy wars led to long centuries of Orient these holy wars led to long centuries of decadence and obscurantism. Assaulted from all decadence and obscurantism. Assaulted from all quarters, the Muslim world turned in on itself. It quarters, the Muslim world turned in on itself. It became overbecame over--sensitive, defensive, intolerant, sensitive, defensive, intolerant, sterilesterile——attitudes that grew steadily worse as worldattitudes that grew steadily worse as world--wide evolution, a process from which the Muslim wide evolution, a process from which the Muslim world felt excluded, continued. world felt excluded, continued.

Henceforth progress was the embodiment of the Henceforth progress was the embodiment of the ‘‘other.other.’’Modernism became alienModernism became alien. Should cultural and religious identity be affirmed by rejecting this modernism … or should the road of modernization be embarked upon with resolution, thus risking loss of identity. Neither Iran, Neither Iran, nor Turkey, nor the Arab world has ever succeeded in resolving tnor Turkey, nor the Arab world has ever succeeded in resolving this his dilemma. Even today we can observe a lurching alternation betdilemma. Even today we can observe a lurching alternation between ween phases of forced Westernization and phases of extremist, stronglphases of forced Westernization and phases of extremist, strongly y xenophobic traditionalism.xenophobic traditionalism.

The ArabThe Arab worldworld—simultaneously fascinated and terrified by these Franj, whom they encountered as barbarians and defeated, but who subsequently managed to dominate the earth—cannotcannot bring itself to bring itself to consider the Crusades a mere episode in the bygone consider the Crusades a mere episode in the bygone past. The attitude of the Arabs (and of Muslims in past. The attitude of the Arabs (and of Muslims in general) towards the West is still influenced, even today, general) towards the West is still influenced, even today, by events that supposedly ended seven centuries ago.by events that supposedly ended seven centuries ago.

The Turk Mehmet Ali Agca, who tried to shoot the pope The Turk Mehmet Ali Agca, who tried to shoot the pope on 13 May, 1981, had expressed himself in a letter in these termon 13 May, 1981, had expressed himself in a letter in these termss: I have : I have decided to kill John Paul II, supreme commander of the Crusadesdecided to kill John Paul II, supreme commander of the Crusades.

Beyond this individual act, it seems clear that the Arab East still sees the West as a natural enemy. Against that enemy, any hostile action—be it political, military, or based on oil—is considered no more than legitimate vengeance. And there can be no doubt that the schism between these two And there can be no doubt that the schism between these two worlds dates from the Crusades, deeply felt by the Arabs, even tworlds dates from the Crusades, deeply felt by the Arabs, even today, as an oday, as an act of rape.act of rape.