The Creepy and The Creepy and Crawling: Bites and Crawling: Bites and Stings in North Stings in North America America Dr. Rebecca C. Bowers FACEP Dr. Rebecca C. Bowers FACEP Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Department of Emergency Department of Emergency Medicine Medicine University of Kentucky University of Kentucky
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The Creepy and Crawling: Bites and Stings in North America Dr. Rebecca C. Bowers FACEP Assistant Professor Department of Emergency Medicine University.
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The Creepy and Crawling: The Creepy and Crawling: Bites and Stings in North Bites and Stings in North
AmericaAmericaDr. Rebecca C. Bowers FACEPDr. Rebecca C. Bowers FACEP
Assistant ProfessorAssistant ProfessorDepartment of Emergency MedicineDepartment of Emergency Medicine
University of KentuckyUniversity of Kentucky
Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
Discuss scope of problem in the US and worldwideDiscuss scope of problem in the US and worldwide Recognize the major groups of animals that pose an Recognize the major groups of animals that pose an
envenomation threatenvenomation threat Gain an understanding of the prehospital and hospital Gain an understanding of the prehospital and hospital
management of North American snake envenomationsmanagement of North American snake envenomations Gain an understanding of the prehospital and hospital Gain an understanding of the prehospital and hospital
management of North American arachnid envenomationmanagement of North American arachnid envenomation Gain an understanding of prehospital and hospital Gain an understanding of prehospital and hospital
management of Hymenoptera envenomationmanagement of Hymenoptera envenomation Discuss the disposition of envenomation victimsDiscuss the disposition of envenomation victims
HymenopteraHymenopteraEnvenomationEnvenomation
North American OffendersNorth American Offenders
Bees and Wasps Bees and Wasps Bees: Honeybees, bumblebees, and africanized Bees: Honeybees, bumblebees, and africanized
honeybeeshoneybees Wasps: true wasps, yellow jackets, hornetsWasps: true wasps, yellow jackets, hornets Found throughout USA. AHBs found in SouthwestFound throughout USA. AHBs found in Southwest
AntsAnts Imported red fire antImported red fire ant Imported from South America. Found from Virginia to Imported from South America. Found from Virginia to
TexasTexas Native ant speciesNative ant species
Epidemiology Epidemiology Scope of the ProblemScope of the Problem
In 2005 AAPCC reported 10,792 bee and wasp In 2005 AAPCC reported 10,792 bee and wasp exposuresexposures
1200 required a hospital visit with only 1 death1200 required a hospital visit with only 1 death Very underreportedVery underreported 2100 fire ant exposures with 250 requiring a 2100 fire ant exposures with 250 requiring a
hospital visit and no deathshospital visit and no deaths AAAI survey 20,750 fire ant exposures AAAI survey 20,750 fire ant exposures
annuallyannually
Venom PathophysiologyVenom Pathophysiology
Bees and WaspsBees and Wasps Bees: Melittin, hyaluronidase, mast-cell Bees: Melittin, hyaluronidase, mast-cell
degranulation proteindegranulation protein Wasps: very similar with addition of Ach and Wasps: very similar with addition of Ach and
serotoninserotonin Red fire antsRed fire ants
Piperidine alkaloid causing histamine release and Piperidine alkaloid causing histamine release and skin necrosisskin necrosis
Cytotoxic and hemotoxic propertiesCytotoxic and hemotoxic properties
Taken from WebMD.comTaken from WebMD.com
Clinical SyndromesClinical Syndromes
Bees and WaspsBees and Wasps Small, local pruritic skin lesion. Larger local Small, local pruritic skin lesion. Larger local
reactions >5cm do occur and may last longer. reactions >5cm do occur and may last longer. Occasionally a mild systemic reaction occurs with Occasionally a mild systemic reaction occurs with
n/v, diarrhea, diffuse urticarial skin lesions. n/v, diarrhea, diffuse urticarial skin lesions. Very rarely, a victim will present with full blown Very rarely, a victim will present with full blown
anaphylaxisanaphylaxis Massive envenomation >50 stings CV collapseMassive envenomation >50 stings CV collapse Delayed systemic toxicity: This includes hemolysis, Delayed systemic toxicity: This includes hemolysis,
thrombocytopenia, liver dysfunction, and thrombocytopenia, liver dysfunction, and rhabdomyolysis with subsequent renal failurerhabdomyolysis with subsequent renal failure
Red fire antsRed fire ants Multiple stings rule rather than exceptionMultiple stings rule rather than exception Hundreds of pustules at bite sitesHundreds of pustules at bite sites Burning pain at each lesionBurning pain at each lesion 25% of population in endemic areas has 25% of population in endemic areas has
hypersensitivity hypersensitivity Resultant anaphylactic reaction possibleResultant anaphylactic reaction possible Systemic venom toxicity after mass envenomationSystemic venom toxicity after mass envenomation
fluidsfluids Note number and location of stings, progressionNote number and location of stings, progression
Hospital: Hospital: Same with addition of steroids and H1 and H2 Same with addition of steroids and H1 and H2
blockers, pressors as needed for CV support, blockers, pressors as needed for CV support, tetanus tetanus
Massive envenomation requires monitoring for Massive envenomation requires monitoring for rhabdo, hemolysis, ARF, and liver failurerhabdo, hemolysis, ARF, and liver failure
DispositionDisposition
Local: discharge after symptomatic careLocal: discharge after symptomatic care Mild allergic reaction: discharge after 6 hours Mild allergic reaction: discharge after 6 hours
with 3 days of oral antihistamines and oral with 3 days of oral antihistamines and oral steroidssteroids
Moderate to anaphylaxis: admission, Epi-pen, Moderate to anaphylaxis: admission, Epi-pen, allergist referral, medic-alert bracelet allergist referral, medic-alert bracelet
Mass envenomation: admission even if Mass envenomation: admission even if asymptomatic due to delayed systemic toxicityasymptomatic due to delayed systemic toxicity
ReptilianReptilian
EnvenomationEnvenomation
North American OffendersNorth American Offenders
Crotalidae or Pit Vipers Crotalidae or Pit Vipers RattlesnakeRattlesnake CottonmouthCottonmouth CopperheadCopperhead
ElapidaeElapidae Coral SnakeCoral Snake
Multiple species of each located all over the Multiple species of each located all over the USA except Maine, Alaska and HawaiiUSA except Maine, Alaska and Hawaii
EpidemiologyEpidemiologyScope of the ProblemScope of the Problem
In 2005 AAPCC reported 2900 pit viper bites In 2005 AAPCC reported 2900 pit viper bites with 1875 being evaluated at a hospital and 6 with 1875 being evaluated at a hospital and 6 deaths. 171 considered life-threatening. Not all deaths. 171 considered life-threatening. Not all reported. 25% of bites are “dry bites”reported. 25% of bites are “dry bites”
Reported 58 coral snake bites with 6 life-Reported 58 coral snake bites with 6 life-threatening and no deathsthreatening and no deaths
Morbidity fairly high with lost productivity Morbidity fairly high with lost productivity due to pain and reduced functiondue to pain and reduced function
Worldwide a much bigger problemWorldwide a much bigger problem Best estimates are as high as 1.8 million bites Best estimates are as high as 1.8 million bites
per year with 94,000 deathsper year with 94,000 deaths Biggest problem in southern Asia and Sub-Biggest problem in southern Asia and Sub-
Saharan Africa due to lack of antivenin, rural Saharan Africa due to lack of antivenin, rural locales, and much higher incidence of lethal locales, and much higher incidence of lethal speciesspecies
Venom PathophysiologyVenom Pathophysiology
Hemotoxic venom (Pit Vipers)Hemotoxic venom (Pit Vipers) One of most complex venomsOne of most complex venoms Thrombin-like enzymes: coagulopathyThrombin-like enzymes: coagulopathy Phospholipases: platelet dysfunctionPhospholipases: platelet dysfunction Metalloproteinases:leaky vasculature with edema Metalloproteinases:leaky vasculature with edema
and ecchymosisand ecchymosis Bradykinin: hypotension, N/V/D, painBradykinin: hypotension, N/V/D, pain
Neurotoxic venom (Coral Snake and Mojave Neurotoxic venom (Coral Snake and Mojave Rattlesnake)Rattlesnake) Disrupts neuromuscular transmission by blocking Disrupts neuromuscular transmission by blocking
Ach receptors with resultant weakness, Ach receptors with resultant weakness, paresthesias, and respiratory paralysisparesthesias, and respiratory paralysis
Taken from emedicine article published by University of TennesseeTaken from emedicine article published by University of Tennessee
Pediatric Emergency Medicine PracticePediatric Emergency Medicine PracticeMay 2007 Vol. 4 No. 5May 2007 Vol. 4 No. 5
Pit Viper TreatmentPit Viper Treatment
PrehospitalPrehospital ABCsABCs Assess for systemic symptomsAssess for systemic symptoms Note bite site, bite time and snake typeNote bite site, bite time and snake type Mark initial area with time and follow progressionMark initial area with time and follow progression Elevate to level of heartElevate to level of heart Compression dressing or pressure-immobilizationCompression dressing or pressure-immobilization Transport immediately to facility with antiveninTransport immediately to facility with antivenin
Do Not…..Do Not…..
PerformPerform Cryotherapy (the old ice bucket)Cryotherapy (the old ice bucket) Electrotherapy (jumper cables…I’m not kidding)Electrotherapy (jumper cables…I’m not kidding) Cut and suck methodCut and suck method Sawyer extractorSawyer extractor Tourniquets Tourniquets
TreatmentTreatment
HospitalHospital ABCsABCs Note progressionNote progression Labs Labs Grade envenomationGrade envenomation Determine need for CroFab (see next slide)Determine need for CroFab (see next slide) Tetanus updateTetanus update
Weant KA, Johnson PN, Weant KA, Johnson PN, Bowers RC,Bowers RC, Armitstead JA; Evidence-Based, Multidisciplinary Approach to the Development of a Armitstead JA; Evidence-Based, Multidisciplinary Approach to the Development of a Crotalidae Polyvalent Antivenin (CroFab) Protocol at a University Hospital. Crotalidae Polyvalent Antivenin (CroFab) Protocol at a University Hospital. The Annals of PharmacotherapyThe Annals of Pharmacotherapy 2010; 2010; 44:xxxx.44:xxxx.
Weant KA, Johnson PN, Weant KA, Johnson PN, Bowers RC,Bowers RC, Armitstead JA; Evidence-Based, Multidisciplinary Approach to the Development of a Armitstead JA; Evidence-Based, Multidisciplinary Approach to the Development of a Crotalidae Polyvalent Antivenin (CroFab) Protocol at a University Hospital. Crotalidae Polyvalent Antivenin (CroFab) Protocol at a University Hospital. The Annals of PharmacotherapyThe Annals of Pharmacotherapy 2010; 2010; 44:xxxx.44:xxxx.
To cut or not to cut….To cut or not to cut….
Fasciotomy very rarely indicated Fasciotomy very rarely indicated Mimics compartment syndromeMimics compartment syndrome Usually subcutaneous edemaUsually subcutaneous edema Antivenin will almost always reverse true Antivenin will almost always reverse true
compartment syndromecompartment syndrome Only proceed to fasciotomy if elevated Only proceed to fasciotomy if elevated
pressure sustained and confirmed with pressure sustained and confirmed with measurementmeasurement
A word on CroFab….A word on CroFab….
Only FDA approved Pit Viper antivenin Only FDA approved Pit Viper antivenin currentlycurrently
Other good antivenins used in Central and Other good antivenins used in Central and South America for pit vipersSouth America for pit vipers
Much less expensiveMuch less expensive Do work on North American speciesDo work on North American species Used by local venom expertUsed by local venom expert
TreatmentTreatment
Coral Snakes (Elapids)Coral Snakes (Elapids) Respiratory support as neededRespiratory support as needed Return of muscular function can take weeks Return of muscular function can take weeks
requiring prolonged intubationrequiring prolonged intubation Antivenin is available in USA but whole IgG so no Antivenin is available in USA but whole IgG so no
longer producedlonger produced Other possibilities include mexican product and Other possibilities include mexican product and
Tiger snake antivenin from AustraliaTiger snake antivenin from Australia
DispositionDisposition
Pit Viper (Crotalid)Pit Viper (Crotalid) Observe 8 hours. If no symptoms then may Observe 8 hours. If no symptoms then may
dischargedischarge No CroFab warranted but envenomated: Discharge No CroFab warranted but envenomated: Discharge
with lab and MD follow up 24-48 hourswith lab and MD follow up 24-48 hours CroFab given: admission to floor versus ICU CroFab given: admission to floor versus ICU
depending on clinical scenariodepending on clinical scenario
Coral Snake (Elapid)Coral Snake (Elapid) Admission warranted even if asymptomaticAdmission warranted even if asymptomatic Some argue to give antivenin empirically given Some argue to give antivenin empirically given
severity of envenomation severity of envenomation
ArachnidArachnidEnvenomationEnvenomation
North American OffenderNorth American Offender
Centruroides exilicauda or the Bark ScorpionCentruroides exilicauda or the Bark Scorpion Found in Southwestern USA mainly in Found in Southwestern USA mainly in
ArizonaArizona Few in Texas, Northern Mexico, and areas of Few in Texas, Northern Mexico, and areas of
CaliforniaCalifornia
EpidemiologyEpidemiologyScope of the ProblemScope of the Problem
In 2005 AAPCC reported 14,521 reports of In 2005 AAPCC reported 14,521 reports of scorpion envenomationscorpion envenomation
20 victims felt to have life threatening 20 victims felt to have life threatening outcomesoutcomes
No deaths reported that yearNo deaths reported that year Almost all lethal envenomations are children Almost all lethal envenomations are children
depolarization and prolong action potentialdepolarization and prolong action potential Over stimulation of parasympathetic and Over stimulation of parasympathetic and
sympathetic nervous system with Ach and sympathetic nervous system with Ach and catecholamine releasecatecholamine release
Clinical SyndromeClinical Syndrome
+ tap test over sting site+ tap test over sting site Autonomic dysfunctionAutonomic dysfunction Fasciculations and roving eye movementsFasciculations and roving eye movements Uncontrolled limb movementsUncontrolled limb movements Increased secretions including bronchorrhea Increased secretions including bronchorrhea Mild envenomation: adrenergic syndromeMild envenomation: adrenergic syndrome Severe envenomation: cholinergic syndromeSevere envenomation: cholinergic syndrome
Additional treatmentsAdditional treatments
Sympatholytic antihypertensive agents for Sympatholytic antihypertensive agents for hypertensionhypertension
Atropine may be used to control secretionsAtropine may be used to control secretions
AntiveninAntivenin
Antivenin:Antivenin: Previous goat serum derived has expiredPrevious goat serum derived has expired New drug Anascorp manufactured in Mexico is New drug Anascorp manufactured in Mexico is
being trialed in Arizonabeing trialed in Arizona Using since 2004 and over 1500 patients treatedUsing since 2004 and over 1500 patients treated Still pending FDA approvalStill pending FDA approval
DispositionDisposition
Most adults require supportive treatment onlyMost adults require supportive treatment only Children more likely to suffer with Children more likely to suffer with
neuromuscular dysfunction and require ICU neuromuscular dysfunction and require ICU admission and antiveninadmission and antivenin
North American OffendersNorth American Offenders
Only 2 medically significant spiders in the Only 2 medically significant spiders in the USAUSA
Loxosceles reclusa or the Brown RecluseLoxosceles reclusa or the Brown Recluse Found mainly in central and southern US decreasing Found mainly in central and southern US decreasing
towards the coasttowards the coast
Latrodectus or the Black Widow SpiderLatrodectus or the Black Widow Spider Found throughout the USFound throughout the US
EpidemiologyEpidemiologyScope of the Problem Scope of the Problem
In 2005 the AAPCC reported 2236 recluse In 2005 the AAPCC reported 2236 recluse bites with 14 being life-threatening. High bites with 14 being life-threatening. High morbiditymorbidity
Over last 20 years 40,000 Black Widow Over last 20 years 40,000 Black Widow envenomations have been reported to AAPCC. envenomations have been reported to AAPCC. Mortality highest in childrenMortality highest in children
Venom PathophysiologyVenom Pathophysiology
Black Widow (Latrodectus)Black Widow (Latrodectus) No cytotoxinsNo cytotoxins Alpha-latrotoxin most importantAlpha-latrotoxin most important
Decreases reuptake of acetylcholine at NMJDecreases reuptake of acetylcholine at NMJ Also epinephrineAlso epinephrine
Brown Recluse (Loxosceles)Brown Recluse (Loxosceles) Many cytotoxic components and inflammatory Many cytotoxic components and inflammatory
mediatorsmediators Sphingomyelinase D as well prostaglandins, Sphingomyelinase D as well prostaglandins,
leukotrienes, and thromboxanesleukotrienes, and thromboxanes
Pediatric Emergency Medicine PracticePediatric Emergency Medicine PracticeMay 2007 Vol. 4 No. 5May 2007 Vol. 4 No. 5
Brown RecluseBrown Recluse Local tissue destructionLocal tissue destruction Systemic loxoscelismSystemic loxoscelism
Verified Brown Recluse Bite Verified Brown Recluse Bite Bites of Brown Recluse Spiders and Suspected Necrotic ArachnidismBites of Brown Recluse Spiders and Suspected Necrotic Arachnidism
David L. Swanson, M.D., and Richard S. Vetter, M.S.David L. Swanson, M.D., and Richard S. Vetter, M.S.N Engl J Med 2005; 352:700-707N Engl J Med 2005; 352:700-707February 17, 2005February 17, 2005
Treatment of Brown RecluseTreatment of Brown Recluse
Delayed surgical excisionDelayed surgical excision No to DapsoneNo to Dapsone No to SteroidsNo to Steroids No to nitroglycerineNo to nitroglycerine No to HBONo to HBO Systemic Loxoscelism requires supportive treatmentSystemic Loxoscelism requires supportive treatment AntiveninAntivenin
Rabbit-derived Fab fragmentsRabbit-derived Fab fragments Must be administered within 4 hoursMust be administered within 4 hours Typical delay makes this impracticalTypical delay makes this impractical
Pediatric Emergency Medicine PracticePediatric Emergency Medicine PracticeMay 2007 Vol. 4 No. 5May 2007 Vol. 4 No. 5
Pediatric Emergency Medicine PracticePediatric Emergency Medicine PracticeMay 2007 VOl.4 No. 5May 2007 VOl.4 No. 5
Black Widow antiveninBlack Widow antivenin
Whole IgG with high incidence of serum Whole IgG with high incidence of serum sickness and hypersensitivitysickness and hypersensitivity
Reserved for severe autonomic dysfunction Reserved for severe autonomic dysfunction and painand pain
A Fab antivenin is being testedA Fab antivenin is being tested
DispositionDisposition
Black Widow Black Widow May discharge after 6 hours if asymptomaticMay discharge after 6 hours if asymptomatic Admission otherwise for IV opiates and benzosAdmission otherwise for IV opiates and benzos
Brown RecluseBrown Recluse Most can be discharged with follow-up for long-Most can be discharged with follow-up for long-
term wound careterm wound care ICU admission for systemic syndromeICU admission for systemic syndrome
Be careful out there!!!Be careful out there!!!
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QuestionsQuestions
1.1. Bites and Stings-Snakes, spiders, and scorpions in the United States. Bites and Stings-Snakes, spiders, and scorpions in the United States. Pediatric Emergency Medicine Practice May 2007 Vol. 4 No. 5Pediatric Emergency Medicine Practice May 2007 Vol. 4 No. 5
2.2. Hymenoptera envenomation: Bees, Wasps, and Ants. Pediatric Hymenoptera envenomation: Bees, Wasps, and Ants. Pediatric Emergency Medicine Practice June 2008 VOl. 5 No.6Emergency Medicine Practice June 2008 VOl. 5 No.6
3.3. Antivenom for Critically Ill Children with Neurotoxicity from Scorpion Antivenom for Critically Ill Children with Neurotoxicity from Scorpion Stings. NEJM 2009; 3360:2090-8.Stings. NEJM 2009; 3360:2090-8.
4.4. Bites of Brown Recluse Spiders and Suspected Necrotic Arachnidism. Bites of Brown Recluse Spiders and Suspected Necrotic Arachnidism. NEJM 2005; 352:700-7NEJM 2005; 352:700-7
5.5. The global burden of snakebite: a literature analysis and modeling basedThe global burden of snakebite: a literature analysis and modeling based on regional estimates of envenoming and deaths on regional estimates of envenoming and deaths. PLoSMed. 2008 Nov 4;5(11):e218. PLoSMed. 2008 Nov 4;5(11):e218
6.6. Evidence-Based, Multidisciplinary Approach to the Development of a Evidence-Based, Multidisciplinary Approach to the Development of a Crotalidae Polyvalent Antivenin (CroFab) Protocol at a University Crotalidae Polyvalent Antivenin (CroFab) Protocol at a University Hospital. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy March 2010 Vol. 44Hospital. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy March 2010 Vol. 44