The Columbia History of Chinese Literature

Victor H. Mair EDITOR
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The Columbia History of Chinese Literature
Victor H. Mair editor
New York, Chichester, West Sussex
Copyright 2001 Columbia University Press All rights reserved
Columbia University Press wishes to express its appreciation for assistance given by the
Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange, the Pushkin Fund, and the
Center for East Asian Studies of the University of Pennsylvania toward the cost of publishing this book.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The Columbia history of Chinese literature / Victor H. Mair, editor. p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-231-10984-9 (alk. paper)
1. Chinese literature—History and criticism. I. Mair, Victor H., 1943–
PL2265 .C65 2001 895.109—dc21
2001028236
Cover art: Juan Chi (210–263) and Sung/Chin-period actor whistling Woodcuts by Daniel Heitkamp
Casebound editions of Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper.
Printed in the United States of America c 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To the people of China—be they Han or non-Han, be they literate or illiterate. They have all contributed, each in his or her own way, to making Chinese
civilization what it is today.
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c o n t e n t s
Prolegomenon xi Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix Abbreviations xxi
Map of China xxii
Introduction: The Origins and Impact of Literati Culture 1
i . f o u n d a t i o n s
1. Language and Script, victor h. mair 19 2. Myth, anne birrell 58
3. Philosophy and Literature in Early China, michael puett 70 4. The Thirteen Classics, paul rakita goldin 86
5. Shih-ching Poetry and Didacticism in Ancient Chinese Literature, jeffrey riegel 97
6. The Supernatural, rania huntington 110 7. Wit and Humor, karin myhre 132 8. Proverbs, john s. rohsenow 149
9. Buddhist Literature, helwig schmidt-glintzer and victor h. mair 160 10. Taoist Heritage, judith magee boltz 173 11. Women in Literature, anne birrell 194
viii c o n t e n t s
i i . p o e t r y
12. Sao, Fu, Parallel Prose, and Related Genres, christopher leigh connery 223
13. Poetry from 200 b.c .e . to 600 c.e . , robert joe cutter 248 14. Poetry of the T’ang Dynasty, paul w. kroll 274
15. Tz’u, stuart sargent 314 16. Sung Dynasty Shih Poetry, michael a. fuller 337
17. Yuan San-ch’u, wayne schlepp 370 18. Mongol-Yuan Classical Verse (Shih), richard john lynn 383 19. Poetry of the Fourteenth Century, john timothy wixted 390
20. Poetry of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, daniel bryant 399 21. Poetry of the Seventeenth Century, richard john lynn 410
22. Poetry of the Eighteenth to Early Twentieth Centuries, daniel bryant 429
23. Ch’ing Lyric, david mccraw 444 24. Modern Poetry, michelle yeh 453
25. Poetry and Painting, charles hartman 466
i i i . p r o s e
26. The Literary Features of Historical Writing, stephen durrant 493 27. Early Biography, william h. nienhauser, jr . 511
28. Expository Prose, ronald egan 527 29. Records of Anomalies, hu ying 542
30. Travel Literature, james m. hargett 555 31. Sketches, james m. hargett 560
32. Twentieth-Century Prose, philip f . c . williams 566
i v. fi c t i o n
33. T’ang Tales, william h. nienhauser, jr . 579 34. Vernacular Stories, yenna wu 595
35. Full-Length Vernacular Fiction, wai-yee li 620 36. Traditional Vernacular Novels: Some Lesser-Known Works,
daria berg 659 37. The Later Classical Tale, allan h. barr 675
38. Fiction from the End of the Empire to the Beginning of the Republic (1897–1916), milena dolezelova -velingerova 697
39. Twentieth-Century Fiction, philip f . c . williams 732 40. China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan During the 1980s and 1990s,
helmut martin 758
v. d r a m a
41. Traditional Dramatic Literature, wilt l. idema 785 42. Twentieth-Century Spoken Drama, xiaomei chen 848
v i . c o m m e n t a r y, c r i t i c i s m , a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
43. The Rhetoric of Premodern Prose Style, christoph harbsmeier 881 44. Classical Exegesis, haun saussy 909
45. Literary Theory and Criticism, dore j . levy 916 46. Traditional Fiction Commentary, david l. rolston 940
v i i . p o p u l a r a n d p e r i p h e r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s
47. Balladry and Popular Song, anne birrell 953 48. Tun-huang Literature, neil schmid 964
49. The Oral-Formulaic Tradition, anne e. mclaren 989 50. Regional Literatures, mark bender 1015
51. Ethnic Minority Literature, mark bender 1032 52. The Translator’s Turn: The Birth of Modern Chinese Language and
Fiction, lydia h. liu 1055 53. The Reception of Chinese Literature in Korea,
emanuel pastreich 1067 54. The Reception of Chinese Literature in Japan,
emanuel pastreich 1079 55. The Reception of Chinese Literature in Vietnam,
emanuel pastreich 1096
Suggestions for Further Reading 1105 Principal Chinese Dynasties and Periods 1153
Romanization Schemes for Modern Standard Mandarin 1155 Glossary of Terms 1161
Glossary of Names 1179 Glossary of Titles 1213
Index 1241 Contributors 1335
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p r o l e g o m e n o n
It was only about a century ago that the first histories of Chinese literature began to be written in any language. These earliest attempts at writing the history of Chinese literature were often little more than glorified anthologies. In many instances, they were essentially collections of translated chestnuts with scarcely any explanation or commentary. Seldom was there an attempt to con- struct a systematic account of the development of genres, styles, and themes or to analyze the relationship of literature to society, political institutions, or even the other arts. Around half a century later, it became possible to write general introductions to the history of Chinese literature, and several dozen of these indeed appeared in Chinese, Japanese, English, French, and German. For the most part, however, such histories were still filled largely with translations and excerpts, and offered only minimal interpretation. Of course, all the while scores of monographs and hundreds of articles were being written on various specific authors, works, movements, and periods.
In the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, however, secondary studies on virtually all aspects of Chinese literature mushroomed to the point that bibliographical control became a genuine problem. Simply keeping up with the flood of new research was a challenge that occupied many specialists who compiled bibli- ographies, guides, and encyclopedias. The outpouring of scholarly investiga- tions, many of them of very high quality, was both a blessing and a curse. It was a blessing because valuable insights and materials were being made avail- able, but it was a curse because no one person could possibly stay abreast of
xii p r o l e g o m e n o n
everything that was appearing, as had been possible in the first half of the twentieth century. The superabundance of new studies proved to be so intim- idating that some of the best minds in Chinese literary studies declared that it was no longer possible to write a history of Chinese literature--not even by committee, much less by a single person. Collectively, there was simply too much known about the subject to compress it into a single volume or even into several volumes. Furthermore, it was felt that, as more was learned about the complexities of Chinese literature, it became virtually impossible to make sense of them.
Pessimism over the propriety of attempting a comprehensive history of Chi- nese literature also arose as a result of changing perceptions and paradigms. Whereas it used to be taken for granted that the history of Chinese literature should be chronologically divided up by dynasties and topically arranged ac- cording to genres, these once comfortable assumptions have now become sub- jected to such severe scrutiny that they can no longer be relied on. Critical analysis and skeptical hermeneutics have called into question even the most basic premises about Chinese literature. Periodization no longer follows a dy- nastic approach; traditional categories and rankings are shown to be faulty; and hitherto ignored literary realms are brought to the fore.
Despite these daunting obstacles to the creation of a viable history of Chinese literature for our time, the need for such a work is so compelling that we have gone forward, fully aware of the difficulties. What The Columbia History of Chinese Literature attempts to do is to weave together the latest findings of critical scholarship in a framework that is simultaneously chronological and topical. The chronology used here is far from strictly dynastic, but it does not eschew dynastic divisions altogether when they are warranted. As for topics covered, this volume by no means subscribes to the view that Chinese literature can be neatly broken up according to traditional genres. Since many of the old genre categories are problematic, they are referred to but not regarded as re- strictions. Above all, the history of Chinese literature is seen through entirely new prisms that transcend both time and genre. These unaccustomed lenses for looking at Chinese literature may be found in a number of specific chapters (e.g., chapters 43 and 49), but are also spread throughout the book.
The scope of this work is the entire history of Chinese literature from its inception to the present day. Most attention is naturally devoted to the pre- modern period, because it is so vast by itself and because postimperial (after 1911) literature in China has increasingly become international, in both themes and form. By the same token, however, the twentieth century is covered to show the extent to which traditions persist and the degree to which they have changed. The primary aim throughout this volume is to illuminate essential features of the history of Chinese literature so that those who are completely unacquainted with it will be able to gain a foothold, and so that those who are minimally acquainted with the subject as a whole or who are familiar with one facet of it will gain a deeper understanding and a more comprehensive grasp.
p r o l e g o m e n o n xiii
Some of the issues and themes that run throughout the volume can be enumerated here. A primary concern is with the way that thought (broadly construed) and religion have conditioned the growth of literature. Confucian- ism, Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religion have all played decisive roles in the unfolding of literature in China. The permutations and combinations of these various strands of Chinese secular and sacred discourse are extraordinarily com- plicated, yet coming to grips with them is essential for an accurate and adequate understanding of Chinese literature. This work also endeavors to clarify the importance of the relationship between the elite and the popular for Chinese literature, by no means a simple task. Similarly, a special effort has been made to account for the intricate interaction between the Han (Sinitic) and non-Han (non-Sinitic) as it is manifested in literary works that have survived. Linked to this is a serious examination of the role of language (both literary and vernac- ular) in determining the nature of particular texts. This, in turn, leads to the matter of written versus oral, and national versus regional and local, in the Chinese literary landscape.
In general, Chinese literature is seen here as intimately associated with the society in which it was nurtured and manifested. Literature is not a thing unto itself but, rather, the product of an infinite array of sociopolitical forces and cultural factors. In each chapter, the purpose is to illuminate as many of these interconnections as possible. Obviously, it would be impossible to mention every author and every work written in the long history of Chinese literature. Instead, representative figures and titles have been selected, in an effort not to miss anything essential; yet we also introduce some authors and works that have hitherto been ignored for one reason or another despite their significance. Al- though the volume aims to be comprehensive, it would be folly to believe it could be exhaustive. For a history of literature to be genuine, it is more impor- tant for it to be enlightening than to be all-inclusive. Therefore, this history touches on such matters as the fuzzy interface between prose and poetry, the uncertain boundary between fiction and drama, and the ineffable interplay between spoken and written language. In the end, what this history has helped the contributors to see—and what we hope it helps our readers to see—is the varied nature of Chinese literature, its shifting contours and kaleidoscopic trans- formations, its subtle lineaments and lasting verities. If, on the completion of this volume, one can say anything with conviction about the history of Chinese literature, perhaps it would be that it is long, abundant, and vibrant. May some such recognition stand as a much-needed corrective to customary notions of Chinese literature as effete, exotic, and monotonous. Quite the contrary, the history of Chinese literature is as multifarious and vital as that of any other literary tradition on earth.
Victor H. Mair Peking May 25, 2000
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p r e f a c e
As Chinese culture becomes more familiar to the general public and as in- creasing numbers of citizens of East Asian descent with an interest in their heritage fill our nation’s classrooms, many individuals feel the need for a multi- purpose, comprehensive history of Chinese literature. Ideally, this should be a work to which specialists and nonspecialists alike can turn when they require background on Chinese literary genres, texts, figures, and movements. From its very conception, The Columbia History of Chinese Literature was designed to meet the needs of such users.
Unlike several earlier histories of Chinese literature (none of which remains in print), this book eschews extensive quotation of specific texts. There now exist so many good translations of Chinese literature from all periods, and so many fine anthologies presenting either the whole sweep of the tradition or various pertinent slices thereof, that the interested reader can turn directly to integral texts if that is desired. It would make inefficient use of the space avail- able in this history to pad it with lengthy translated passages. Instead, the aim is to pack its pages with as much basic information as possible. Thus the serious student of Chinese literature has available in this single volume a reliable re- source for finding out essential facts about Chinese authors and works in his- torical context.
Its contextual and conceptual framework distinguishes this history from vari- ous handbooks, guides, dictionaries, and encyclopedias of Chinese literature, some of which are excellent in their own ways, that the reader may also wish
xvi p r e f a c e
to consult. The organization of The Columbia History of Chinese Literature is intended to complement that of The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chi- nese Literature (1994) and The Shorter Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chi- nese Literature (2000). It begins with the linguistic and intellectual foundations, moves successively through verse, prose, fiction, drama, and commentary and criticism, then closes with popular and peripheral manifestations. Particular emphasis is placed on certain aspects of Chinese literature that are frequently slighted or overlooked entirely but that are essential for a full understanding of the subject. For example, a great deal of attention is devoted to the supernatural (see chapters 6 and 29) because it is one of the most powerful sources of literary inspiration in China. Similarly, folk and regional styles and genres are brought to the fore, as is Sinitic interaction with non-Sinitic peoples, inasmuch as these were also potent forces in the development of Chinese literature (see, for ex- ample, chapters 50 and 51). Proportionally greater attention is also paid to cer- tain key periods and personages, such as the seventeenth century, Wang Shih- chen (1634–1711), the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, Lu Hsun, and the 1980s and 1990s (see chapters 21–23, 38, and 40), because major transitions and transformations are associated with them. Like the Columbia Anthology, the Columbia History strives to combine a thematic approach with an overall chronological framework. No single formula has been applied to all the chapters. Rather, the authors of the individual chapters have been encouraged to let the materials therein take their own specific shape and course.
In a volume as large as this, in which more than forty authors are engaged with a subject as complex as that of the entire history of Chinese literature, some differences of opinion or interpretation are unavoidable. For instance, how should one explain the apparent cultural wasteland of the fifteenth cen- tury? Was it the result of the paranoid depredations of the Ming dynasty founder, Chu Yuan-chang? The aftereffects of the Mongol occupation? Internal inertia? A combination of all these factors? Or was the fifteenth century not such a literary and artistic lacuna after all? Various authors interpret the fifteenth- century cultural scene differently. This may actually be a blessing in disguise, since they may all illuminate one or more aspects of a complicated, multifac- eted problem. For this reason, I have not insisted on absolute uniformity of opinion, only on rigorous marshalling of evidence.
As editor, I have reviewed all fifty-five chapters carefully and have added portions to most of them, while subtracting sections from others. With an eye toward consistency, I have also made stylistic revisions where they seemed ap- propriate. Fortunately, because I gave the authors explicit guidelines when the project to create this history first began in June 1996, most of the chapters did not have to be extensively modified.
Inasmuch as this is a history, hundreds of dates appear in this volume. For some events, the exact days on which they occurred are known. For others, only the years in which they took place can be established with confidence. The fact
p r e f a c e xvii
that the traditional Chinese calendar was lunar (with periodic intercalary months)—whereas the current international standard is solar—occasionally makes references to the exact time when something transpired (e.g., the begin- ning or end of a ruler’s reign, the birth or death of a poet) a challenge. In addition, sometimes scholarly interpretations of data relating to the timing of a historical event differ. Despite these difficulties concerning dating, an effort has been made to be as consistent and precise as possible.
Several special usages are employed herein, which recur in many of the chapters and consequently require explanation at the outset. First is the prob- lem of the multiplicity of names for Chinese individuals. Except in rare cases, a person is normally referred to by his or her given name (ming). It needs to be pointed out, however, that many writers often went by alternative names, such as house names (shih-ming), studio names (chai-ming), and numerous other types of nicknames and sobriquets. Aside from a writer’s given name, the most frequently cited type of name in this volume is the tzu, which was assumed upon coming of age.
An asterisk appearing before an italicized transcription (e.g., *tiawk) indi- cates that it is a tentative reconstruction of an ancient pronunciation.
Two terms relating to the parts of books must be introduced here. Ubiquitous in discussions of Chinese texts is the word chuan. Literally, it means “scroll,” and that is what it actually signified as well…