The Coastal Temperate Rainforests of Canada: The need for ... · deemed most feasible for timber harvesting (i.e., the Timber Harvesting Landbase, THLB) include the most biologically

9B I O D I V E R S I T Y 5 ( 3 ) 2 0 0 4

F.M. Moola, D. Martin, B. Wareham,J. Calof, C. Burda, and P. Grames

David Suzuki Foundation,2211 West 4th Avenue,Vancouver B.C.,Canada, V6K [email protected]

Abstract. The Central and North Coast and HaidaGwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands regions of BritishColumbia (B.C.) contain the world’s largestremaining areas of intact coastal temperaterainforest. The region has been the focus of intenseconflict among environmentalists, forestrycompanies, First Nations and other interests overthe management of these high conservation value oldgrowth forests. Recently completed land use planningprocesses have recommended increasing protectionand improving forest practices on the rest of thelandbase to more environmentally responsiblemethods defined by the guiding principles ofEcosystem Based Management (EBM). Based on anaudit of logging plans (silvicultural prescriptions)approved between January 15, 2002 and February24, 2003, The David Suzuki Foundation recentlyassessed current logging practices in the region.While forestry companies are not legally obliged touse the recommended EBM standards at this time,our assessment underscores how current loggingpractices fail to meet agreed-upon EBM standards.Firstly, clearcutting remains the dominant methodof logging and where alternative methods have beenattempted, in-block retention levels are low.Secondly, little effort has been demonstrated thatwould protect small fish–bearing streams (includingsalmonid bearing streams) or their tributaries withinmanaged forest stands.

INTRODUCTIONA globally significant region at r isk. The coastaltemperate rainforests of British Columbia’s central andnorth coast and outer archipelago of Pacific islands(Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands) are globallysignificant, owing to the predominance of intact old–growth forests consisting of trees of immense size andlongevity (Ricketts et al. 1999). These forests sustainsome of the world’s largest remaining wild pacificsalmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) runs, intact predator–preysystems regulated by large carnivores, and they are

habitat for several endemic taxa, including an unusualwhite form of black bear – the Kermode or Spirit bear(Ursus americanus kermodei) . Al though largelyrestricted to a few islands, the Spirit Bear is iconic ofthe entire region, which is popularly known as GreatBear Rainforest due to the abundance of the Spirit bearsas well as other bears of great size (including grizzliesover a thousand pounds; Ursus arctos L .) . Lessconspicuous species of l ichen, fungi and soi linvertebrates comprise the majority of biota (Pojar2003) and are critical for the maintenance of globallyunique ecological processes such as the cycling ofmarine-derived nutrients distributed inland by migratingsalmon and other anadromous fish (i.e., species thatspend part of their life cycle migrating from the sea tofresh water to spawn). Grizzly bears, other carnivores,and scavengers including Eagles (Haliaeetusleucocephalus L.) and Ravens (Corvus corax L.) carrylarge quantities of dead fish into the adjacent riparianforests each summer and fall – as much as 100 m uplandof the streams, rivers and lakes where salmon spawnand die (T. Reimchen, personal communication 2002;Bilby et al. 2003). By tracking the distribution of thestable nitrogen isotope N15, which is prevalent in thebodies of migrating fish, scientists have detected asignature of this fertilizer effect in mosses, herbs,shrubs, insects, birds and the tree rings of mature trees(Gende et al, 2002; Hocking and Reimchen 2002; Bilbyet al. 2003). This research indicates that the high speciesr ichness , product ivi ty, and growth of r ipar ianrainforests may depend upon the annual nutrient subsidyprovided by migrating salmon, whose carcasses enrich

The Coastal Temperate Rainforests of Canada:The need for Ecosystem-Based Management

A Kermode,or “spirit bear,” eatinga salmon(Photo credit: IanMcAllister/RaincoastConservationSociety).

Biodiversity 5(3): 9-15, 2004.

10 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y

an otherwise nutrientpoor habitat (Gendeet al. 2002). It is asthough migrating sal-mon and other anadro-mous species extendthe roots of theserainforests far intothe Pacific Ocean.

Unlike comparabletemperate rainforeststo the south (e.g. ,Vancouver Island),the inaccessibility ofthe region, ruggedtopography, and highlabor costs havespared many forestedvalleys from beinglogged to date. Themost recent data in-dicate that about 9%of the total forestedlandbase of the re-gion has been loggedthus far, almost ex-

clusively by large-scale clearcutting (Martin, unpublishedresults). Even though most of the remaining forestedland base is severely constrained to further logging (Pojaret al. 1999), most of the unprotected, biologically richvalley-bottom old growth forests have already beenlogged or are under cutting rights to several majorforestry companies and First Nations. Furthermore,pressures from industrial forestry across the region areincreasing as timber resources have been exhaustedelsewhere in the province and new technologies, such ashelicopter logging, provide access to old-growth timberonce thought to be out of the reach of commercialinterests (e.g., steep forested slopes). The productivevalley bottoms and adjacent mid-slopes targeted byindustry are also where most of the critical areas forbiodiversity occur (Jeo et al.1999). For example, arecent report published by the David Suzuki Foundation(Martin et al. 2004) found that 70.1 % of the areasdeemed most feasible for timber harvesting (i.e., theTimber Harvesting Landbase, THLB) include the mostbiologically valuable areas on the Central Coast - areasof considerable intactness and high aggregate conser-vation value (Rumsey et al. 2004). As the THLB spatiallydefines those locales that are most accessible to loggingand where the biggest and most valuable trees are found,it may indicate pending threats to an area from futureforest development. McCrory et al. (2003) found arelatively high overlap between keystone ecosystems(i .e. , systems with an ecological impact dispro-portionately large relative to their abundance; Pojar

2003), such as black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionussitkensis R.) old growth deer winter range, andcommercial forest interests on the Central Coast. Owingto the high timber values associated with deer winterrange, McCrory et al. (2003) predicted that as much as82 % of this keystone ecosystem type in unprotected areascould be lost within 100 years if current logging ratesprevail. As the abundance of old growth deer winterrange is a l imiting factor for Black-tailed Deerpopulations, reductions in this threatened habitat type arelikely to have serious cascading effects on trophicrelationships of which deer are a critical component(competition, herbivory, predation), most significantlypredator–prey interactions involving gray wolves (Canislupus L.) and other apex predators.

SEEKING A SOLUTIONWhile recen t comprehens ive assessments o fbiodiversity values in the Great Bear Rainforest andHaida Gwaii confirm an ecological imperative forconservation, it is also a region perceived by industryand government as a frontier with immense potentialfor economic exploitation through not only industrialforestry, but mining, aquaculture and offshore oil andgas development. Furthermore, the area contains thetradit ional terr i tories of numerous First Nations,which hold legally recognized rights and title interestsover the landbase and its resources, including timber.Definition of these rights is the subject of ongoingnegotiations and legal proceedings. Thus it is notsurpr i s ing tha t management and use o f theserainforests has been the focus of intense debate,including international protest by conservationists andsome First Nations. Nevertheless, on April 4, 2001 -under the glare of television cameras and the din ofnative drumming - the British Columbia governmentand eight First Nations whose traditional territoriesencompass the region, signed a landmark agreement,the General Protocol Agreement, to protect some areasand explore options for radically altering forestrypractices. At the same time, the B.C. governmentannounced an interim landuse plan for the CentralCoas t (Cent ra l Coas t Land and Resource P lan ;CCLRMP) tha t recommended spec i f ic a reas fo rprotection and reiterated a similar commitment toexplore options for changing forest management onthe rest of the landscape. These two agreementssignaled a high level of commitment to increasingprotection beyond the status quo and represented anunprecedented oppor tuni ty to def ine opt ions forreal iz ing more sus ta inable logging and land-usepractices on the unprotected landscape, under theguiding principles of Ecosystem Based Management(EBM). Informed by science, recommendations tothe B.C. government for the designation of protectedareas and EBM were deve loped th rough mul t i -stakeholder negotiations at land use planning tables.

Great BearRainforest—Spiller

Channel.(Unless otherwise

noted all photosprovided courtesy of

the David SuzukiFoundation).

11B I O D I V E R S I T Y 5 ( 3 ) 2 0 0 4

Final protected area designations and the prescriptionfor EBM are now dependent on the outcome of furthernegotiations between individual First Nations and theB.C. Government. Recently completed (June 2004)multi-stakeholder land use planning processes for theCentra l and North Coast Dis t r ic ts recommendedprotection for 21–24 % of the landbase (includingex is t ing parks ) , in which logg ing , min ing , andhydroelectric development are prohibited, but otheruses, such as hunting and traditional harvesting byFirst Nations are permitted. An additional 11–12 %of both districts are recommended for protection underthe designation of “biodiversity areas,” which prohibitlogg ing , bu t remain open to min ing , tour i smdevelopment, road building and various forms ofcommercial recreation. The sport hunting of apexcarnivores, such as grizzly bears, will be permittedthroughout the region except for a few small grizzlybear management zones where hunting is temporarilyprohibited (Gilbert et al. 2004). Wolves and Black-phased Black Bears ( i . e . , no t Sp i r i t bears ; U.americanus) can be hunted throughout the region,consistent with current government policy for theentire province.

While the negotiated land use plans recommended asignificant increase in the total area for protection, theyhave been criticized by conservation biologists whoquestion their conservation efficacy in terms of the sizeand spatial configuration (Gilbert et al. 2004; Martinet al. 2004), representation of ecosystems (e.g., rareforest types) (Wells et al. 2003), inclusion of optimalhabitat for focal species (particularly large carnivores)(Gonzales et al, 2003; Martin et al, 2004; Paquet et al.2004), and degree of protection from all ecologicallydamaging human activities (e.g., sport hunting, miningand road building) (Gilbert et al. 2004). Collectively,the weaknesses in formal protection provide a strongecological incentive for the cautious management ofthe surrounding matrix landscape under EBM. Butdespite the $3 million that was spent on developingEBM with the assistance of an independent sciencepanel (Coast Information Team - www.cit.org), theland-use tables adopted few prescriptive elements ofEBM, thus deferr ing the prescript ive detai ls andimplementat ion of EBM to Government, forestrycompanies and First Nations.

The David Suzuki Foundation has assessed all loggingthat has occurred outside of current and proposedprotected areas in the Great Bear Rainforest and HaidaGwaii since the April 1st 2001 Agreement was signed(Martin et al. 2003, 2004). Although we used a suite ofstand and landscape-level indicators in our loggingreviews, this paper presents only those findings relatedto the amount of clearcutting, retention levels withincutblocks and degree of protection offered to small

salmon streams and their tributaries within managedstands. The full assessments (Martin et al. 2003, 2004)can be found at: www.canadianrainforests.org.

METHODSNinety-six percent of forestland in British Columbia ispublicly owned and is managed almost exclusively bythe provincial government (Canadian Forest Service2003). Before a company can log a forest on publicland in the province it must provide the governmentwith detailed information on how and where areas willbe harvested and eventually re-forested. Companiesprovide this informat ion in a document cal led aSilvicultural Prescription (SP). Under current forestryregulations, SPs must be approved by governmentbefore any cutting can take place and the company islegally required to carry out their logging practicesexactly according to the plan. The management detailsincluded in SPs can be used to assess stand-levelimpacts of forestry on biodiversity. This informationincludes whether the forest will be clearcut or not, theforest cover retained after logging as retention, the sizeof the cutblock, and whether smal l f ish s t reams(including salmonid systems) or their tributaries willbe protected from the direct effects of logging (e.g.,cutting of riparian areas).

This paper presents a review of 185 SPs that wereapproved by the BC government between January 15,2002 and February 24, 2003 on the North and CentralCoas t , Queen Char lo t t e (Haida Gwai i ) , and thesouthern portion of the Kalum Forest Districts. Aprev ious ly publ i shed assessment examined 227cutblocks approved between April 4, 2001 and January

Map of the study areashowing forestdistricts.

2

1

3

4

12 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y

Figureson opposite page:

West Fraser loggingblock, Kalum Forest

District (top).

Western ForestProducts logging block

(middle) (showing alogging-related

landslide), CentralCoast Forest District.

(Photo credit: IanMcAllister/Raincoast

Conservation Society).

This photo (bottom)graphically depicts 33stream segments that

do not not haveprotective streamsidebuffers. West Fraser

logging block, KalumForest District.

15, 2003 (Martin et al. 2003) in the same area. SPswere obtained through the Freedom of InformationAct . Both rev iews covered a to ta l a rea o fapproximately 11 million ha, along the NorthwestPacific coast from the Alaskan border south to KnightInlet and from the summits of the coastal ranges westto the ou te r a rch ipe lago of Haida Gwai i /QueenCharlotte Islands (see Map). Within this large area,approximately 6 - 12 % of the landbase containscommercial forests available for timber harvesting(Rumsey et al. 2004). While forestry companies werenot obliged to use EBM standards during the reviewperiod, our assessment shows how far current loggingpractices are from EBM standards recommended bythe CIT science panel. A detailed description of themethods used to analyze the SPs is available in theappendix of the full reports (Martin et al. 2003, 2004)and can be obtained at www.canadianrainforests.org.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONPrevalence of clearcuttingThe stand is the basic unit of forest management andfor some species the effects of logging occur directlyat th is level (Roberts and Gil l iam 1995) .This isespecially true for species that are sensitive to the directimpacts of dis turbance (e .g . , saprophyt ic andmycorrhizal vascular plants (Schoonmaker and McKee1988) and/or recover s lowly during secondarysuccession (e .g . , epiphyt ic l ichens) ( Pr ice andHochachka 2001). In an effort to maintain or “life-boat” biodiversity within logged areas, the independentCIT science panel recommended that retention-basedlogging methods should be used to harvest trees ratherthan clearcutting. The panel suggested that a minimumof 15 % of the basal area of the pre-disturbance standshould be left standing in logged areas, though muchhigher levels would be necessary (up to 70 %) inlandscapes or watersheds with higher ecological values(e.g., high quality fish habitat). Retention based logginghas numerous ecological benefits for species overconventional clearcutting methods. These include:

Providing structural legacies of old growth habitatwithin regenerating stands (e.g. large standing deadtrees, downed decaying logs).Providing some assemblage of old growth forestcover to enhance connectivity within managed standsand watersheds.Moderating sudden changes in microclimatic andother environmental conditions following canopyremoval.

Despite the ecological imperatives against conventionalclearcutting, we found that it remains the most commonmethod of logging on the coast (57 % of cutblocks) andwhere alternative logging methods have been attempted,retention levels are below the 15% minimum threshold

This photo (top) showsthat the trees removed

(the stumps in theforeground) are much

larger than the trees leftbehind. It also shows

that the trees leftbehind are being

severely impacted bywindthrow.

Weyerhaeuser loggingblock, Haida Gwaii

(bottom).

Chart 1

13B I O D I V E R S I T Y 5 ( 3 ) 2 0 0 4

recommend by the CIT science panel (see Chart 1). Thecomplete or near total removal of the forest canopy byclearcutting does not provide adequate habitat in the formof late-seral structure on site, nor does it maintain theenvironmental conditions necessary to preserve late-seralspecies during the open-phase of stand development(Moola and Vasseur 2003).

A sere is a series of ecological communities formed inecological succession. Late-seral species across widelydisparate taxonomic groups exhibit significant reductionsin abundance when the majority of the forest canopy isremoved at one time (Beese and Bryant 1999; Deal 2001).The most sensitive species to clearcutting include: a)species limited in their dispersal abilities (e.g., flightlessarthropods, mycorrhizal fungi, amphibians); b) specieswith low reproductive potential (e.g., understory herbs,canopy arthropods) and c) species dependent upon forestinteriors (e.g., leafy liverworts, epiphytic lichens). Whilemost representative species of these groups are notregionally rare or currently threatened, their dependencyupon late-seral microhabitats (e.g., downed decayedwood), as well as their life-history (e.g.,low growth andreproduction rates) predisposes them to extirpation afterclearcutting and can preclude their recovery to pre-disturbance levels of abundance within typical rotationperiods (Halpern 1989; Moola and Vasseur 2003). Forexample, clonal migration rates of less than 5 cm/yr havebeen reported from a wide variety of late-successionalunderstory herbs in coastal rainforests of the PacificNorthwest (Antos and Zobel 1984; Lezberg et al. 1999).

Dispersal of new genotypes in many late-seral plants issimilarly restricted by the absence of morphologicaladaptations or vectors that can facilitate long-distancedispersal of seeds. Although little is known about thesexual migration rates of late-seral plants in managedcoastal rainforest landscapes, studies in other temperateforests have found that most species have a low capacityfor long-distance migration as seeds are dispersed onlyshort distances from the parent plant (Hermy et al. 1999).These include plants whose seeds are dispersed by gravityor are ballistically disseminated over very short distances(Meier et al. 1995). The diaspores of many other forestspecies are distributed by animal vectors that arethemselves dispersal limited, restricting the range atwhich deforested areas can be recolonized (Meier et al.,1995). For example, invertebrate vectors such as ants(myrmecochores, e.g. Viola spp.) (Meier et al. 1995) andfrugivorous slugs (endozoochores, e.g. Ariolimaxcolumbianus Gould) (Gervais et al. 1998) have restrictedhome ranges. Slugs in western Washington traveledbetween 5 m and 15 m daily, but the total area coveredamounted to only a few square meters (Richter 1976).Despite their restricted ranges at the patch scale, slugsplay a major role in plant dispersal and nutrient cycling(Meier et al. 1995; Gervais et al, 1998).

The paucity of dataon the habitat requi-rements of mosttemperate rainforestspecies, particularlynon-vertebrate taxa,complicates effortsto set prescriptiveEBM thresholds atthe stand scale. Ne-vertheless, the datathat is availablesuggests that increa-ses in forest canopyretention providearea-weighted be-nefits in terms ofthe abundance, di-versity and compo-sition of pre-distur-bance species with-in logged areas. Arecent unpublishedreview (Moola 2003)suggests that withhigher in-block re-tention both theabundance and rich-ness of late-seralspecies remainsmuch more similarto pre-disturbancelevels (Beese andBryant 1999) andspecies are less sus-ceptible to local ex-tinction after har-vesting (Sullivanand Sullivan 2001).Similarly, at thecommunity level,ecosystems exhibita much greaterstability in compo-sition after harvesting when a greater amount of retentionis retained within logged areas (Deal 2001). The greaterstability in composition is expressed as both a higherability of ecosystems to withstand (high resistance) orrecover (high resilience) from logging disturbance overtime.

Lack of protection for smallsalmon streams and their tributariesDue to their disproportionate influence on trophicstructure, function and diversity, salmon are a keystonespecies in coastal temperate rainforests (Jeo et al, 1999;Gende et al, 2002). Salmon perform a critical role in

14 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y

the ecosystem both as an important food source fornumerous terrestrial predators and scavengers and asan upstream vector in the distribution of marine-derivednutrients in both aquatic and terrestrial communities(Gende et al , 2002). Salmon are also particularlysensi t ive to habi ta t d is turbance f rom forestdevelopment, including logging within or near occupiedchannels or within smaller source tributaries (Slaneyet al, 1996). The logging of the riparian area aroundsmall fish-bearing streams or their tributaries can causeconsiderable damage to the bottoms and banks of thesestreams, thus potentially impacting salmon populations.

This damage canar ise f rom thelanding of cut treesinto and/or thedragging of cutlogs through streamreaches. When ripa-rian areas are log-ged, erosion andthe deposition ofsediment and debris(dead wood, graveland mud) can limitthe movement off ish and chokespawning areas .Removal of ripa-rian vegetation canalso negatively im-pact nutrient in-puts, flow regime,and water tempe-ratures that in-f luence the qua-

lity of salmon habitat (Slaney et al. 1996; Jeo et al,1999).

Unlike other jurisdictions in the Pacific Northwest,legislation in British Columbia (Forest Practices Codeand the recently introduced Forest and Range PracticesAct) does not mandate protection of streamside forests(through buffers or riparian corridors) on small fish-bearing streams (including salmonid systems; class S4)or their tributaries (classes S5 and S6). In contrast,the CIT independent science panel recommended aminimum buffer of one-and-a-half standard tree heightsfor streams and other riparian features that contributeto high quality fish habitat, including small occupiedchannels and their tributaries. Because buffers alonewil l not ensure the maintenance of key r ipar ianfunctions in managed forests the science panel alsorecommend that between 30-70% of managedwatersheds should be protected from incremental lossof old growth forest cover from logging.

CONCLUSIONThe temperate rainforests of British Columbia’s northPacific coast and outer archipelago (Great BearRainforest and Haida Gwaii) present one of the lastopportunities worldwide to conserve wildlands that stillsupport viable populations of all native species (includinglarge carnivores), that maintain ecological andevolutionary processes within their natural range ofvariabili ty, and that comprise the full suite ofrepresentative ecosystems (e.g., old growth forests) intheir natural state (Noss 2000). However, the results ofrecent multi-stakeholder planning processes fail to offerenough area for conservation and suffer from seriousflaws that may undermine the long-term ability tomaintain these and other conservation attributes of criticalimportance. Of particular concern is the fact thatcompleted landuse plans leave the most important habitatfor key focal species, such as Grizzly Bears and Salmon,outside of formally designated protected areas (Martinet al. 2004, Paquet et al. 2004). We are in agreementwith many conservation biologists who firmly believethat core protected areas are the “cornerstone ofconservation” (pg. 197, Noss 2000). Hence, theidentified problems in the protected areas (Gonzales etal. 2003, Martin et al. 2004, Paquet et al. 2004) need tobe remedied. For this to happen, the following mustoccur:

Identification and protection of buffer zones andcorridors (Noss 2000).Expansion of protected areas that are too small tomaintain viable populations of wide-rangingcarnivores such as Grizzly Bears or Coastal Wolves(Gilbert et al. 2004, Martin et al. 2004).Legal protection of wide-ranging carnivores fromall ecologically damaging human activit ies,

Pacific Salmon (top)(Courtesy of U.S.Fish and Wildlife

Service, creatorTimothy Knepp).

Biologists withChinook Salmon.

(bottom) (Courtesy ofU.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service).

Chart 2 . Of the 185 sites we examined, 99% of small salmonstreams (class S4) flowing through cutblocks lacked a fullprotective buffer (see Chart 2). Of these impacted streams, 42%were logged completely to their banks. Although 57% of streamsegments were provided with partially logged buffers, riparianareas still remain at risk from the falling and hauling of cut treesthrough stream reaches, which is not prohibited under currentlegislation. Only 1% of small salmon streams were providedwith full riparian protection in the form of an unlogged buffer.

15B I O D I V E R S I T Y 5 ( 3 ) 2 0 0 4

particularly an end to sport hunting within protectedareas (Gilbert et al. 2004, Paquet et al. 2004).

However, as we may never have enough area inprotection to achieve these conservation goals,protected areas need to be complimented by theconservative management of the surrounding landscape(Noss 2000). Progress towards this conservationobjective can be achieved through the implementationof EBM outside of formally designated protected areas.Our analysis of current industrial forestry activities inthe Great Bear Rainforest and Haida Gwaii shows thatthis is not yet happening at the scale at which loggingdirectly occurs (i.e., the stand scale).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:The authors would like to thank Dorothy Bartoszewski,Panos Grames, Dave Taylor and Jean Kavanagh whocontributed to the full study (Martin et al. 2004).Numerous other individuals and organizations assistedwith funding, field work, data analysis and reviews. Thelist of names can be found at www.canadianrain-forests.org.

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Received: 7 August 2004 ; Accepted: 1 3 August 2004