The City in Space and Time The Human Mosaic Chapter 10.

The City in Space and Time

The Human Mosaic

Chapter 10

Introduction

Imagine humankind’s sojourn on Earth as a 24-hour day Settlements of more than a hundred people

are only about a half-hour old Towns and cities emerged only a few minutes

ago Large-scale urbanization began less than 60

seconds ago

Introduction

Urbanization in the last 200 years has strengthened links between culture, society, and the city “Urban explosion” has gone hand in hand with

the industrial revolution Estimates demonstrate the world’s urban

population more than doubled since 1950 Urban population doubled again by 2000 Over 50 percent of Earth’s population live in

cities

Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil


Sao Paulo epitomizes the dynamics of urbanization, especially capitalism. Starting as a coffee exporting center, it had less than 32000 inhabitants by 1872. Today metropolitan Sao Paulo is a primate city of more than 20 million. Economic development and flat land engendered population increase and sprawl, rising land costs in the center, and a boom in construction.


Economic success is denoted by the high-rises which are a mix of industrial, commercial and professional office blocks, as well as apartment complexes. City planning is only a recent phenomenon. Rural to urban migration is a serious problem and the city’s rapid growth has outstripped its ability to provide jobs, housing and adequate services.

Culture regions

Urban Culture Region Origin and Diffusion of the City Evolution of Urban Landscapes The Ecology of Urban Location Cultural Integration in Urban Geography

Problem of recognizing urban regions

Urbanized population—percentage of a nation’s population living in towns and cities

Striking urbanization difference between countries Some close to 90 percent Others less than 20 percent

Culture regions can be based on varying rates of urbanization

We have a pattern of “urban” versus “rural” countries


Within each nation, we can delimit formal and functional culture regions separating urban and rural domains

There is no agreed-upon international definition of what constitutes a city India defines an urban center as 5,000 inhabitants,

with adult males employed primarily in nonagricultural work

The United States Census Bureau defines a city as a densely populated area of 2,500 people or more

South Africa counts as a city any settlement of 500 or more people


Some countries revise definitions of urban settlements to suit specific purposes

China revised its census definitions with criteria that vary from province to province causing their urban population to swell by 13 percent in 1983

Generalizations

Generalizations made about the differences in the world’s urbanized population

Highly industrialized countries have higher rates of urbanized population than do less-developed countries

Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing Caused by massive migration away from the

country People flock to the cities searching for a better

life

Generalizations

Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing City migration is often driven by desperation,

as rural supply systems collapse For newcomers to the cities, unemployment rates

are often over 50 percent

One of the world’s ongoing crises will be this radical restructuring of population and culture as people move into the cities

Generalizations

Urban growth comes from two sources Migration of people to the cities Higher natural population growth rates for

recent migrants Because employment is unreliable, large families

construct a more extensive family support system Increases the chances of someone getting work Smaller families when a certain dimension of

security is ensured Smaller families often occur when women enter

the work force

World cities

Cities over 5 million in population Over half of the world’s 20 largest cities are in

the developing world Thirty years ago, the list of world cities was

dominated by Western, industrialized cities Now the list is even more dominated by the

developing world

World cities

Mexico City’s growth is linked to Mexico’s oil industry

Some countries are trying to regulate urban growth Problems with transportation, housing, and

employment Failure or success of these policies will

influence city size in the next ten to twenty years

China closely regulates urban growth

World cities

Accurate population projections are evasive because they depend on variables

Primate city — a settlement city that dominates the economic, political, and cultural life of a country The target for much urban migration Rapid growth expands its primacy, or dominance Example of Mexico City — far exceeds Guadalajara,

the second-largest city in Mexico, in size and importance

Many developing countries are dominated by a primate city, which was often a former center of colonial power

Primate cities are also found in developed countries —London and Paris

Culture regions


The first cities

In seeking explanation for the origin of cities, we find a relationship between: Areas of early agriculture Permanent village settlement The development of new social forms Urban life

Early people were nomadic hunters and gatherers who constantly moved

The first cities

As they became increasingly efficient in gathering resources, their campsites became semi-permanent

As quantities of domesticated plants and animals increased settlement became more permanent

The first cities appeared in the Middle East Developed about ten thousand years ago Farming villages modest in size, rarely with more than

200 people Probably organized on a kinship basis

The first cities

The first cities appeared in the Middle East Probably organized on a kinship basis Jarmo, one of the earliest villages

Located in present-day Iraq Had 25 permanent dwellings clustered near grain

storage facilities Lacked plows, but cultivated local grains — wheat and

barley Domestic dogs, goats, and sheep may have been

used for meat Food supplies augmented by hunting and gathering

The first cities

In agricultural villages, all inhabitants were involved in some way in food procurement

Cities were more removed, physically and psychologically, from everyday agricultural activities Food was supplied to the city Not all city dwellers were involved in actual

farming Another class of city dwellers supplied

services — such as technical skills, and religious interpretation

The first cities

Two elements were crucial to this social change Generation of agricultural surplus prerequisite for

supporting nonfarmers Stratified social system

Meaning the existence of distinct elite and lower classes

Facilitates the collection, storage, and distribution of resources

Well-defined channels of authority that exercise control over goods and people

These two set the stage for urbanization

Models for the rise of cities

Technical The hydraulic civilization model, developed by

Karl Wittfogel Large-scale irrigation systems as prime mover

behind urbanization Higher crop yields resulted Food surplus supported development of a large

nonfarming population Strong, centralized government, backed by an

urban-based military Farmers who resisted new authority were denied

water


Technical The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl

Wittfogel Power elite needed for organizational coordination to

ensure continued operation of the irrigation system Labor specialization developed

The hydraulic model cannot be applied to all urban hearths

Urban civilization blossomed without irrigation in parts of Mesoamerica

The question of how or why a culture might first develop irrigation


Religious Paul Wheatley suggests religion was the motivating

factor behind urbanization Knowledge of meteorological and climatic conditions

was considered to be within the domain of religion Religious leaders decided when and how to plant crops Successful harvests led to more support for this

priestly class Priestly class exercised political and social control that

held the city together In this scenario, cities are religious spaces functioning

as ceremonial centers First urban clusters and fortification seen as defenses

against spiritual demons or souls of the dead


Multiple factors Distinction between economic, religious, and political

functions were not always clear A king may have functioned as priest, healer,

astronomer, and scribe In some ways secular and spiritual power was fused Attempting to isolate one trigger to urbanization is

difficult, if not impossible It would be wiser to accept the role of multiple factors

behind the changes leading to urban life Technical, religious, and political forces were often

interlinked

Urban hearth areas

Where the first cities appeared, for example: Mesopotamia The Nile Valley Pakistan’s Indus River Valley The Yellow River valley (or Huang Ho) in

China Mesoamerica

Next slide gives general dates of urban life emergence for each region

Urban hearth areas

Generally agreed first cities arose in Mesopotamia River valley of the Tigris and Euphrates in what is now

Iraq Cities, small by current standards, covered one-half to

two square miles Populations rarely exceeded 30,000 Densities could reach 10,000 per square mile —

comparable to today’s cities Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities,

exhibited three spatial characteristics

Urban hearth areas

Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics Great importance accorded the symbolic center of the

city, which was thought to be the center of the known world

Often demarcated by a vertical structure of monumental scale representing the point on Earth closest to the heavens

This symbolic center, or axis mundi, took different forms

The ziggurat in Mesopotamia The palace or temple in China The pyramid in Egypt and Mesoamerica The Stupa in the Indus Valley

Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China


This is the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the most important ceremonial building in Beijing’s Forbidden City. The hall is set upon an auspicious number of three tiers. From the Gate of Supreme Harmony, the emperor would be carried on his palanquin above the “dragon pavement,” carved with his dragon and other auspicious symbols such as waves, mountains and clouds.


The Forbidden City marked the inner sanctum of the Imperial city, a model of harmony and moral order expressing the Will of Heaven.

Ritual and cosmic correctness was imbued in city form through divination and orientation; cardinal axiality and concentricity; and, square configuration defined by walls and gates.

Urban hearth areas

Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics In Mesopotamia, this area was known as the

citadel and housed the elite who lived in relative luxury

Streets were paved, drains and running water were provided

Private sleeping quarters, bathtubs, and water closets were provided

Privileges did not extend to the city as a whole

Urban hearth areas

Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics The city was oriented toward the four cardinal

directions Geometric form of city would reflect the order of the

universe Walls around the city delimited the known and ordered

world from the outside chaos Attempt to shape the form of the city according to the

form of the universe Thought essential to maintain harmony between

human and spiritual worlds Example of Ankor Thorn in India

Urban hearth areas

Life in Mesopotamia’s early cities from archaeological evidence Dense housing, located just outside the citadel, was

one or two stories tall composed of clay brick, and contained three or four rooms

Narrow unsurfaced streets had no drainage, and served as the community dump

At Ur, excavations show that garbage levels rose so high, new entrances were cut into second stories of the houses

Just inside the city wall, huts of mud and reed housed the lower classes

Urban hearth areas

Early cities of the Nile were not walled, suggesting a regional power structure kept cities from warring with each other

In the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in a grid that consisted of 16 large blocks

The most important variations in living conditions occurred in Mesoamerica Cities were less dense and covered large areas Cities arose without benefit of the wheel, plow,

metallurgy, and draft animals Domestication of maize compensated for technological

shortcomings Maize yields several crops a year without irrigation in

tropical climates

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas The two hypotheses of how cities spread in

prehistoric times Cities evolved spontaneously as native peoples

created new technologies and social institutions Preconditions for urban life are too specific for most

cultures to invent without contact with other urban areas

People must have learned these traits through contact with city dwellers

This scenario emphasized the diffusion of ideas and techniques

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas Diffusionists believe ideas and techniques from

Mesopotamia were shared with people in the Nile and the Indus River valley Archaeological evidence documents trade ties between

the three regions Soapstone objects made in Tepe Yahyã, 500 miles

east of Mesopotamia, have been found in ruins of both Mesopotamia and Indus Valley cities

Indus Valley writing and seals have been found in Mesopotamian urban sites

An alternate view is that trading took place only after these cities were well established

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas There is evidence of contacts across the

oceans between early urban dwellers of the New World and those of Asia and Africa Unclear if this means urbanization was

diffused to Mesoamerica Maybe some trade routes existed between

these peoples

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas Little doubt diffusion is responsible for the dispersal

of the city in historical times City used as vehicle for imperial expansion Urban life is carried outward in waves of conquest as

empires expand Initially, military controls newly won lands and sets up

collection points for local resources As collection points lose some military atmosphere

they begin to show the social diversity of a city Native people are slowly assimilated into the

settlement as workers and may eventually control the city

The process repeats itself as the empire pushes outward

The diffusion of the city from hearth areas Imposition of a foreign civilization on native peoples was often

met with resistance Examples of imperial city building dot history

Alexander the Great established at least 70 cities The Roman Empire built literally thousand of cities, changing

the face of Europe, North Africa, and Asia minor The Persians, the Maurya Empire of India, the Han

civilization of China, and the Greeks performed the same city-spreading task

In more recent times, European empires have used city resources to expand and consolidate their power in colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia

Expansion diffusion has been critical in dispersing urban life over the surface of the Earth

Culture regions


Introduction

Patterns seen in the city today are a composite of past and present cultures

Two concepts underlie our examination of urban landscapes Urban morphology — physical form of the city,

which consists of street patterns, building sizes and shapes, architecture, and density

Functional zonation — refers to the pattern of land uses within a city, or existence of areas with differing functions

The Greek city

Western civilization and Western cities trace their roots to ancient Greece

By 600 B.C., over five hundred towns and cities existed on the Greek mainland and surrounding islands

With expansion, cities spread throughout the Mediterranean — to the north shore of Africa, to Spain, southern France, and Italy

Cities rarely had more than 5,000 inhabitants Athens may have reached 300,000 in the fifth century

B.C., including perhaps 100,000 slaves

The Greek city

Cities had two distinctive functional zones —the acropolis and the agora

The acropolis was similar in many ways to the citadel of Mesopotamian cities Had the temples of worship, storehouse of

valuables, and seat of power Served as a place of retreat in time of siege

The Greek city

The agora was the province of the citizens A place for public meetings, education, social

interaction, and judicial matters It was the civic center, the hub of democratic

life for Greek men Later, after the classical period, it became the

city’s major marketplace without losing its atmosphere of a social club

The Greek city

Physical separation of religious from secular functions implies the religious domain was no longer the only source of authority Temples were located on sacred sites chosen

to please the gods Temples were also sited and designed to

please the human eye and harmonize with the natural landscape

The Greek city

Tension created between the religious and secular created what many consider to be one of the greatest achievements of Western architecture

Earlier Greek cities probably grew spontaneously without formal guidelines Some think many ceremonial areas were

designed to be seen according to prescribed lines of vision

The human aesthetic was given a degree of authority not given in cosmomagical cities

The Greek city

In later Greek cities a more formalized city design and plan are apparent— example of Miletus in Ioma (present-day Turkey) Laid out in a rigid grid system imposing its geometry on

the physical site conditions Layout indicates an abstracted and highly rational

notion of urban life Seems to fit well with the functional needs of a colonial

city Grid system shows religious and aesthetic needs had

taken a secondary role to pressing demands of controlling an empire

Roman cities

Romans adopted many urban traits from the Greeks and the Etruscans, whom the Romans had conquered and absorbed in northern Italy

As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas that had not previously experienced urbanization France, Germany, England, interior Spain, the

Alpine countries, and parts of eastern Europe

Roman cities

As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas that had not previously experienced urbanization Most cities were established as military (castra) and

trading outposts Focal points for collection of local agricultural products Supply centers for the military Service centers for long-distance trading network

In England, the trail of city building can be found by looking for the suffixes -caster and -chester indicating cities founded as Roman camps

Roman cities

Roman city landscapes Gridiron street pattern was used in later Greek

cities — example of Pavia, Italy The forum — a zone combining elements of

the Greek acropolis and agora Placed at the intersection of a city’s two major

thoroughfares Temples of worship, administrative buildings ,

and warehouses Also libraries, schools, and marketplaces serving

the common people

Roman cities

Roman city landscapes Clustered around the forum were the palaces of the

power elite Sanitary, well heated in winter, and spacious Not until the twentieth century did such luxury again

exist Roman masses lived in shoddy apartment houses

Often four or five stories high, called insula System of aqueducts and underground sewers did not

extend to the poor Garbage of perhaps a million Romans was thrown into

open pits Even in its best days, Rome’s population was always

at the mercy of plagues

Roman cities

Rome’s most important legacy was the Roman method for choosing city sites Remains applicable today Consistently chose sites with transportation in mind Empire held together by a complicated system of roads

and highways In choosing a new site for settlement Romans first

considered access while other cultures placed emphasis on defensive locations

Numerous old Roman town sites were refounded centuries later — Paris, London, and Vienna

Roman cities

The Roman Empire was in major decline by A.D. 400 Cities and the highway system that linked

them fell into disrepair The administrative structure collapsed Outposts were either actively destroyed or

simply left to decay Within 200 years, many of the cities had

withered away

Roman cities

Some Roman cities in the Mediterranean area managed to survive Established trade with the Byzantine Empire After the eighth century, cities in Spain were

infused with new vigor by the Moorish Empire Cities in northern regions became small

villages Urban decline occurred only in areas that had

been under Roman rule

The medieval city

Medieval period lasted roughly from A.D. 1000 to 1500 Time of renewed urban expansion in Europe Urban life spread north and east in Europe Germanic and Slavic people expanded their

empires In only four centuries, 2,500 new German

“cities” were founded Most cities of present-day Europe were

founded during this period

The medieval city

Revival of local and long-distance trade resulted from a combination of factors Population increase Political stability and unification Agricultural expansion through new land reclamations New Agricultural technologies

Trading networks required protected markets and supply centers, functions that renewed life in cities

Long-distance trading led to the development of a new class of people — the merchant class

Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany

Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany This town reveals three

important features of urban morphology: castle, wall, and cathedral. Hirschhorn castle caps the summit of a fortified spur in the bend of the Neckar River, affording a clear view of the river and forested valley.

Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany Site factors have also

limited expansion forcing people to build onto the walls.

Half-timbering is evident in a number of buildings.

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The fortress

Usually cities were clustered around a fortified place

Reflected in place names — German -burg, French -bourg, English

-burgh all meaning a fortified castle The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally

referred to a citizen of the medieval city

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The fortress

Usually cities were clustered around a fortified place

Reflected in place names — German -burg, French -bourg, English

-burgh all meaning a fortified castle The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally

referred to a citizen of the medieval city

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The charter

Governmental decree from a regional power granting political autonomy to the town

Freed the population from feudal restrictions Made the city responsible for its own defense and

government Allowed cities to coin their own money These freedoms contributed to development of

urban social, economic, and intellectual life

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The wall

Symbol of the sharp distinction between country and city

Within the wall most inhabitants were free; outside most were serfs

People inside were able to move about with little restriction

Goods entering the gates were inspected and taxed

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The wall

Nonresidents were issued permits for entry, but often required to leave by sundown when the gates were shut

Suburbs called faubourgs sprang up, and in time demanded to be included into the city

If the suburbs were allowed to be part of the city, the wall was extended to include them

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The marketplace

Symbolized role of economic activities in the city City depended on the countryside for food and

produce was traded in the market Center for long-distance trade linking city to city

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The marketplace

At one end stood the fairly tall town hail Meeting space for city’s political leaders Market hail for storage and display of finer goods

Brugge, Belgium, had two distinct complexes of buildings at it center

Town hall and castle formed an enclosed square Next to this was the wasserho.lle, so named because the

building straddled a canal where goods could be directly brought directly in from barges

On adjacent edge of marketplace was the great ball that served as meeting spot for merchant class

The medieval city

The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols The cathedral

Usually the town’s crowning glory Symbol of the important role of the church Often close to the marketplace and town ball,

indicating close ties between religion, commerce, and politics

Church was often prevailing political force

The medieval city

Problems created for contemporary urban life by medieval city morphology and landscape Streets were narrow, wandering lanes, rarely

more than 15 feet wide Today, in 141 German cities, 77 percent of

streets are too narrow for two- way traffic

The medieval city

Functional zonation of medieval cities differed from that of modern cities Divided into small quarters, or districts, each

containing its own cent that served as its focal point

Within each district lived people engaged in similar occupations

The medieval city

Functional zonation of medieval cities differed from that of modern cities Example of coopers — people who made and repaired

wooden barrels Attended the same church, and belonged to the same guild Church and guildhall were in the small center area of their

district Surrounding the center were their houses and workshops Many worked in the first story of their home and lived above the

shop Apprentices lived above the shop owner

More prestigious groups lived in occupational districts near the city center

Those involved in noxious activities lived closer to city walls

The medieval city

Some districts were defined by ethnicity Jews were forced to live in their own district in

most medieval cities In Frankfurt am Main, they lived on the

Judengasse, a street formed from the dried-up moat that had run along the old wall to the city

This area was enclosed by walls with only one guarded gate

The area was not allowed to expand, leading by 1610 to a population of 3,000 people and one of the densest districts in the city

The Renaissance and baroque periods

Form and function of the city changed significantly during the Renaissance (1500 — 1600) and baroque (1600-1800) periods

Absolute monarchs arose to preside over a unified nation-state Rising middle class slowly gave up their freedoms to

join with the king in pursuit of economic gain City size grew rapidly because bureaucracies of

regional power structures came to dominate them Trade patterns expanded with the beginning of

European imperial conquest City planning and military technology acted to remold

and constrain the physical form of the city


A national capital city rose to prominence in most countries Provincial cities were subjected to its tastes Power was centralized in its precincts First office buildings were built to house a

growing bureaucracy Most important, it was restructured to reflect

the power of the central government and insure control over urban masses

Capitalism in the Renaissance City:Amsterdam, Netherlands


Amsterdam has always been a commercial city. Situated where dike crossed the Amstel, its harbor was easily accessed from the sea. Essentially at sea level, its quays and streets were flanked by canals.

It flourished as a trading center and by the 17th century, had an extensive collection of warehouses and the largest public bank in northern Europe.


As the city prospered, the walls were expanded and new canals dug to line residential streets designated for a prestigious, residential neighborhood with 30 foot (9.1 meter) lots.

These 17th century merchant homes are only 20 feet (6.1 meters) wide because speculators purchased two 30 foot lots and sold them as three 20 foot lots. The upper story was used for storage of goods.


Height of baroque planning between 1600 and 1800

During the 1800s, Napoleon III carried out a building plan in Paris Cobblestone streets carefully paved to prevent

loose ammunition for rioting Parisians Streets were straightened and widened, and

cul-de-sacs broken down to give army space to maneuver

Baroque Planning: Paris, France

Parisians were always conscious of the beauty of the Seine and exploited it in the 16h and 17th centuries with bridges and promenades along its banks. These highlights aside, in 1840 the city remained a warren of narrow, filthy and crowded streets.

But under the direction of Napoleon III and Baron Haussman, much of the city was transformed.

Baroque Planning: Paris, France Masses of people were

displaced as boulevards and avenues, squares and parks, bazaars and arcades, and luxurious housing blocks were installed.

The 19th century was also an era of exhibitions where nations showed off their art and technology to the world.

In 1889, Paris displayed Gustave Eiffel’s tower, the world’s highest structure, testament to the age of iron and steel.

The photo is taken from Ile de la Cite, Parish’ original island site in the Seine River.

Baroque Planning: Paris, France


Thousands were displaced as apartment buildings were demolished

Many ended up in congested working-class sections of east and north Paris

The east and north sections are still crowded today In these developments, we see the coming modern

city Washington, D.C., originally designed by a French

planner

The City in Space and Time The Human Mosaic Chapter 10.

Documents

urban growth slide

urban geography slide

urban center

worlds urban population

city urban explosion

world cities cities

pattern of urban

generalizations urban