The Changing Surface of Earth - mrphome.net · The Changing Surface of Earth Chapter Preview ... to change from one form to another form core: ... vocabulary, writing, note-taking,

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ConsultantDouglas Fisher, Ph.D.

The Changing Surface of Earth

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Copyright © by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Permission is granted to reproduce the materialcontained herein on the condition that such material be reproduced only for classroom use; be provided to students,teachers, and families without charge; and be used solely in conjunction with Earth Science. Any other reproduction,for use or sale, is prohibited without prior written permission of the publisher.

Send all inquiries to:Glencoe/McGraw-Hill8787 Orion PlaceColumbus, Ohio 43240-4027

About the Consultant

Douglas Fisher, Ph.D., is a Professor in the Department of Teacher Education at San Diego State University. He is the recipient of an International Reading Association Celebrate Literacy Award as well as a Christa McAuliffe award for Excellence in Teacher Education. He has published numerous articles on reading and literacy, differentiatedinstruction, and curriculum design as well as books, such as ImprovingAdolescent Literacy: Strategies at Work and Responsive Curriculum Design in Secondary Schools: Meeting the Diverse Needs of Students. He has taught a variety of courses in SDSU’s teacher-credentialing program as well asgraduate-level courses on English language development and literacy.He also has taught classes in English, writing, and literacy development to secondary school students.

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iii

To the Teacher ............................................. v

Note-Taking Tips ...................................... vii

Using Your Science Notebook ............. viii

and Deposition

Chapter 1 Views of Earth

Chapter 2 Weathering and Soil

Chapter 3 Erosional Forces

Chapter 4 Water Erosion

Chapter 5 Clues to Earth’s Past

Chapter 6 Geologic Time

The Changing Su rface of Earth

Chapter Preview ....................................... 11-1............................................................... 21-2............................................................... 51-3............................................................... 8Wrap-Up .................................................. 12

Chapter Preview ...................................... 132-1.............................................................. 142-2.............................................................. 172-3.............................................................. 20Wrap-Up .................................................. 24



Chapter Preview..................................... 495-1 ............................................................ 505-2 ............................................................ 535-3 ............................................................ 56Wrap-Up ................................................. 60

Chapter Preview..................................... 616-1 ............................................................ 626-2 ............................................................ 656-3 ............................................................ 68Wrap-Up ................................................. 72

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Your notes are a reminder of what you learned in class. Taking goodnotes can help you succeed in science. These tips will help you takebetter notes.

• Be an active listener. Listen for important concepts. Pay attention to words, examples, and/or diagrams your teacher emphasizes.

• Write your notes as clearly and concisely as possible. The followingsymbols and abbreviations may be helpful in your note-taking.

• Use a symbol such as a star (★) or an asterisk (*) to emphasisimportant concepts. Place a question mark (?) next to anything thatyou do not understand.

• Ask questions and participate in class discussion.

• Draw and label pictures or diagrams to help clarify a concept.

Word or Symbol orPhrase Abbreviation

for example e.g.

such as i.e.

with w/

without w/o

Word or Symbol orPhrase Abbreviation

and +

approximately �

therefore �

versus vs

Note-Taking Tips

Note-Taking Don’ts

• Don’t write every word. Concentrate on the main ideas and concepts.

• Don’t use someone else’s notes—they may not make sense.

• Don’t doodle. It distracts you from listening actively.

• Don’t lose focus or you will become lost in your note-taking.

The Changing Su rface of Earth v

vi

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Using Your Science Notebook

Academic Vocabulary

accompany: to go together with; to happenat the same time as

accumulate: to gather, pile up, or collect

accurate: careful and exact; withoutmistakes or errors

affect: to influence

approach: to come near

area: particular space, region, or section

chemical: any substance used in orobtained by a chemical process

collapse: to fall or shrink together abruptlyand completely

compensate: to make up for

component: part of a machine or system

consist: to be made up of; to contain

constant: not changing; remaining thesame; remaining free of variation; regular;stable

contract: to make or become shorter or smaller

controversy: argument or debate

convert: to change from one form toanother form

core: center; a central part of something

create: to bring about

cycle: series of actions that repeat

derive: to get or receive from a source

detect: to discover something hidden or not easily noticed

diverse: not all the same, varied

emerge: to come out; to appear

enormous: having great size

environment: the physical, chemical, andbiotic factors that surround living things

erode: to wear away

eventual: ultimately resulting

exceed: to go beyond or be greater than

expose: to leave open or withoutprotection; to reveal

extract: to take, get, or pull out

formula: a group of symbols and figuresshowing the elements in a chemicalcompound

goal: objective or end that one strives to achieve

hypothesis: a reasonable guess that can be tested and is based on what is knownand what is observed

impact: a strong effect

indicate: to be or give a sign of

infer: to arrive at a conclusion or an opinion by reasoning

interval: space or time between events

layer: one thickness over another

likewise: in the same way

locate: to find the position or site of

maintain: to continue; to support

normal: conforming to a type; standard or regular pattern

nuclear: of or relating to the atomic nucleus

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Earth Science 297

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The Nature of ScienceBefore You ReadBefore you read the chapter, respond to these statements.

1. Write an A if you agree with the statement.

2. Write a D if you disagree with the statement.

Name Date

• An important part of science is testing, or experimenting.

• Technology is useful only in the situation forwhich it was designed.

• People began studying weather in the 1800s.

• Science can answer all of the questions thatcan be asked.

Before You The Nature of ScienceRead

The Nature of Science 1

Construct the Foldable as directed at the beginning of this chapter.

How do you think scientists could learn more about a clump of stone that could be a small dinosaur heart?

Student responses will vary. Accept responses that discuss some reasonable

experiment.

Science Journal

Complete the following paragraph by filling in the missing termsfrom the word bank.

Science is by what it can .

For a question or problem to be studied through ,

there must be variables that can be , measured,

and . Questions that deal with

or belief systems cannot be answered by science. Ethics is a system

of understanding what is or .

Contrast ethical behavior in science with scientific fraud. Createa table that lists three specific behaviors that are examples of eachtype of behavior. Accept all reasonable responses.

badgood

ethicstested

observed

scientific methods

explainlimited

• bad• ethics• explain

• good• limited• observed

• scientific methods• tested

Section 2 Scientific Enterprise (continued)

Limits of ScienceI found this information

on page .SE, p. 20RE, p. 10

Doing ScienceRight

I found this informationon page .

SE, pp. 20–22RE, pp. 10–12

Name Date


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Ethical Behavior Scientific Fraud

being objective making up measurements

making conclusions on the changing resultsbasis of tests and measurements

sharing results taking credit for others’work

Describe how fraud in scientific research could affect other scientists who research in ethical ways. Accept all reasonable responses.

Fraud could mislead other scientists. It could cause them to base their own experiments

on inaccurate information.

SYNTHESIZE IT

This note-taking guide is designed tohelp you succeed in learning sciencecontent. Each chapter includes:

Language-Based Activities Activities cover the content

in your science book includingvocabulary, writing, note-taking,

and problem solving.

Science Journal Write about what

you know.

Writing Activities These activities help you think

about what you’re learning and make connections to

your life.

Vocabulary DevelopmentVocabulary words help you to better

understand your science lessons. Learning the Academic Glossary can help you score

higher on standardized tests.

Anticipation Guide/KWL ChartsThink about what you already know

before beginning a lesson and identify what you would like

to learn from reading.


vii

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Define the four types of factors in a science experiment. Identifyand describe each of them below.

Summarize transferable technology by defining the term. Thenprovide examples by filling out the graphic organizer below.

Transferable technology is

.

Radar and Sonar

originallydeveloped for

are nowused to

study

one situation that is transferred to solve other problems

technology designed for

IndependentVariable

variables that do not change

DependentVariable

the standard to which results can be compared

Section 1 Science All Around (continued)

Working in the Lab


SE, pp. 9–11RE, pp. 4–5

TechnologyI found this information


Name Date

4 The Nature of Science

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Identify three objects in your home or school that have notbeen affected by technology. Accept all reasonable responses.

Almost everything is affected by technology in its construction or its parts. Students

should appreciate the importance of technology.

SYNTHESIZE IT

The Nature of Science Chapter Wrap-Up

Now that you have read the chapter, think about what you have learned and complete the table below. Compare your previous answers with these.



Name Date

After reading this chapter, identify three things that you havelearned about the nature of science. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. Testing is an important part of scientific research. 2. A scientific hypothesis can

become a theory if it has been well tested and is supported by many experiments.

3. It is important to conduct scientific research in an ethical way.

SUMMARIZE IT

ReviewUse this checklist to help you study.

Review the information you included in your Foldable.

Study your Science Notebook on this chapter.

Study the definitions of vocabulary words.

Review daily homework assignments.

Re-read the chapter and review the charts, graphs, and illustrations.

Review the Self Check at the end of each section.

Look over the Chapter Review at the end of the chapter.

• An important part of science is testing, or A SE, p. 9experimenting. RE, p. 3

• Technology is useful only in the situation for D SE, p. 14which it was designed. RE, p. 5

• People began studying weather in the 1800s. D SE, p. 16RE, p. 7

• Science can answer all of the questions that D SE, p. 20can be asked. RE, p. 10

The Nature of Science After YouRead

8 The Nature of Science

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Summarize why it was important for scientists to solve the mysteryof the tsunami that struck Japan, on January 27,1700.

By solving the mystery, scientists discovered that very large

earthquakes can happen in the Pacific Northwest. Knowing that

earthquakes of that size are possible in that area can help people

prepare for the possibility of another similarly large earthquake.

Sequence the scientific methods used to solve a scientific problemby completing the graphic organizer below.

Distinguish topics that Earth scientists study by listing specifictopics identified in this section.

1. 7.

2. 8.

3. 9.

4. 10.

5. 11.

6. 12. objects in spacefossils

ocean waterearthquakes

weathervolcanoes

climatessoil

mountainsminerals

mapsrocks

Gather information.

Test the hypothesis.

Section 1 Science All Around (continued)

Mysteries andProblems


SE, pp. 6–7RE, pp. 1–2

ScientificMethods


SE, p. 8RE, p. 3

ScienceI found this information


Name Date


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Chapter Wrap-UpThis brings the information together for you. Revisiting what you thought

at the beginning of the chapter providesanother opportunity for you to discuss

what you have learned.

Note-Taking Based on the Cornell Two-Column Format

Practice effective note-taking through the use of graphic organizers, outlines,

and written summaries.

Review Checklist This list helps you assess whatyou have learned and prepare

for your chapter tests.

Graphic OrganizersA variety of visual organizers help you to analyze and summarize information

and remember content.



Views of EarthBefore You ReadBefore you read the chapter, respond to these statements.



Name Date

• All mountains form in the same way.

• Lines of longitude run parallel to the equator.

• All maps of Earth distort the shapes and sizes of landmasses.

Assume that you want to build a home and have a satellite photo to guide you.Describe where you would build your new home and why you would build at your chosen location.

Student responses may vary. Green or red areas may be best for building a new

home. These areas tend to be less populated and less developed. Students

should choose their site carefully; green areas within the city are not usually

Science Journal

Before You Views of EarthRead

Views of Earth

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1

possibilities for building.

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NewVocabulary

ReviewVocabulary

AcademicVocabulary

Name Date

Views of EarthSection 1 Landforms

Views of Earth

landform

plain

plateau

folded mountain

upwarped mountain

fault-block mountain

volcanic mountain

expose

Skim the headings in Section 1. Write three questions that come tomind from reading these headings. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. What are the different kinds of plains?

2. What are plateaus?

3. How do mountains form?

Define landform to show its scientific meaning.

natural feature of a land surface

Write the vocabulary term that matches each definition.

large, flat area, often found in the interior regions of continents

flat, raised area of land made up of nearly horizontal rocks thathave been uplifted by forces within Earth

mountain in which rock layers are folded

mountain formed when blocks of Earth’s crust are pushed up byforces inside Earth

mountain made of huge, tilted blocks of rock separated fromsurrounding rock by faults

mountain formed when molten material reaches the surfacethrough a weak area of Earth’s crust

Use a dictionary to define expose.

to leave open or without protection; to reveal

2

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Views of Earth

Name Date

Distinguish two reasons that plains are useful for agriculture.

1. They are flat and have rich soil for growing crops.

2. Thick grass grows well, so plains are good places for cattle

and other grass-eating animals to live.

Compare and contrast coastal plains and interior plains.

Summarize key characteristics of the Great Plains.

The Great Plains are an example of a(n) .

They are located

. The area is

and covered with . The Great Plains

are made of .

Compare and contrast plains and plateaus. Complete the Venndiagram with at least three facts.

Plateaus PlainsBoth

ar

layers of sedimentary rocks

grass and few trees

flat and drythe Rocky Mountains

between the Mississippi River and

interior plain

Section 1 Landforms (continued)

PlainsI found this information

on page .



PlateausI found this information

on page .

Name Date

Coastal Plains Interior Plains

Location

Characteristics

3

Use a physical map to identify the landforms in your area.

Accept all reasonable responses.

CONNECT IT

Section 1 Landforms (continued)

MountainsI found this information

on page .

Have students work in pairs to describethe types of moun-tains. Some pairs mayfind it useful to haveone student draw thediagrams as the otherwrites the summary.

Name Date

Views of Earth

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Model the four types of mountains. Draw a diagram of each type.

Summarize how mountains form. Give an example of each.

Folded Mountain: Strong forces within Earth squeeze rock

layers and cause them to fold. Example: Appalachian Mountains

Upwarped Mountain: Blocks of Earth’s crust are pushed up by

forces inside Earth, and then the blocks erode. Example:

Adirondack Mountains

Fault-Block Mountain: Tilted blocks of rocks shift along faults.

Example: Grand Tetons or Sierra Nevada.

Volcanic Mountain: Hot, melted material reaches the surface

through a weak area of crust and builds up layer by layer.

Example: Mount Shasta, Mount St. Helens

Volcanic MountainFault-Block Mountain

Upwarped MountainFolded Mountain

Drawings should resemble

4

those in the textbook.

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ReviewVocabulary

AcademicVocabulary

Name Date

Views of EarthSection 2 Viewpoints

NewVocabulary

Views of Earth

pole

equator

latitude

prime meridian

longitude

parallel

Preview the What You’ll Learn statements for Section 2. Predictthree topics that will be discussed in this section. Accept all

1. what latitude and longitude arereasonable responses.

2. how latitude and longitude are used

3. how to find time and date in other time zones

Define pole as it is used when describing Earth.

either end of the axis of rotation of a sphere

Define each vocabulary term.

imaginary line around Earth exactly halfway between the north

and south poles

distance in degrees north or south of the equator

imaginary line representing 0° longitude

distance in degrees east or west of the prime meridian

Use a dictionary to define parallel as an adjective. Then find asentence in Section 2 that contains the term.

being the same distance apart at all points; Sentence: Because

they are parallel, lines of latitude do not intersect, or cross, one

another.

5

Model the system used to measure position on Earth.

• Draw a view of Earth.

• Label important features on the diagram with the following terms.

Summarize how latitude and longitude are measured.

Latitude is measured

.

Longitude is measured

.

Degrees of latitude and longitude are divided into

and .seconds

minutes

degrees east or west of the prime meridian

by finding the distance in

or south of the equator

by finding the distance in degrees north

equatornorth polesouth pole

prime meridian0° latitude

90°S latitude90°N latitude

Section 2 Viewpoints (continued)

Latitude andLongitude


Have students work in pairs to completetheir drawings.Provide a globe forstudents to use topractice finding thelatitude and longitudeof points on Earth.

Name Date

Views of Earth

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6

Look at the map of time zones in your book. Infer why theInternational Date Line does not follow the 180° meridian exactly.

Countries and other areas along the International Date Line want each day to be the same

throughout the entire country or area. The line has been adjusted to allow this.

SYNTHESIZE IT

Organize information about time zones. Complete the outline.

Time Zones

I. Measuring time

A. There are 24 hours in a day and 24 time zones.

B. Time is measured by tracking Earth’s movement in

relation to the Sun.

II. Characteristics of time zones

A. Each time zone is about 15° of longitude wide.

B. Each time zone is one hour different from the time zones

on each side of it.

C. Some time zone boundaries are adjusted in local areas.

Summarize what a person should do when crossing theInternational Date Line. Complete the cause-and-effect diagrams.

move calendar forward one day

Travel west across the International Date Line

move calendar backone day

Travel east across the International Date Line

Section 2 Viewpoints (continued)

Time ZonesI found this information

on page .

Calendar DatesI found this information

on page .

Name Date

Views of Earth

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NewVocabulary

ReviewVocabulary

AcademicVocabulary

Name Date

Views of EarthSection 3 Maps

Views of Earth

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globe

conic projection

topographic map

contour line

map scale

map legend

physical

Scan the section headings, bold words, and illustrations. Write twofacts that you discovered as you scanned the section.

1. Mapmakers use different projections to make maps of Earth.

2. Topographic maps show changes in elevation.

Define globe to show its scientific meaning.

spherical representation of Earth

Use your book to define each vocabulary term.

map projection made by projecting points and lines from a

globe onto a cone

map that models the changes in elevation of Earth’s surface

line on a map that connects points of equal elevation

relationship between distance on the map and distance on

Earth’s surface

part of a map that explains what the symbols used on the

map mean

Use a dictionary to define physical. Use physical in a sentenceto show its scientific meaning.

having to do with things we experience through our senses;

Sample sentence: The map shows the physical features of

the region.

Accept allreasonable responses.

8

Define map. Then complete the statements below about mapprojections.

A map is .

A map projection is made when

.

All map projections the shapes and sizes of land-

masses to some extent.

Compare and contrast Mercator, Robinson, and conicprojections.

Summarize the purpose of a topographic map.

A topographic map shows how the elevation of Earth’s surface

changes. Such a map shows hills, valleys, and other landforms

as well as structures built by humans.

distort

of a globe are transferred to paper

points and lines on the surface

a model of Earth’s surface

Section 3 Maps (continued)

Map ProjectionsI found this information

on page .


Have students work in pairs to identify the features of the different types of projections.

TopographicMaps


Name Date

Views of Earth

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Mercator Robinson Conic

How is it Longitude Latitude lines Points and made? lines are are parallel, lines are

projected but lines of projectedparallel to longitude curve from a globeeach other. as on a globe. onto a cone.

What does Shapes of Shapes and Middle it show continents are land areas are latitude accurately? accurate, but relatively regions are

sizes are accurate. shown distorted. accurately.

How is it on ships to show areas for road used? and shapes maps and

accurately weather maps

9

If you were going to map your classroom, which map scale would be better: 1 cm:1 m or 1 cm: 10 m? Explain your reasoning.

Accept all reasonable responses. I would use a scale of 1 cm:1 m. This way, I can show

small features such as a desk or chair more clearly.

CONNECT IT

Organize information about contour lines in the concept web.

Summarize what a map scale and map legend show.

Summarize what geologic maps are and how they are used.

Geologic maps show the arrangement and types of rocks at

Earth’s surface. Scientists use geologic maps to determine how

rock layers may look below the surface and can use the

information to locate natural resources.

A map scale shows the relationship between distance on the map and distance on the ground.

A map legend explains what each symbol on a map means; the legend usually appears at the bottom or side of the map.

Map Elements

Map LegendMap Scale

Contour Lines

These lines connect points of

equal elevation.

Accept allreasonableresponses.

The difference in elevation between

two lines is the contour interval.

Contour lines placed close together model a steep slope.

Index contours are marked with their elevations.

Section 3 Maps (continued)



Geologic MapsI found this information

on page .

Name Date

Views of Earth

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Tie It TogetherModelCreate a two-dimension physical map of your state in the space provided below.Include the major landforms found in your state. Use symbols to indicate these landforms on the map. Be sure to explain the symbols you use in a map legend.Your map should be proportional to the actual size of your state. Include a map scale to help others determine distances. Accept all reasonable responses.

Name Date

Views of Earth

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Views of Earth Chapter Wrap-Up




Name Date

Identify three important ideas in this chapter.

Accept all reasonable responses. 1. Mountains form in a variety of ways. 2. Map

projections can distort the size and shape of landmasses. 3. Satellites allow people

to make digital maps of Earth’s surface.

SUMMARIZE IT









• All mountains form in the same way. D

• Lines of longitude run parallel to Dthe equator.

• All maps of Earth distort the shapes Aand sizes of landmasses.

Views of Earth After YouRead

Views of Earth

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1 2


Weathering and SoilBefore You ReadBefore you read the chapter, respond to these statements.



Name Date

Weathering and Soil

• Plants can break apart rock.

• Climate affects the rate at which soil forms.

• Soil on steep slopes tends to be thickerthan soil at the bottom of a slope.

• Humans sometimes cause erosion tooccur faster than new soil can form.

A tor is a pile of boulders left on land after the surrounding, weakened rock is wornaway. Write a poem about a tor. Use words in your poem that rhyme with the word tor.

Poems will vary.

Standing above the English moor;

Remnant of a landscape past.

The granite boulders of a tor;

Survivors of nature’s wrath.

Subject of myth and lore;

All that remains is weathered core.

Science Journal

Before You Weathering and SoilRead

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Name Date

Weathering and SoilSection 1 Weathering

Weathering and Soil

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surface area

weathering

mechanical weathering

ice wedging

chemical weathering

oxidation

climate

process

Scan the headings of Section 1 to determine two main types ofweathering that will be discussed.

1. mechanical weathering

2. chemical weathering

Define surface area, and use it in a scientific sentence.

area of a rock or other object that

is exposed to its surroundings; Sample sentence: Chopping an

onion increases the surface area of the onion and causes the

eyes to water.

Read the definitions below. Write the key term on the blank in theleft column.

surface processes that break rock into smaller and smaller pieces

physical processes that break rock apart without changing itschemical makeup

mechanical weathering process that occurs when water freezes inthe cracks in rock and expands

process in which chemical reactions dissolve the minerals in rock or change them into different minerals

chemical weathering process that occurs as minerals are exposedto air and water

the long-term pattern of weather that occurs in a particular area

Use a dictionary to define the term process as a noun.

series of changes by which something develops

1 4

Sequence the sediment grain types in order of size.

Organize information by completing the outline below as you read.

Mechanical Weathering

I. Plants and Animals

A. Plants growing in cracks of rock enlarge the cracks.

B. Burrowing animals loosen sediment and push it to the

surface, where additional weathering occurs.

II. Ice Wedging

A. occurs in temperate and cold climates

B. Water enters cracks in rocks, freezes, expands, and

breaks the rock apart.

C. most noticeable in mountains where warm days and

cold nights are common

III. Surface Area

A. Mechanical weathering reduces rock to smaller and

smaller pieces.

B. Smaller pieces have more surface area than the

original rock.

C. As surface area increases, more rock is exposed to

chemical weathering.

Sand Silt Clay

Coarsest Finest

Section 1 Weathering (continued)

Weathering andIts Effects


MechanicalWeathering


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1 5

Sequence steps to explain how carbon dioxide causes chemicalweathering. Accept all reasonable responses.

Synthesize the effects of climate and rock type on the rate ofweathering in the table below. Accept all reasonable responses.

Analyze how oxygen can cause chemical weathering. Discuss whereyou have seen oxidation around your home.

Accept all reasonable responses. Oxidation occurs when some

minerals that contain iron are exposed to oxygen and water. This

results in a new material that resembles rust. Oxidation can take

place in rocks or on some metals exposed to water and oxygen:

bikes, nails, or barbeque set.

Section 1 Weathering (continued)

ChemicalWeathering


Effects ofClimate


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Factors that Affect the Rate of Weathering

Factor Effects

climate Chemical weathering is rapid in warm, wet climates. High temperatures speed up chemical reactions that occur in water.

Mechanical weathering often is rapid in cold climates that have frequent freezing and thawing.

rock type Some types of rock, such as granite, weather more slowly in wet climates than other types, such as marble.

Chemical Weathering by Carbonic Acid

1. Water reacts with carbon dioxide in the air or soil.

2. A weak acid called carbonic acid forms.

3. The carbonic acid reacts with some minerals.

4. Over time, the reaction causes the minerals to dissolve.

1 6

profile

soil

humus

horizon

soil profile

litter

leaching

indicate

Predict two things that might be discussed in this section on thebasis of its title. Accept all reasonable answers.

1. what soil is made of

2. different kinds of soil

Define the term profile.

vertical slice through rock, sediment, or soil

Use your book or a dictionary to define the following terms.

mixture of weathered rock, decayed organic matter, mineral

fragments, water, and air

dark-colored material that forms when organic matter

partly decays

layer of soil

the horizons of a soil

leaves, twigs, and other surface organic material

removal of minerals that have been dissolved in water

Use a dictionary to define indicate.

to be or give a sign of

ReviewVocabulary

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Name Date

Weathering and SoilSection 2 The Nature of Soil

NewVocabulary

Weathering and Soil

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1 7

Complete the graphic organizer to show the five factors that affectsoil formation.

Identify the five components of soil, and create a symbol torepresent each.

Compare and contrast dry soil and moist soil. Create sketches inthe top row, and write descriptions in the bottom row.

Factors Affecting Soil Formation

type ofvegetation

length of timethat rock has been

weatheringclimate

slope ofthe land type of

rock

Section 2 The Nature of Soil (continued)

Formation of SoilI found this information

on page .

Composition of Soil



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Dry Soil Moist Soil

A dry soil has pore spaces The pores of a moist soil arethat are almost completely partly filled with water.filled with air.

rock mineral organic air waterfragments matter

Symbols should be representative of each component.

My

Soil

Com

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Sym

bol

ofSo

il

Accept all reasonable responses. The components of soil will be similar except for what is filling the spaces

between soil particles.

1 8

Model a soil profile by drawing and labeling it below.

Organize information about soil structure in the concept map.

Summarize information about how soil varies in different regions.

platy

granular prismatic

blocky

Types of Peds

Profile should include three distinct layers. Possible descriptions:

• Top layer: dark, fertile, contains humus• Middle layer: less fertile than top layer; may

contain material leached from the top layer• Lower layer: often the thickest; contains coarse

sediment and parent material of soil

Section 2 The Nature of Soil (continued)

Soil ProfileI found this information

on page .


Soil TypesI found this information

on page .

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Analyze relationships between organisms and soil. Describe howorganisms use soil and how organisms affect soil. Accept all reasonable answers.

Some organisms grow in, live in, or feed on soil. Organisms affect soil by contributing

organic matter to the soil and by mixing the soil.

CONNECT IT

Region Soil

desert contain little organic matter;thinner soil than wetter climates

prairie grasses add large amounts of organic matter;thick, dark A horizons

temperate less organic matter and thinner A horizons than forest prairie soil

1 9

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erosion

no-till farming

contour farming

terracing

compensate

Skim the headings and the boldfaced terms in Section 3. Identifythree facts about soil erosion and ways to reduce its occurrence.

1. Ground cover protects soil from erosion.

2. Erosion of topsoil reduces its quality.

3. No-till farming and contour farming reduce soil erosion.

Use erosion in a scientific sentence.

Erosion can occur when it rains hard enough to cause runoff.

Define the following terms. Then use each term in an originalscientific sentence.

when farmers leave plants in a field over the winter months;

Sample sentence: No-till farming provides cover to protect

the soil.

planting along the natural contours of the land; Sample

sentence: Contour farming is often used in hilly areas.

method of farming in which steep-sided, level-topped areas

are built into the sides of steep hills and mountains; Sample

sentence: Terracing is useful when farming mountainous parts

of the world.

Define the term compensate as it refers to soil.

to make up for

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AcademicVocabulary

Name Date

Weathering and SoilSection 3 Soil Erosion

Weathering and Soil

Accept all reasonableresponses.

2 0

Evaluate why soil erosion is a serious problem for agriculture.

Accept all reasonable responses. Erosion can wash soil from

the A horizon, which is the richest layer of soil. This means

that the soil that plants grow best in is lost.

Organize information on the causes and effects of soil erosion bycompleting the diagram below.

Identify the causes and effects of excess sediment.

Excesssediment

strip mining orconstruction exposing

large areas of land

streams and theenvironment

is causedby

canaffect

Soil Erosion

agriculturalcultivation

forestharvesting

overgrazing

soil isdamaged

nutrients andwaterholding capacity

are reduced

Causes Effects

topsoilis lost

Section 3 Soil Erosion (continued)

Soil—AnImportantResource


Causes andEffects of

Soil ErosionI found this information

on page .


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Weathering and Soil

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2 1

Summarize methods of preventing soil erosion.

Section 3 Soil Erosion (continued)

Preventing Soil Erosion


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Preventing Soil Erosion

Strategy Methods

Manage crops 1.Plant shelter belts of trees to break the force of the wind.

2.Plant crops to cover ground after main harvest.

3.Use no-till farming to avoid plowing fields.

Reduce erosion 1.Practice contour farming by planting on slopes along the natural contours of the land.

2.Build terraces.

Reduce erosion 1.During construction projects, spray on exposed soil water on bare ground to reduce erosion

by the wind.

2.After construction, add topsoil and plant trees to stabilize soil.

3.After strip-mining, flatten slopes and plant vegetation.

Identify ways to prevent erosion that are probably used in yourcommunity and explain why they are used. Accept all reasonable answers.

In all communities, methods for reducing erosion of exposed soil would be applicable

because of construction of homes and roads. The various other ways of reducing

erosion would be common for farming communities with varying terrains.

CONNECT IT

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Tie It TogetherModelRecall evidence of erosion that you have seen in your community. Then create a model to demonstrate how the erosion probably occurred. You may make a working three-dimensional model that you can demonstrate for the class. You may represent your model with a labeled drawing. Describe how the model can be changed to prevent erosion.

Name Date

Weathering and Soil 2 3

Weathering and Soil Chapter Wrap-Up




Name Date

After reading this chapter, identify three things that you havelearned about weathering and soil. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. Mechanical weathering and chemical weathering affect Earth’s surface. 2. Soil is

constantly forming from solid rock. 3. When forests are removed, soil is exposed and

erosion increases.

SUMMARIZE IT









• Plants can break apart rock. A

• Climate affects the rate at which Asoil forms.

• Soil on steep slopes usually is thicker Dthan soil at the bottom of a slope.

• Humans sometimes cause erosion to Aoccur faster than new soil can form.

Weathering and Soil After YouRead

Weathering and Soil

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Name three major landforms around the world. Hypothesize what erosional forceshelped shape them. Use sketches to help you think about the processes.

Science Journal


Erosional ForcesPreviewBefore you read the chapter, respond to these statements.



Name Date

Erosional Forces

• Glaciers can erode rocks and soil.

• Human activity can increase erosion.

• Steep slopes can be unsafe for structuressuch as houses.

• Planting vegetation can increase erosion.

Before You Erosional ForcesRead

.

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Erosional ForcesSection 1 Erosion by Gravity

Erosional Forces

AcademicVocabulary

sediment

erosion

deposition

mass movement

slump

creep

structure

Predict what you will learn about erosion after looking at eachillustration in Section 1 of your book. Accept all reasonable

I predict that I will learn that gravity pulls land responses.

downward in slump, creep, rock slides, and mudflows.

Write a sentence using the word sediment to show its scientificmeaning. Accept all reasonable responses.

The river deposited sediment along its banks.

Define the following key terms by using your book or adictionary.

process in which surface materials are worn away and

transported from one place to another

dropping of sediment that occurs when an agent of erosion

can no longer carry its load

any type of erosion that occurs as gravity moves rock or

sediment downslope

a type of mass movement that occurs when a mass of

sediment slips down along a curved surface

a type of mass movement in which sediment moves downslope

very slowly

Use a dictionary to define the word structure.

anything that is built; a home or other building, a molecule's

structure

2 6

Identify four major agents of erosion.

1. gravity

2. water

3. wind

4. glaciers

Summarize how energy affects the ability of agents of erosion tocarry and drop sediment. Then describe how this occurs with water.

Agents of erosion carry sediment only when they have

enough energy of motion to do so. They drop sediment as

they lose energy.

Water: Rivers and streams carry sediment. The sediment

is deposited at places where the water slows, such as a delta

or a bend in the river.

Compare and contrast characteristics of mass movements bycompleting the following chart.

Section 1 Erosion by Gravity (continued)

Erosion andDeposition


Mass MovementI found this information

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Erosional Forces

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Mass Movements

Types Description

Slump A mass of sediment slips along a curved surface.

Mudflow A mixture of sediment and water flows down a slope.

Rock slide Layers of rock slip downslope suddenly.

Creep Sediment moves downhill slowly.

Rockfall Blocks of rock break loose and tumble through the air.

2 7

Model what a slope would look like before and after a mudflow.

Before After

Analyze ways to reduce erosion on steep slopes. Complete thegraphic organizer below.

planting vegetation inserting

drainagepipes

buildingwalls

Ways to reduce erosion on steep slopes

Section 1 Erosion by Gravity (continued)


Consequences ofErosion


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Erosional Forces

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Model a way to build a house on a hillside. Draw the house andshow methods to protect the house from erosion caused by gravity.


The house will have drainage tile around it that carries water away so that slump does not occur. The house will be surrounded with plants with deep roots, and a wall will be built below the house to retain the soil.

COMPARE IT

“Before” drawings should show trees

and other vegetation on a hillside.

“After” drawings shouldshow a mass of soft landthat has flowed downward

into a fan shape, withremnants of vegetation

at the bottom.

2 8

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Erosional ForcesSection 2 Glaciers

NewVocabulary

Erosional Forces

AcademicVocabulary

plasticlike

glacier

plucking

till

moraine

outwash

accumulate

Scan the illustration headings in Section 2. Write three truestatements about glaciers on the lines below.

A glacier is a large mass of ice and snow moving on land under

its own weight. Eskers are glacial deposits formed by meltwater.

Glacial erosion and deposition created many landforms on Earth.

Define plasticlike using your book.

not completely solid or liquid; capable of being molded or

changing form

Write a scientific sentence for each vocabulary word.

The glacier formed as snow and ice accumulated over many

hundreds of years.

Plucking caused rocks to accumulate in the ice at the bottom

of the glacier.

Some farmland in the Midwest is made up of till that was left

behind when glaciers retreated.

Material piled up at the end of the glacier, forming a moraine.

The meltwater from the glacier deposited a fan-shaped outwash

deposit.

Define accumulate by using a dictionary.

to gather, pile up, or collect


2 9

Sequence the steps of glacier formation and movement. The firststep has been completed for you. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. When snow doesn’t melt, it piles up.

2. The increasing weight of snow compresses the lower

layers into ice.

3. The ice becomes plasticlike.

4. The mass slowly begins to flow away from its source.

Contrast two ways that glaciers erode rock. Accept all reasonable responses.

Summarize the types of glacier deposits in the chart below.

Section 2 Glaciers (continued)

How GlaciersForm and Move


Ice Eroding RockI found this information

on page .

Ice DepositingSediment


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Erosional Forces

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Plucking Scouring

1. Melting occurs at the 1. Glaciers transport bottom of a glacier. sediment and rock.

2. Water flows into cracks 2. Sediment and rock scour thein rocks. land as the glacier moves.

3. The water refreezes and 3. Striations and groovesextends the cracks. form.

4. The ice lifts out piecesof the rock.

Mass Movements

Type Consists of Deposited by Example oflandform that is left behind

Till a mixture of glacier, left moraine, arocks, sand, behind when ridge of rocks clay, and silt it melts and soil

Outwash sand and water from a fan-shaped gravel melting glacier layer of sand

and gravel

3 0

Identify key facts about continental glaciers. Complete theconcept map below.

Create a labeled diagram of a mountain that has been eroded byvalley glaciers.

Drawings might include a cirque, a horn, arêtes, and a U-shaped valley. They also might include

a hanging valley.

huge sheets of iceand snow

ContinentalGlaciers

Description

Last Ice Age

Location Today

mostly near the poles in Antarctica and Greenland

covered as much as 28 percent of Earth’s surface; reached maximum extent about 18,000 years ago

Section 2 Glaciers (continued)

ContinentalGlaciers


Valley GlaciersI found this information

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Erosional Forces

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Outside of a town in the Midwest is a long, winding ridge made of sand and gravel. Hypothesize how this landform may have formed.

Accept all reasonable responses. This may be an esker created by a melting glacier.

A river may have formed in the melting ice, depositing sand and gravel in its channel.

When the glacier melted, a ridge of these deposits remained.

SYNTHESIZE IT

3 1

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Erosional ForcesSection 3 Wind

Erosional Forces

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friction

abrasion

loess

dune

deflation

eventual

Skim the headings in Section 3. Write three questions that occur to you. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. What does wind erosion do?

2. How can wind erosion be reduced?

3. What is the difference between loess and dunes?

Define friction using your book or a dictionary.

a force that opposes the motion of an object when the object

is in contact with another object or surface

Read each definition. Write the correct vocabulary word tomatch on the blank in the left column.

when windblown sediment strikes rock, the surface of the rock getsscraped and worn away

wind-blown deposits of fine-grained sediments are called

a mound of sand drifted by the wind.

wind removes small particles such as silt and sand and leavesbehind heavier, coarser material.

Write a sentence that shows the meaning of the word eventual.

Accept all reasonable responses. Deposition of sediment is the

eventual result of erosion.

3 2

Contrast two ways wind differs from other agents of erosion.

1. Wind can pick up light, loose material. It usually cannot pick

up heavy sediment.

2. Wind can deposit sediment over a larger area and thousands

of kilometers away from the source.

Sequence deflation and abrasion in the flowchart. Make a sketchfor the process that occurs in each box.

Contrast sandstorms and dust storms in the chart.

Description

Wind blows across loose sediment, picking up small particles such as sand and silt.

DeflationDrawing

Description

Windblown sediment strikes rock, scraping it and wearing it away.

AbrasionDrawing

Section 3 Wind (continued)

Wind ErosionI found this information

on page .


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Erosional Forces

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Sandstorms Dust Storms

What particles Sand grains are Silt and clay-sizedare carried by carried. particles are carried.the storm?

What happens? Wind blows sand A fast wind liftsgrains into a low lightweight particlescloud. and carries them

over long distances.

3 3

Summarize how plants help conserve soil. Make a sketch to showeach effect in the boxes at right.

1. Windbreaks:

prevent soil erosion. Trees reduce

the energy of the wind. They also

trap snow, which increases the level

of moisture in the soil.

2. Roots:

and slender and have many fibers.

They twist and turn between soil

particles and hold soil in place.

Complete the statements about loess and sand dunes.

Loess forms when wind blows across . When

the sediment is dropped, it forms

deposits. Loess deposits often become soils. Sand dunes

often form in . After the dunes form, they move in the

direction that the blows. Sand blows up the

side of the dune. It then falls down the side of the dune.

This process causes the to move slowly across the desert.dune

steep

gentlewind

deserts

fertile

fine, thick, yellowish-brown

glacial outwash areas

Grass roots are shallow

Plant trees to

Section 3 Wind (continued)

Reducing WindErosion


Deposition by Wind


Name Date

Erosional Forces

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During the 1930s, wind eroded soil from much of the south-central United States (the Dust Bowl). Infer what farming practices might have contributedto the Dust Bowl. Summarize how farmers could have protected their farms.

Accept all reasonable responses. Overgrazing and excess tilling contributed to the

creation of the Dust Bowl. Farmers could have maintained ground cover to hold the soil

in place and planted trees for windbreaks.

SYNTHESIZE IT

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Tie It TogetherPlan ArticlesImagine that you are a reporter for a newspaper. The town where you live is located near a moraine and along the shore of a large lake. Plan a series of two articles that will explain

i. how erosion and deposition shaped the town’s land

ii. what dangers the town may face from erosion in the future.Accept all reasonable responses.

Article 1

Topic: Erosion and deposition and the town’s history

Headline:

Key Points for Article:

Students might describe how the moraine formed at the edge of a glacier and how the

glacier deposited a layer of till over the land.

Article 2

Topic: Mass wasting

Headline:

Key Points for Article:

Students might describe waves undercutting steep cliffs and sediment slumping

downward into the lake. Some students may suggest ways to reduce erosion, such

as installing breakwaters.

Slump Threatens Lakeshore

Glaciers Shaped Town’s Landscape

Name Date

Erosional Forces 35

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Erosional Forces Chapter Wrap-Up




Name Date









• Glaciers can erode rocks and soil. A

• Human activity can increase erosion. A

• Steep slopes can be unsafe for structures Asuch as houses.

• Planting vegetation can increase erosion. D

Erosional Forces After You Read

Erosional Forces

After reading this chapter, identify three things that you havelearned about erosional forces. Accept all reasonable responses.

Gravity, wind, water, and glaciers are agents of erosion. Erosion has shaped Earth’s

surface. There are ways to reduce erosion in some places, such as by planting grasses

and trees.

SUMMARIZE IT

3 6


Water Erosion and DepositionBefore You ReadBefore you read the chapter, respond to these statements.



Name Date

• The presence of plants can affect how much water runs off the land.

• When a river forms, its course never changes.

• Water that soaks into the ground becomes part of a system, just as water above ground does.

• Beaches are always made of pieces of rock.

Hoodoos are narrow towers of rock. What processes might have formed hoodoos? What will happen if this process continues?

Accept all reasonable responses. Students should include erosion by water, ice,

or wind.

Science Journal

Before You Water Erosion and DepositionRead

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Water Erosion and Deposition 3 7

erosion

runoff

drainage basin

meander

likewise

Skim Section 1 of your book and read the headings. Write threequestions that come to mind. Try to answer your questions as you read. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. What factors affect runoff?

2. What causes erosion?

3. What is a drainage basin?

Define erosion.

transport of surface materials by agents such as gravity, wind,

water, or glaciers

Write a paragraph that uses each vocabulary term in a way thatshows its scientific meaning. Accept all reasonable responses.

When rain falls, some of the water does not soak into the

ground or evaporate. It flows over Earth’s surface as runoff.

This runoff often flows into rivers or streams. Rivers and

streams collect runoff that falls in their drainage basins. As

rivers flow, they erode their banks in twisting patterns, forming

meanders.

Use your book or a dictionary to define likewise.

in the same way

NewVocabulary

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AcademicVocabulary

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Water Erosion and DepositionSection 1 Surface Water

Water Erosion and Deposition

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3 8

Section 1 Surface Water (continued)

RunoffI found this information

on page .

Water ErosionI found this information

on page .

Have groups of students investigateways that farmers prevent or slow theerosion of soil.

River SystemDevelopment


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Distinguish four factors that determine how much runoff occursafter rain falls.

Summarize the causes and effects of four types of surface watererosion in the chart below.

Scan the map of drainage basins in the United States in your text.Identify three major drainage basins.

1. Mississippi River Drainage Basin

2. Colorado River Drainage Basin

3. Columbia River Drainage Basin

amount of rain

length of time

slope of land

presence ofvegetation

Factors Affecting Runoff

Type Causes Effects

Rill heavy rain falling on groove or small ditcha slope

Gully heavy rain falling on broader, deeper rill a slope channel

Sheet water flowing as thin, thin layer of water that wide sheets outside carries away sedimenta channel

Stream water continuing to flow light sediment is carried along a low place and heavy sediment is

rolled; rock is worn awayby abrasion

3 9

Sequence the stages of stream development. Complete the flowchart to identify the key features of each stage.

Contrast the roles and locations of dams and levees.

Dams are built across rivers to control water flow downstream.

Levees are built along the sides of rivers to keep the water

inside the rivers’ banks.

Summarize how rivers deposit sediments. Describe how deltas andalluvial fans form.

As water slows, it .

These deposits form a delta when

. They form an alluvial fan when

.flows from a mountain valley onto an open plain

water or lake

water flows into an ocean

deposits its load of soil and rock

Young Streams

may have rapids and waterfalls; high-energy water;erode stream bottom faster than sides

Mature Streams

meanders, floodplain; erosion occurs along sides of stream,causing curves and meanders

Old Streams

broad, flat floodplain

Section 1 Surface Water (continued)

Stages of StreamDevelopment


Too Much WaterI found this information

on page .

Deposition bySurface Water


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A broad, flat river flows slowly along its bed while a young,swift stream rushes past. Explain which one would probably deposit more sediment.

Accept all reasonable responses. A mature stream would probably deposit more sediment

because it moves more slowly.

SYNTHESIZE IT

4 0

pore

permeable

aquifer

water table

geyser

underlie

Scan the headings in Section 2. Then predict three topics that willbe covered in this section. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. wells

2. springs

3. geysers

Define pore.

small, or minute, opening in rock or soil

Use your book to define the following terms.

describes soil and rock with connecting pores through which

water can flow

layer of permeable rock that allows water to flow through

upper surface of the zone of saturation

hot spring that erupts periodically and shoots water and steam

into the air

Use your book or a dictionary to define underlie.

to lie beneath

ReviewVocabulary

AcademicVocabulary

Name Date

Water Erosion and DepositionSection 2 Groundwater

NewVocabulary


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4 1

Summarize how groundwater collects. Complete the graphicorganizer.

Create a drawing that shows how groundwater flows. Label theimpermeable layer, permeable layer, water table, and zone ofsaturation. Use arrows to show how the groundwater flows.

Organize information about wells and springs. Complete the chart.

Drawings should resemble

Students should indicate the zone of saturation above the impermeable layer.

Soil is made of fragments of rocks and minerals with spaces between them.

Water soaks into the ground and collects in the pores and empty spaces in the soil.

Section 2 Groundwater (continued)

GroundwaterSystems



Water TableI found this information

on page .

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Water Important FeaturesSource

Regular must be past the top of the water table; needs well a pump to bring water to the surface

Artesian aquifer must be between two impermeable layers well that slope; water in upper end puts pressure on

the water below

Spring occurs when water table meets Earth’s surface; often found on hillsides; often used as a source of freshwater

4 2

those in the textbook.

Sequence the events that cause a geyser to erupt. Complete theflow chart.

Complete the concept map to identify ways that groundwatershapes land.

Groundwatershapes land.

Caves

Water mixes with carbon dioxide gas to

form carbonic acid, which dissolves limestone to form an underground

opening.

Stalactites

Water carrying calcium evaporates

while hanging from a cave ceiling.

Stalagmites

Water drops fall from a cave ceiling

and evaporate, leaving calcium deposits.

Sinkholes

These form when underground rock near the surface dissolves or

a cave collapses.

1. Water is heated to high temperatures underground.

2. The hot water expands, forcing some water from the ground.

3. The remaining water boils and turns into steam.

4. The steam shoots from a hole in the ground.

Section 2 Groundwater (continued)

Water TableI found this information

on page .

The Work ofGroundwater


This is a good partner activity.

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Aquifers are important natural resources. Due to human activity,the levels of some aquifers have dropped over time. What problems can this cause for humans? Accept all reasonable responses.

Dropping water levels make it more difficult for wells to reach groundwater sources,

a situation which can cause water shortages.

CONNECT IT

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spring tide

longshore current

beach

transport

Scan Section 3 of your text using the checklist below.

Read all section titles.

Read all bold words.

Look at all pictures and labels.

Think about what you already know about waves and shorelines.

Write three facts you discovered about ocean shorelines as youscanned the section. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. Three major forces that change shorelines are waves,

2. Beaches are made of different materials.

3. The same forces that build barrier islands erode them.

Define spring tide.

tide of increased range that occurs twice monthly at the

new and full phases of the Moon

Use your book to define the following terms.

current that runs parallel to the shoreline

deposit of sediment whose materials vary in size, color,

and composition

Use your book or a dictionary to find the meaning of transportas a verb. Then write a sentence using the term.

to carry from one place to another; Sample sentence:

A longshore current transports sand along a beach.

NewVocabulary

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AcademicVocabulary

Name Date

Water Erosion and DepositionSection 3 Ocean Shoreline


currents, and tides.

444

Complete the graphic organizer below to identify how shorelineerosion occurs.

Sequence three steps in the erosion process of a rocky shoreline.Create a sketch to help you remember each step.

Waves Longshore Currents Tides

crash against shoreline,

breaking rocks into smaller pieces

run parallel to shoreline

and carry sediment

create currents that carry

sediment toward or away from

the shore

Causes of Shoreline Erosion

Section 3 Ocean Shoreline (continued)

The ShoreI found this information

on page .

Encourage studentswho have been to a beach to share their impressions of the area.

Rocky ShorelinesI found this information

on page .

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1. Waves crash Accept all reasonable steps against the rocks and sketches.and cliffs, wearing away the rock.

2. Softer rock erodes first, leaving islands of harder rock.

3. Harder rocks wear away over time. Sediment is carried away by longshore currents.

4 5

Summarize how beach sand forms.

Waves grind rocks and seashells into pieces. The waves push

the pieces together, breaking them into smaller pieces. The

grinding also polishes the corners of the pieces and makes

them smoother.

Analyze ways that beaches can change. Accept all reasonable responses.

Analyze how barrier islands form and change. Complete theoutline.

I. How barrier islands form

A. Start as underwater sand ridges

B. Sediment added by hurricanes and storms

II. How barrier islands change

A. Wind blows loose sand into dunes.

B. Storms and waves carry sand away, eroding the island.

Tides and currents carry sand

Storms and waves damage beaches

Human activity construction can damage beaches

Cause Effect

Section 3 Ocean Shoreline (continued)

Sandy BeachesI found this information

on page .

Sand Erosion and Deposition


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Which shoreline feature would you expect to last longest: arocky shoreline, a sandy beach, or a barrier island? Which would you expect to last the shortest time? Explain your response. Accept all reasonable responses.

A rocky shoreline will probably last longest because harder rocks take a longer time to

erode as a result of wave action. The barrier island would last the shortest time because

it is easily eroded.

SYNTHESIZE IT

46


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Tie It TogetherTest Soil PermeabilityIn a small group, collect several different types of soil or rock, such as gravel, sand,and clay. Test the permeability of each sample by following the process below.

1. Cut the top from a plastic 2-liter bottle. Be sure to follow safety procedures when cutting.

2. Place about 10 cm of the material to be tested in the bottom part of the bottle.

3. Pour 100 ml of water into the bottle. Use a stopwatch to determine how long it takes the water to soak into the material. Observe the substance carefully until there is no water collected on the surface of the soil or gravel.

4. Record your results in the table below.

5. Remove the material from the bottle, and rinse and dry the bottle thoroughly.Then repeat steps 1–4 with the other materials you chose.

Given your results, which material would you use in the yard of a house built on a lowarea? Explain your response. Accept all reasonable responses.

The most permeable material would allow water to soak into the ground more easily,

reducing the chance that water would reach the house.

Name Date

Material Time

Accept all properlyrecorded observations.

4 7

Water Erosion and DepositionChapter Wrap-Up




Name Date

After reading this chapter, identify three things that you havelearned about erosion and deposition by water. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. Rills, gullies, sheets, and streams all cause water erosion. 2. Streams can be young,

mature, or old. 3. Groundwater moves under the surface through permeable rock

and soil.

SUMMARIZE IT









• The presence of plants can affect how much Awater runs off the land.

• When a river forms, its course never changes. D

• Water that soaks into the ground becomes part Aof a system, just as water above ground does.

• Beaches are always made of pieces of rock. D

Water Erosion and Deposition After YouRead

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Water Erosion and Deposition4 8

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Clues to Earth’s Past


Clues to Earth’s PastBefore You ReadBefore you read the chapter, respond to these statements.



Name Date

• The footprint of a dinosaur is considered a fossil.

• Scientists use fossils to learn what an environment was like long ago.

• The oldest rock layer is always the onefound on top.

• Scientists can determine the age ofsome rocks.

Before You Clues to Earth’s PastRead

List three fossils that you would expect to find a million years from now in the place you live today.

Responses will vary, but should make sense for the local environment. If near

water, include mollusks. Insects in amber are also likely. Point out that animal

bones are unlikely to survive for fossilization. Leaf impressions or pollen grains

may be possible.

Science Journal

49

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Clues to Earth’s PastSection 1 Fossils


paleontologist

permineralizedremains

carbon film

cast

index fossils

emerge

Skim Section 1 of your book. Read the headings and examine theillustrations. Write three questions that come to mind. Accept all

1. How do fossils form?reasonable responses.

2. What are carbon films?

3. How does coal form?

Define paleontologist to show its scientific meaning.

scientist who studies fossils

Define the following terms to show their scientific meaning.

fossils in which the spaces inside are filled with minerals from

groundwater

thin film of carbon residue preserved as a fossil

type of fossil that forms when crystals fill a mold or sediments

wash into a mold and harden into rock

remains of species that existed on Earth for a relatively short

period of time, were abundant, and were widespread geographically

Define emerge to show its scientific meaning.

to come out; to appear

5 0

Complete the table to describe the two conditions that improve thechances of fossil formation. Give an example of each.

Create a concept web to summarize the types of preservation.

Sequence the steps involved in the making of the cast of a shell.

Sediment buries shell.

Sediment surrounding shell turns into rock.

Water entering through pores dissolves shell.

Mold results.Mold fills

with sediment or minerals.

Cast results.

Accept all reasonable responses.Topics that should be included are

permineralized remains, carbon films, molds, casts, and original remains.

Section 1 Fossils (continued)

Formation ofFossils


Types ofPreservation


Students may find iteasier to make a list of the concepts theywant to include beforejoining them in a web.


Name Date


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Condition Example

must be protected from scavengers quick burialand other harmful forces

has hard parts, which are more likely bones, shells, to survive than soft parts or teeth

51

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Section 1 Fossils (continued)

Index FossilsI found this information

on page .

Fossils andAncient

EnvironmentsI found this information

on page .

Have students work inpairs to identify whatpaleontologists canlearn from fossils.

Name Date


Summarize the three characteristics of index fossils.

1. The species existed for a short time.

2. The organisms were numerous.

3. The species lived in many places.

Analyze why index fossils are more useful to paleontologists thanmany other fossils.

They are useful because the species they represent only lived

for a short time. This means that any rock containing that fossil

formed during that short time. Scientists can use them to

estimate the age of rock layers.

Organize the kinds of information about ancient environments thatscientists can learn from fossils. Complete the graphic organizer.

Information about environmentrevealed by fossils

if area was land or covered

by water

past climateof the area

in areas that were covered

by water, depth of the water

You find a fossil shell in a layer of rock. It appears to be a clam.What type of rock must the rock layer be? What type of environment would the animal have lived in? Accept all reasonable responses.

The rock is sedimentary rock, and the area was under water when the animal was alive.

CONNECT IT

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Name Date

Clues to Earth’s PastSection 2 Relative Ages of Rocks

NewVocabulary


sedimentary rock

principle ofsuperposition

relative age

unconformity

sequence

Scan the list below to preview Section 2 of your book.

• Read all section headings.

• Read all bold words.

• Look at all of the pictures.

• Think about what you already know about rock.

Write three facts you discovered about the relative ages of rocks asyou scanned the section. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. Some rocks are older than others.

2. In undisturbed layers, the oldest rock is on the bottom.

3. Most rock sequences are incomplete.

Define sedimentary rock to show its scientific meaning.

rock formed when sediments are compacted and cemented or

when minerals are precipitated from solution

Read each definition below. Write the correct vocabulary term inthe blank to the left.

states that in undisturbed rock layers, the oldest rocks are on thebottom and the rocks are progressively younger toward the top

age of something compared with the ages of other things

gap in a sequence of rock layers that is due to erosion or periodswithout any deposition

Define sequence to show its scientific meaning.

one thing following another in a fixed order

5 3

Model the principle of superposition by sketching a cross-sectionof layers of undisturbed sedimentary rock. Number the layers,starting with 1 for the oldest layer.

Describe how the relative age of a rock layer is different from theactual age of the rock layer. Accept all reasonable responses.

When you know the relative age of a rock layer, you know only

how old it is compared with other things, such as other rock

layers. When you know the actual age of a layer of rock, you

know approximately how many years old the rock layer is.

Model how a folded rock formation containing limestone, coal,and sandstone would form. Draw and label the layers as theywould form originally. Then draw what they would look like afterbeing folded.

Drawing should show the same layers folded.

Drawing should show horizontal layers.

Sketches should depict horizontal layers. Bottom layer should be numbered 1,

and others should be numbered in order from bottom to top.

Section 2 Relative Ages of Rocks (continued)

SuperpositionI found this information

on page .

Have partners demon-strate rock layers andsuperposition with astack of magazines.

Relative AgesI found this information

on page .


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5 4

As you pass through a highway cut, you notice distinct layersof rock. Can you be sure that the top layer is the youngest one? Explain.

Accept all reasonable responses. No, the principle of superposition does not necessarily

apply because the layers may have been folded.

SYNTHESIZE IT

Compare and contrast angular unconformity, disconformity,and nonconformity in rocks by sequencing the steps in theirformation.

Identify the two ways to match up, or correlate, exposed rocklayers from two different places. Complete the graphic organizer.

Match up rock layers by

following the layeracross an area

using fossil evidence that shows the same

types of fossils in both places

Section 2 Relative Ages of Rocks (continued)

UnconformitiesI found this information

on page .

Matching UpRock Layers


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Unconformities

Type How It Forms

Angular 1. Layers of sedimentary rock are tilted and unconformity 2. Exposed rock erodes.

uplifted.

3. Sedimentary layers are deposited on top.

Disconformity 1. Sedimentary rock is exposed.

2. Some rock layers erode.


Nonconformity 1. Igneous or metamorphic rocks are uplifted.

2. Exposed rock erodes.


5 5

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Clues to Earth’s PastSection 3 Absolute Ages of Rocks


isotopes

radioactive decay

radiometric dating

uniformitarianism

ratio

Predict three things that might be discussed in Section 3 as youread the headings. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. what absolute age is

2. how radiometric dating is used to determine the age of rocks

3. who developed the idea of uniformitarianism

Define isotopes to show its scientific meaning.

atoms of the same element that have different numbers

of neutrons

Define these key terms to show their scientific meaning.

process in which some isotopes break down into other isotopes

and particles

process used to calculate the absolute age of rock by measuring

the ratio of parent isotope to daughter product in a mineral

principle stating that Earth processes occurring today are similar

to those that occurred in the past

Define ratio to show its scientific meaning.

relation of one thing to another in size or amount

56

Organize information about radioactive decay as a tool to find arock’s absolute age. Complete the Venn diagram below with at leastsix points of information. Accept all reasonable responses.

Create a bar chart to show four half-lives. Then draw a curveconnecting the tops of the bars. Label each axis.

Half-lives1 2 3 4 5

Beta decay

Radioactive Decay

Alpha decayBoth

The nucleus gives off an alpha particle.

The particle contains two neutrons and two protons.

A neutron changes into a proton by giving off an electron.

The electron given off is called a beta particle.

Absolute age of rock can be calculated by ratio of parent isotope to daughter product.

Rate of decay is measured in half-lives.

Each radioactive isotope decays at a certain rate.

Unstableisotopes break down into other

isotopes and particles.

Section 3 Absolute Ages of Rocks (continued)

Absolute Agesand Radioactive

DecayI found this information

on page .


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Graphs should showfive bars: Parentmaterial–100%, 1 half life–50%, 2 half lives–25%, 3 half lives–12.5%, and 4 half lives–6.25%.

57

Analyze carbon-14 dating by completing the statements.

The half-life of carbon-14 is .

When carbon-14 decays, it becomes .

Carbon-14 radiometric dating is used for ,

, and samples up

to old. Scientists compare amounts of

carbon-14 in the to the amount in a fossil

of an organism that lived long ago. While the organism was alive,

it took in and processed carbon-14 and .

The of carbon-14 to carbon-12 tells the

approximate of the fossil.

Summarize Hutton’s view of uniformitarianism and the modernview of changes that affect Earth.

Hutton’s view: Earth processes occurring today are similar to

those that occurred in the past.

Modern view: Slow change occurs through everyday processes

over millions of years. Sudden, violent changes also occur, such

as a collision with a comet.

age

ratio

carbon-12

environment

75,000 years

charcoalwood

bones

nitrogen-14

5,730 years

Section 3 Absolute Ages of Rocks (continued)

Radiometric AgesI found this information

on page .

UniformitarianismI found this information

on page .

Have groups of students provideexamples of both slow and fast change,and describe howthose changes haveimpacted Earth.

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Explain why the principle of uniformitarianism is critical towhat you have learned about determining the absolute age of rocks.

The principle applies to the breakdown of isotopes at a regular rate. Radioactive decay

occurs at the same rate today that it did in the past. This regularity enables scientists to

measure changes and determine age.

SYNTHESIZE IT

58

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Tie It TogetherA paleontologist found the following composition of rock layers at a site. The paleontologist concludes that no folding or other disruption has happened to the layers. What can you conclude about the area’s history? Write a summary of your conclusions.

Top layer: coal layer made up of altered plant material

Middle layer: mix of sandstone and shale, with some tracks made by dinosaurs

Bottom layer: limestone with fossils of clams, snails, and sea lilies

Accept all reasonable responses. At the earliest time shown by the rocks (represented

by the limestone layer), the area was under water. Organisms such as clams, snails,

and sea lilies lived in the water. Later, when the middle layer formed, the area was above

sea level. A river might have deposited the sand from which the sandstone formed.

Dinosaurs lived in the area. Later still, the area was a swamp with many lush plants,

which later formed coal.

Name Date

59

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Identify three facts about fossils and rock layers that you found interesting. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. Fossils can form in many ways, including casts, molds, and carbon films. 2. Fossils

can be used to date rock layers. 3. Radioactive elements let scientists find the absolute

age of rock layers.

SUMMARIZE IT


Clues to Earth’s Past Chapter Wrap-Up




Name Date









• The footprint of a dinosaur is considered Aa fossil.

• Scientists use fossils to learn what an Aenvironment was like long ago.

• The oldest rock layer is always the one Dfound on top.

• Scientists can determine the age of Asome rocks.

Clues to Earth’s Past After YouRead

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Geologic TimeBefore You ReadPreview the chapter title, section titles, and section headings. Complete the first two columns of the table by listing at least two ideas for each section in each column. Accept all reasonable responses.

Name Date

Geologic Time

Describe how an animal or a plant might change if Earth becomes hotter in the nextmillion years.

Responses will vary. Animals and plants living far north will probably shift south.

Animals with limited mobility may become extinct. Accept responses that show

careful thought.

Science Journal

K WWhat I know What I want to find out

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NewVocabulary

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Name Date

Geologic TimeSection 1 Life and Geologic Time

Geologic Time

AcademicVocabulary

fossils

geologic time scale

eon

era

period

epoch

organic evolution

species

natural selection

trilobite

Pangaea

survive

Skim the headings in Section 1. Predict two topics that will becovered in this section. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. the geologic time scale

2. natural selection

Define fossils to show its scientific meaning.

remains, traces, or imprints of prehistoric organisms

Write the correct vocabulary term next to each definition.

representation of Earth’s history that shows the time units used to divide it

longest subdivision of geologic time

second-longest subdivision of geologic time

subdivision of an era

subdivision of a period

change of species through time

group of organisms that normally reproduce only with other members of their group

process by which organisms that have characteristics that are better suited to an environment have a better chance of survivingand reproducing than those that do not

organism with a three-lobed exoskeleton that was abundant inPaleozoic oceans

large ancient landmass composed of all the continents joinedtogether

Use a dictionary to define survive.

to continue to exist; to live through

62

Distinguish the units of geologic time. Give examples of each.

Largest subdivision: eon

Examples: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic

Second-largest subdivision: era

Examples: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic

Third-largest subdivision: period

Examples: Cambrian, Ordovician, Triassic, Quaternary

Fourth-largest subdivision: epoch

Examples: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene

Complete the table to identify when each of the following keydevelopments in the history of Earth occurred.

Sequence the steps of natural selection as described by Darwin.

1. Organisms show variation that may help or hurt their chances

of surviving in a changing environment.

2. Organisms that are well suited to their environment live longer

and have a better chance of reproducing.

3. Characteristics of organisms that are better suited to the

environment get passed on to offspring more often.

Section 1 Life and Geologic Time (continued)

Geologic TimeI found this information

on page .

Encourage students to work in pairs toidentify the major subdivisions of geologic time.

Organic EvolutionI found this information

on page .

Name Date

Geologic Time

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Event Eon Era Period (if identified) (if identified)

First life Archaean N/A N/A

First Phanerozoic Paleozoic Cambriantrilobites

First Phanerozoic Mesozoic Cretaceousflowering plants

Accept all reasonable examples.

6 3

Identify two factors that are necessary for natural selection tooccur within a species.

1. The trait must be present in some members of the species.

2. The trait must increase the organism’s chance of survival.

Organize information about how trilobites evolved over time.Complete the flow charts.

Contrast two theories explaining the extinction of trilobites at theend of the Paleozoic era. Fill in the missing words.

Some scientists believe that the formation of

caused .

Trilobites could not .

Other scientists suggest that

caused the extinction.other conditions

changes in climate or

survive in the changed conditions

the amount of continental shelf to be reduced

Pangaea

Early trilobites Later trilobites

Eyes

Body

became highly complex; some were

compound or on stalks

fewer segmentsmany segments in middle part of body

became smaller and disappeared

most located midway between front and back of the head

Section 1 Life and Geologic Time (continued)


TrilobitesI found this information

on page .

Plate Tectonicsand Earth HistoryI found this information

on page .

Name Date

Geologic Time

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Compare and contrast natural selection and artificial selection.

Accept all reasonable responses. In both natural and artificial selection, certain traits are

selectively passed to offspring. In artificial selection, a human decides which traits are

desirable. In natural selection, environmental pressures determine whether a trait is

beneficial to the organism.

CONNECT IT

6 4

ReviewVocabulary

AcademicVocabulary

Name Date

Geologic TimeSection 2 Early Earth History

NewVocabulary

Geologic Time

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life

Precambrian time

cyanobacteria

Paleozoic Era

hypothesis

Skim Section 2. Write three questions that come to mind fromlooking at the headings and illustrations. Accept all reasonable

1. What was Precambrian time?responses.

2. What types of organisms lived in the Paleozoic Era?

3. How are mountains formed?

Define life to show its scientific meaning.

state of being in which one grows, reproduces, and maintains a

constant internal environment


longest part of Earth’s history, including the Hadean, Archean,

and Proterozoic Eons

blue-green algae thought to be one of the earliest forms of life

on Earth

era of ancient life, which began about 544 million years ago and

ended about 248 million years ago

Use a dictionary to define hypothesis. Use hypothesis in asentence to show its scientific meaning.

a reasonable guess that can be tested and is based on what is

known and what is observed; Sample sentence: The scientist

made a hypothesis about why the Ediacaran organisms

disappeared.

6 5

Summarize two reasons why little is known about the organismsthat lived during Precambrian time.

1. Many Precambrian rocks have been changed by heat and

pressure, which often destroys fossils.

2. Most organisms had soft bodies, which are less likely to be

preserved as fossils.

Sequence important events in the evolution of life duringPrecambrian time. Complete the flowchart.

Organize information about life during the Paleozoic Era.Complete the concept web with examples of life that appearedduring the Paleozoic Era.

Paleozoic Lifetrilobites

and otherinvertebrates

reptiles

amphibians

fishtrees

The first cyanobacteria appeared on Earth. They used

photosynthesis and produced oxygen .

Oxygen became a major gas in the atmosphere.

The first invertebrates appeared.

Section 2 Early Earth History (continued)

PrecambrianTime



Encourage students to work in pairs to identify importantevents duringPrecambrian time.

The Paleozoic EraI found this information

on page .

Name Date

Geologic Time

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66

Analyze how the characteristics of amphibians and reptiles allowedthem to live on land.

Organize information about three possible explanations of theextinctions that took place at the end of the Paleozoic Era.

Possible Explanations

formation of Pangaea

extensive volcanic activity

collision with an asteroid

Section 2 Early Earth History (continued)

The Paleozoic EraI found this information

on page .


Name Date

Geologic Time

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Amphibians

Characteristic Effect

Lungs allowed animals to live out of water

Legs allowed animals to crawl and move over land

Reptiles

Characteristic Effect

Protective coating allowed reptiles to lay eggs out of on eggs water

Skin covered with prevented water loss; allowed reptileshard scales to live farther from water and in dry

climates

SEE OVERSET PGAnalyze why rock formations that show the soft parts ofPaleozoic organisms are important.

The soft parts of organisms usually are not preserved. These rare fossils allow scientists

to learn more about early forms of life.

SYNTHESIZE IT

67

NewVocabulary

ReviewVocabulary

AcademicVocabulary

Name Date

Geologic TimeSection 3 Middle and Recent Earth History

Geologic Time

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dinosaur

Mesozoic Era

Cenozoic Era

diverse

Preview the What You’ll Learn statements for Section 3. Rewriteeach statement as a question. Look for the answers as you read.

1. What were characteristic life-forms

in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, and how did they differ?

2. How did changes caused by plate tectonics affect organisms

during the Mesozoic Era?

3. When did humans first appear on Earth?

Define dinosaur to show its scientific meaning.

reptile from one of two orders that dominated the Mesozoic Era


era of middle life, during which many changes occurred

on Earth

era of recent life, which began about 65 million years ago and

continues today

Use a dictionary to define diverse. Then use the term in anoriginal scientific sentence.

not all the same, varied; Sample sentence: Modern mammals

are diverse in the ways they meet their needs.

68

Organize key information about dinosaurs.

Complete the chart to identify key characteristics of otherimportant organisms from the Mesozoic Era.

Size

Some were less than one meter tall; others

were very large.

Activity

Some were fast runners; these may have been

warm-blooded.

Caring for Young

Some species fed and took care of young.

Dinosaurs

Section 3 Middle and Recent Earth History (continued)

The Mesozoic EraI found this information

on page .


Name Date

Geologic Time

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Description When TheyAppeared

Birds feathers; may have evolved Jurassicfrom meat-eating dinosaurs Period

Mammals small, mouselike, warm Triassicblooded vertebrates with hair; Periodfemales produce milk to feed young

Gymnosperms plants that produce seeds but Paleozoicnot flowers Era

Angiosperms flowering plants that produce Cretaceousseeds with hard outer coverings Period

69

Summarize what happened at the end of the Mesozoic Era to theenvironment and many species.

About 65 million years ago, most land and ocean species

became extinct. This included the dinosaurs. Many

paleontologists believe that this mass extinction was caused by

an asteroid colliding with Earth, creating a cloud of dust that

obscured sunlight.

Distinguish the two periods that make up the Cenozoic Era

1. , began about million years ago

2. , began about million years ago

Analyze the effects of changes that occurred during the CenozoicEra. Complete the diagrams.

Grazing mammals such as deer, horses,and elephants grew larger.

Grasslandsexpanded.

Species became isolatedin Australia.

Continentsmoved apart.

Many other mammal speciesbecame extinct.

Homo sapiensappeared.

1.8Quaternary Period

65Tertiary Period

Section 3 Middle and Recent Earth History (continued)

The Mesozoic EraI found this information

on page .

The Cenozoic EraI found this information

on page .

Name Date

Geologic Time

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Infer how paleontologists study the behaviors of extinct animals, such as taking care of young. Accept all reasonable responses.

Paleontologists can study fossil evidence, such as Maiasaura fossils of adults and their

young in the same nests, and deduce their behavior from the fossils.

SYNTHESIZE IT

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Tie It TogetherYou are directing a new movie about prehistoric times. The script you get shows humans interacting with dinosaurs. Write a memo to the scriptwriter explaining why this would not be scientifically accurate. Suggest two other possible settings,one that includes dinosaurs and one that includes humans.

Memo:

Accept all reasonable responses. Students should indicate that dinosaurs were extinct

before large mammals, such as humans, evolved. Alternate settings should include

only organisms that existed at the same time as dinosaurs or humans.

Name Date

Geologic Time 7 1

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Geologic Time Chapter Wrap-Up

After You ReadReview the ideas you listed in the chart at the beginning of the chapter. Cross out any incorrect information in the first column. Then complete the chart by filling in the third column.

Name Date

Geologic Time


K W LWhat I know What I want to find out What I learned









After reading this chapter, identify three things that you havelearned about geologic time. Accept all reasonable responses.

1. A new characteristic becomes common in a species if the trait increases the organism’s

chance of survival. 2. Scientists divide geologic time into intervals based on fossil

evidence. 3. Little is known about Precambrian organisms because they left few fossils.

SUMMARIZE IT

7 2

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