41 THE CENTRALITY OF THE BUDDHIST TEACHER GURU-YOGA IN THE TIBETAN TRADITIONS Georgios T. Halkias (University of Hong Kong) ABSTRACT The centrality of having a ‘spiritual teacher, or friend’ (Pāli kalyanamitta; Skt. kalyānamitra Tib. dge ba’i bshes gnyen) has been emphasized in Buddhism since the times of Buddha Śākyamuni himself. In the Meghiya Sutta of the Pāli canon the Buddha stressed the necessity and advantages of having a spiritual friend to “ensure success in the Buddhist path.” Throughout the history of Buddhism, the requirements of a spiritual friend shifted to reflect the concerns of the tradition without their being any doubt as to the importance of a qualified teacher to guide disciples in the path of meditation and ensure an unbroken continuity of the lineage. In Vajrayāna Buddhism, the centrality of the guru (Tib. bla ma) takes the form of a particular type of meditation known as ‘guru-yoga’ (Tib. lha ma rnal ’byor), or the practice of uniting one’s awareness with that of the teacher. In this paper, I will introduce this meditation practice shared by all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, discuss some of the techniques and stages of visualization whose ultimate aim is to identify with the inner teacher, our buddha-nature that is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice. KEYWORDS Buddhist Teacher, Spiritual Friend, Kalyānamitra, Lama, Guru-yoga
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THE CENTRALITY OF THE BUDDHIST TEACHER
GURU-YOGA IN THE TIBETAN TRADITIONS
Georgios T. Halkias (University of Hong Kong)
ABSTRACT
The centrality of having a ‘spiritual teacher, or friend’ (Pāli kalyanamitta; Skt.
kalyānamitra Tib. dge ba’i bshes gnyen) has been emphasized in Buddhism since the times
of Buddha Śākyamuni himself. In the Meghiya Sutta of the Pāli canon the Buddha stressed
the necessity and advantages of having a spiritual friend to “ensure success in the Buddhist
path.” Throughout the history of Buddhism, the requirements of a spiritual friend shifted
to reflect the concerns of the tradition without their being any doubt as to the importance
of a qualified teacher to guide disciples in the path of meditation and ensure an unbroken
continuity of the lineage. In Vajrayāna Buddhism, the centrality of the guru (Tib. bla ma)
takes the form of a particular type of meditation known as ‘guru-yoga’ (Tib. lha ma rnal
’byor), or the practice of uniting one’s awareness with that of the teacher. In this paper, I
will introduce this meditation practice shared by all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, discuss
some of the techniques and stages of visualization whose ultimate aim is to identify with
the inner teacher, our buddha-nature that is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice.
KEYWORDS
Buddhist Teacher, Spiritual Friend, Kalyānamitra, Lama, Guru-yoga
whose qualities are naturally complete; (4) spiritual masters liberated from existence; (5)
spiritual masters of vast sublime insight; (6) spiritual masters who hold the blessings of the
successive lineage; (7) spiritual masters who compassionately lead on the path; and (8)
spiritual masters who reveal the ultimate essential meaning.11 In the same work he explains
that one should rely on genuine Buddhist masters because they have the ability to provide
lasting and useful advise; to teach correct conduct; to accelerate the development of
9 Bodhisattva Stages (Skt. Bodhisattvabhūmi; Tib. Rnal ’byor spyod pa’i sa las byang chub sems dpa’i sa), Asaṅga
(2016: 396-397). Butön, quoting Śākyaprabha’s Advice for Novice Monks in three hundred verses, states that
“one is acclaimed as a spiritual master if he/she keeps the vows, knows the formal procedures of monastic
discipline, is caring towards the sick, is surrounded by pure individuals, strives to be of spiritual and material
aid, and gives timely counsel” (2013: 60). 10 The emphasis on learning is seen during the time of Buddhagosa (c. 5th cent.) where guru qualifications entailed
taking an accomplished scholar of Buddhist doctrine, an ācārya, as the spiritual friend. 11 Choying Tobden Dorje (2014: 47).
wisdom and goodness; to provide protection from suffering; to assist in the flourishing of
our spiritual qualities; and lastly, because they give us profound teachings (2014: 58).
Teachers bearing these attributes and qualities the ‘spiritual offspring’ of the Buddhas who
assist their pupils in five ways: “they are themselves well-instructed; they cause them to
learn everything; they make them learn quickly; they have a pleasing countenance like
those who are compassionate; and they have no concern for material wealth.”12
For the contemporary Bhutanese Buddhist teacher and film-maker Dzongsar
Jamyang Khyentse (1961–present), the chances of being led astray by a guru are slim if he
is devoted to the three jewels and always tries to “cultivate the atmosphere of paramitas,
the perfect attributes of a bodhisattva.” “Such a guru is more likely to influence you to
meditate and practice, to lead you onto the path of liberation and not side-track you by
encouraging you to be a ‘good person’ with vegetarianism, environmentalism, simple
living, relaxation techniques, mindfulness, ahimsa (nonviolence), and so on.”13
In the Bodhisattva’s Garland of Jewels and in the Eight Verses of Mind Training
we read that one should serve with devotion and respect their master or preceptor. “Those
who possess enlightened vision, and those first setting out upon the path—regard them both
as your spiritual teachers.” The Bengali scholar Atīśa Dīpaṃkara Śrījñāna (982–1054 CE)
said: “Even when someone I have helped, or in whom I have placed great hopes mistreats
me very unjustly, I will view that person as a true spiritual teacher.”14 So while it is clearly
part of the bodhisattva’s career to become a spiritual mentor and adopt the means for
converting others (Skt. upāya-pāramitā),15 it is also part of his own mental training to see
his enemy or adversary as his spiritual mentor. One should grant antagonistic persons the
highest position of respect and gratitude since they provide us with the opportunity to
reflect on forgiveness, loving kindness, and the six pāramitā-s.
To summarize, in Mahāyāna Buddhism the notion of the spiritual teacher serves a
number of functions including but not limited to facilitating the continuity of the Buddha’s
lineage, inciting a certain kind of reverential attitude towards the dharma and its
application, and last but not least serving as a ‘field of merit’ (Skt. puṇyakṣetra; Tib. tshogs
zhing) for Mahāyāna aspirants who receive the bodhisattva vows (Skt. praṇidhāna) from
their teachers. This resonates with the wide-spread doctrine that a bodhisattva must declare
his praṇidhāna “in the presence of a living Buddha, who then predicts his future success in
attaining enlightenment” (Skt. vyākaraṇa)16 – as in the case of the bodhisattva Sumedha
who was granted the prophesy of his enlightenment by Buddha Dīpankara.
Exaggerated and picturesque accounts of the religious teacher that contributed to
the development of the bodhisattva doctrine, need to be tempered by the understanding that
the teacher ought to be a living expression of the dharma and in no way distinct or higher
than the ‘perfection of wisdom’ (prajñāpāramitā). Hence, we read in the Large Sūtra on
12 Maitreya’s Ornament for the Great Vehicle Sūtras, Ch. XIX, p. 298. The famous Tibetan polymath and scholar
Butön (2013:61) attributes five qualities to the teacher: (1) extensive education, the quality of scriptural
transmission; (2) perception of the truth, the quality of realization; (3) verbal eloquence; (4) kindness, paying
no attention to material gain; and (5) lack of discouragement, not complacent in attitude and conduct. 13 Dzongsar Khyentse (2016: 100-105) further explains that a genuine spiritual mentor has tamed his body, speech
and mind and abides by the Buddha’s rules; he is generous, gentle and soothing; brings one to virtuous
surroundings; has pure perception; is non-judgmental; fears wrongdoing; is forgiving and skilful. 14 Above quotations are from the Bodhisattva’s Garland of Jewels and Eight Verses of Mind Training, Rigpa
Translations 2012; see lotsawahouse.org, accessed on 03/20/2017. 15 Dayal (1999: 248) notes, “The Mahayana was a ‘revival’ movement and attached great importance to successful
propaganda. The Bodhisattva-Bhūmi declares that it is the bodhisattva’s duty to be an effective
preacher…Preaching and teaching are known as the bodhisattva’s ‘gift of the doctrine of truth’ (dharma-dāna).” 16 For a discussion on this practice see Dayal (1999: 67-68).
47
Perfect Wisdom (p.484): “To cut it short, Ananda, just as I am your Teacher, so is this
perfection of wisdom.”17 From a Madhyamaka perspective the ‘conventionally designated
teacher’ (Tib. kun rdzob bla ma) is seen as the basis and method for realizing the ‘ultimate
teacher’ (Tib. don dam bla ma). The distinction between the two is critical in our
exploration of mind-training meditations pursued in Vajrayāna wherein the individual guru
is exonerated of his personhood and is viewed as the Buddha (Tib. bla ma sangs rgyas
dngos su gsungs pa yin te). As stated by the 7th century Indian scholar Chandrakīrti in his
Entering the Middle Way, (Skt. Madhyamakāvatāra; Tib. Dbu ma la ’jug pa),
“conventional truth is the method, and the ultimate its outcome. Not knowing how the two
truth differ, your thoughts will go astray.” (VI, 80).
III. TEACHER-STUDENT ENGAGEMENTS IN VAJRAYĀNA
The foundation of all the perfections is the kind guru. Having seen that
proper reliance on him is the root and basis of all the paths, inspire me to
relate to him with every effort.
Tsongkhapa (Yon tan gzhir gyur ma)
The spiritual mentor, not unlike the Buddha, is compared to a physician that cures
us of our ignorance with his medicine the dharma.18 For the early Kadam master Potowa
Rinchen Sal (Po to ba in chen gsal, 1031–1105) in order to reach liberation there is nothing
more important than a lama.
Even in simple things of this present life, with things that you can learn just
by sitting down and watching someone, you can’t get anywhere without a
person to show you. So how on earth are you going to get anywhere without
a lama, when you want to go somewhere you’ve never gone before, and
you’ve only just arrived from a journey through the lower births?19
It is essential to the practice of esoteric Buddhism, or Vajrayāna (the vehicle of the
Vajra) to cultivate ‘clear-minded faith’ (Tib. dang ba’i dad pa) and a ‘sacred outlook,’ or
‘pure perception’ towards the guru. In the Jewel Ornament of Liberation the Kagyu scholar
Gampopa (Sgam po pa, 1079–1153) argued that a living master is a contributory cause for
one’s realization of the dharma. One develops clear-mind faith when one’s mind is clear
with “regard to relying with devotion and without doubt to the three jewels and the lama”:
17 The Buddha explains: “One would expect him to have found the ‘teacher’, or a succession of preceptors who
represent him and who lead a spiritual life. And why? For this very perfection of wisdom should in this context
be regarded as the ‘teacher’, nor is the teacher one thing and the perfection of wisdom another, but just the
perfection of wisdom is the teacher and just the teacher is the perfection of wisdom. And why? Because those
who have trained in this perfection of wisdom will appear in the world as the Tathagatas of the past, future, and
present;” the Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom Conze (1975: 271), italics mine. 18 This recalls the famous saying from the Gaṇḍavyūha sūtra: “Noble one, think of yourself as someone who is
sick, of the dharma as the remedy, of your spiritual teacher as a skilful doctor, and of diligent practice as the
way to recovery.” 19 Quoted in Tsongkapa (1988: 40).
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Clear faith is relying on the three excellent and rare objects, then giving rise
to them. It is a clear mind having respect and devotion for the excellent rare
objects: the jewel of the Buddha who shows the path; the jewel of the dharma
as being the path; and the jewel of the sangha as being the [spiritual] friends
who accomplish the path.20
In India it was customary for the ‘Vajrayāna master’ (Skt. vajrācārya) to be viewed
as the embodiment of the refuge jewels; his mind conceived as that of the Buddha, his
speech no different from the dharma, and his body as an expression of the sangha.21 In the
Tantra of the Secret Community (Skt. Guhyasamāja Tantra; Tib. Gsang ’dus rtsa rgyud)
we read: “Child of good family, all the bodhisattvas and tathāgatas look on [the guru] as
the Vajra mind of enlightenment. Why? Because the master and the mind of enlightenment
are the same – they are not divisible into two.”22
From a Tibetan Buddhist perspective, the role of guru is very important because it
is only after the initiatory empowerment, elucidating instructions, and personal guidance
that the disciple is ready to commence with tantric practice. There are many people who
are suspicious of Vajrayāna because of the intensity of the guru-disciple relationship and
the force of projections that occur in the interactions between mentors and students. Ray
(2002: 175) nicely sums this when he writes that one cannot deny the “dangers in this as in
all other intimate human relationships.” And although there can be no “complete guarantee
against mistakes and abuses,” the best defence against potential misunderstandings and
misuses is having sound knowledge and understanding of teacher-disciple relationships. 23
To begin with, the cultivation of a sacred outlook towards one’s Buddhist guide should not
be maintained if he goes against the precepts of the Buddhist dharma. The Tibetan tradition
advises prospective Vajrayāna students to carefully examine their teacher’s conduct,
reputation and activities and ascertain if he or she possesses the necessary qualifications to
serve as a religious guide. In the Fifty Verses of Guru Devotion attributed to Aśvagosha, a
text held definitive in Tibetan tantric Buddhism, we read that we can be devoted to a guru
who is “steady and calm, intelligent, patient, forthright, without craft or falsehood,
knowledgeable in the practice of mantra and tantra, kind and well-read, proficient in the
ten principles, skilled in the drawing of the mandalas, knowledgeable in the practice of
explaining the mantra, possessed of great faith and calm senses.”24
For the Tibetan ‘treasure-discoverer’ (Tib. gter-ston) Jigme Lingpa (’Jigs med gling
pa, 1729–1798) there are four kinds of gurus to be avoided. Those who constantly talk
about their family, lineage, history and monastery—they are compared to a ‘wooden
millstone’ that is very noisy but doesn’t do the job. Those who are like ‘frogs in a well’
because they think they are special for being born in good and influential families, because
they are powerful, charismatic and good-looking but do not possess any enlightened
20 Quoted in Jamgön Kongtrul (1999: 75). 21 In addition to going for refuge to the three jewels, a tantric practitioner takes refuge to the three roots of
Vajrayāna practice: the lama, the meditational deity (Tib. yi dam), and the sky-goers or ḍākinī (Tib. mkha’ gro).
In this arrangement, the guru serves as the root of blessings, the yidam as the root of spiritual accomplishments,
and the ḍākinī as the root of activities. 22 In other words, the ‘outer guru’ (the living teacher) and the ‘inner guru’ (one’s enlightened awareness) are
meant to be understood as one and the same; see Tsongkhapa (1999:59). 23 The chapter on the guru in Chögyam Trungpa’s Cutting through Spiritual Materialism (2008) makes for an
informative introduction to this topic, as is Rig’dzin Dorje’s Dangerous Friend: The Teacher-Student
Relationship in Vajrayana Buddhism (2013). 24 Tsongkhapa (1999:41).
49
qualities. They are like proud frogs who live in a well boasting about their home without
being able to fathom frogs which live in a lake. The third kind to be avoided are ‘mad
guides’ who though may have had good teachers and may possess some knowledge indulge
in reckless activities without care about benefiting beings. And lastly, they are those who
are characterized as ‘blind captains’ referring to mentors who guide beings that are at a
higher level than them and can’t advance them further.25
The ecumenical Tibetan scholar Jamgön Kongtrul (’Jam mgon kong sprul blo gros
mtha’ yas, 1813–1899), explains that there are different kinds of Buddhist masters with
corresponding qualifications: ‘Prātimokṣa Vow Masters’ (Skt. Prātimokṣa-ācārya; Tib. so
sor thar pa’i slob dpon) whose qualifications ought to relate to the vows of monastics;
teachers and their disciples, there are also clear instructions on the kinds of people one
needs to avoid as they will hinder one’s Buddhist practice. These are listed as the fools, the
faithless and apathetic, those of the lesser way, those without view, meditation and
meditative states, those with the five poisonous mental afflictions, those who feel no
disengagement from the round of rebirths, and those who purposeful mislead others for
their own benefit.28
Unlike other Buddhist traditions, training in Vajrayāna commonly presupposes
having received initiation or empowerment (Skt. abhiṣeka; Tib. dbang) often through “a
complex ritual, involving detailed visualizations, prayers, and supplications, offerings,
special ritual instruments and substances.” Powers (2007: 269) explains that the purpose of
initiation is “to establish the initiate in the proper frame of mind, forge a karmic bond with
the lama and meditational deity, purify defilements, grant permission to practice a
particular tantra, and give instruction concerning how this should be done.” Traditionally,
prior to receiving tantric initiations the aspirant ought to have completed the ‘prerequisite
practices’ (Tib. sngon ’gro) comprising prostrations, mantra recitations and visualizations
of the Vajrassatva deity, mandala offerings, and guru-yoga practices. Hopkins (1977: 47)
clarifies that it might be ruinous if one assumes an advanced practice inappropriate to his
capacity. For this reason, one’s mental continuum ought to have been ripened by the
practices common to both “Sūtra and Tantra Mahāyāna” that include: realization of
suffering and impermanence, love and compassion, altruistic mind, and the emptiness of
inherent existence.
IV. THE GURU-YOGA MEDITATION
The master's words, having entered your heart,
are like beholding a treasure in the palm of your hand
Saraha (c. 8th cent. CE)
To feel no devotion whatsoever for your guru is like being a stone on the
floor of the deepest part of the ocean. There is a whole ocean above you,
and there you are, a round pebble that can’t absorb even one drop of
water.
Dzongsar Khyentse, The Guru Drinks Bourbon
Vajrayāna scriptures differ from other Mahāyāna texts in their use of diverse
contemplative methods and techniques aimed at accumulating merit, purifying negativities
and obscurations, and realizing wisdom. Aspirants of the tantric view are introduced to a
new vision of reality not bound by ordinary conceptuality but based on an understanding
of emptiness as manifestation. Essential to this training is the ability to transform, like a
magician, ordinary appearances (that are not fixed, permanent, or independent) into
something extraordinary. This is said to be an efficacious technique for lessening our
attachment to concretized notions of ‘place, self, and other.’ For this reason, during the
reception of Vajrayāna teachings one does not consider the place where the dharma is
taught as impure, and the teacher and the teachings as ordinary. One visualizes oneself as
28 For a detailed discussion see Choying Tobden Dorje (2014: 71-78).
51
a perfect being aspiring for awakening in a retinue of male and female bodhisattvas and
surrounding deities, the mentor as a perfect Buddha (like Samantabhadra, Vajradhara, etc),
the teachings as pure dharma, and the environment as the perfect place, a buddha-field or
pure land.29 Guru devotion is essential to this sacred outlook and method of transforming
our ordinary negative emotions into their inherent enlightened aspects.
The past Kalu Rinpoche (1905–1989) explained how in early Buddhism we respect
the teacher and have immense gratitude for his kindness in giving us the dharma, whereas
in Mahāyāna we consider him to be a spiritual friend and “a counsellor at the inner level.”
For Vajrayāna he is the root lama, or the lama who personally guides us and we regard him
as the Buddha Vajradhara, “the essence and union of all the buddhas of the three times and
the ten directions.”
He is the Buddha’s equal in his qualities, and even more esteemed than any
other aspect of Buddha because of his kindness in transmitting the teaching
to us. It is this essential relationship that allows the transmission of the
blessing and provides the spiritual direction at deepest level, the Vajrayana
level (1977:178).
Said in a different way, if we understand not “just in mere words, the way in which
Buddhas and bodhisattvas of the past help the beings of the present age, it comes down to
the qualified gurus.”30 Ray (2002: 164) explains that in Vajrayāna we approach our teacher
“initially with only a dim awareness of a world beyond our samsaric version” and
eventually it is he who introduces us “to the mystery, the power, and the magic of the
phenomenal world.”
Through our Hinayana and Mahayana practice, we begin to slow down, soften, and
become more sensitive to the world beyond thought. When we enter the Vajrayana, we are
being introduced to and reconnected with this true, naked, raw reality…the Vajra master is
like a magician, not in the sense of contravening the basic order of the universe, but rather
in his ability to tap the self-existing magic that exists.
Arguably, the essence of all contemplative-cum-ritual practices in tantra is the
meditation known as ‘guru-yoga’ (Tib. lha ma rnal ’byor), the practice of uniting one’s
awareness with that of the guru.31 The aim of this essential Vajrayāna meditation shared by
all schools of Tibetan Buddhism is to visualize the merging of one’s mind with the teacher’s
mind and receive the blessings of his lineage.32 The ultimate aim of this practice is for one’s
‘realization to become identical with that of the guru’ (Tib. bla ma dang dgongs pa mnyam
par gyur ba). Other benefits associated with this practice entail receiving inspiration along
the Buddhist path, purifying our awareness by visualizing the lama as an embodiment of
the pure and exalted wisdom of the Buddha, and cultivating and trusting in our own inner
qualities.
According to the tathāgatagarbha doctrine, every sentient being possesses the seed
of enlightened awareness or buddha-nature. In other words, each one of us naturally has
29 For an elaboration of this visualization see Patrul Rinpoche (2011: 9-10). 30 Tenzin Gyatso (2009: 48) 31 In fact, guru-yoga is so widespread in Tibet and so central to Tibetan Buddhist praxis that there are many
manuals exclusively devoted to this practice. Other practices centred on the lama include lama-chöpa (Tib. bla
ma mchod pa), guru-puja or a liturgy of offering real and visualized offerings to the guru and his assembly, and
zab-tën (Tib. zhabs brtan), long life rituals performed for one’s master. 32 In some ways the transmission of the lineage blessings resonates with the importance that Chan Buddhism
places in direct mind-to-mind transmission between master to pupil.
52
the qualities of awakened consciousness. The fact that we don’t have this realization is the
reason for wandering in saṃsāra. As said in the Tathāgatagarbha section (I.27) of
Maitreya’s Treatise on the Sublime Continuum (Skt. Mahāyānottaratantra Śāstra; Tib.
Theg pa chen po rgyud bla ma’i bstan bcos): “Because the perfect ‘buddha-kaya’ (Tib.
sangs rgyas sku) is pervasive, because reality is without differentiation, and because they
all possess the ‘lineage’ (Skt gotra; Tib. rigs), ‘embodied beings’ (Tib. lus can kun) always
have the ‘buddha essence’ (Tib. sangs rgyas snying po”. In Vajrayāna there are many
different methods for recognizing this buddha essence. Of these, it is said that the quickest
and easiest way is having been ‘accepted as a disciple by a spiritual-friend lama’ (Tib. bla
ma dge ba’i bshes gnyen gyi rjes su gzung ba) and ‘recollecting the lama’s kindness’ (Tib.
bla ma’i bka’ drin dran pa). Finally, one comes to recognize and identify with the inner or