The Boy-child situation in education: a case study of ...unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002186/218692eo.pdf · THE BOY-CHILDSITUATION IN EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY OF EASTERN NIGERIA

EDUCATION OF WOMEN AND GIRLS

THE BOY-CHILD SITUATION IN EDUCATION: A CASE STUDYOF EASTERN NIGERIA

Charles O. OnochaPromise N. OkpalaGrace Offorma

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EDUCATION IN AFRICA (BREDA) DAKAR

EDUCATION OF WOMEN AND GIRLS

THE BOY-CHILD SITUATION IN EDUCATION: A CASE STUDYOF EASTERN NIGERIA

Charles O. OnochaPromise N. OkpalaGrace Offorma

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EDUCATION IN AFRICA (BREDA) DAKAR

The views expressed by the author are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do notcommit the Organization.

Published by the UNESCO Regional Office in DakarBP 3311, Dakar, Senegal.

© UNESCO 1999

TABLE OF CONTENTS

BACKGROUND... 1

CHAPTER ONE: THE SITUATION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION 2Universal free Primary Education in Eastern Nigeria................................ 3Educational Expansion in the Northern Region...................................... 4Highlights of Regional Efforts on the Expansion of Primary Education........ 4The Situation of Girls in Primary Education............................................ 9

CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGy.................................................... ..... 14Sampling Procedure and Sample........................................................ 14Methods of Data Collection................... ... . .. . .. . ... .. . .. . .. . ... .. . .. . ... ..... ... . .. 15

CHAPTER THREE: STATUS AND DYNAMICS OF FEMALESENROLMENTS IN EDUCATION.................................. 17

FORMAL EDUCATION..................................................................... 17Primary Education Policy Issues................................................... 21Secondary Education Policy Issues............................................... 21Status and Dynamics of Female Enrolment in Secondary Schools....... 21Technical (and Vocational) Education Policy Issues.......................... 23Status and Dynamics of females Enrolment on Technical/Vocational Education.............................................................. ..... 23

HIGHER EDUCATION 25

ADULT AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION 30

SUMMARy..................................................................................... 33

CHAPTER FOUR: SUCCESS FACTORS, IMPACT AND CONSTRAINTSASSOCIATED WITH EQUITY IN THE EDUCATION OFMALES AND FEMALES.............................................. 34

Success Factors Associated with Gender Equity in Education................. 34Constraints to Gender Equity in Education........................................... 41

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS................. 44Major Findings.......................................................................... ..... 44Success Factors, Impact and Constraints........................................... 45Recommendations.... . 46

REFERENCES. . .. . . 48

APPENDiX........................................................................................ 49Interview Schedule on Gender Equity in Education............................... 49Questionnaire on Factors Associated with Gender Equity in Education..... 51

PREFACE

In the early 90s. following the Jomtien World Conference on Education for All andOuagadougou Pan-African Conference on the Education of Women and Girls,UNESCO-BREDA commissioned a number of state-of -the -art studies on the access ofgirls to basic education.

All the studies showed wide gender disparities, with girls as the disadvantagedgroup. We discovered, however, as we carried on our girls' education promotionalactivities in the region, that there were isolated "island of equity" in Eastern Nigeria,Cape Verde and the BOLESWA countries of Southern Africa. We therefore decided tostudy the phenomenon more closely.

This work on Eastern Nigeria is the first product of the venture. We do hope itsfinding will be of use to scholars, development agents and policy makers.

Dakar, October 1999

BACKGROUND

In the past two decades, the society has come to appreciate the role of girls andwomen in national development and progress. The Nigerian women and girls, likeothers in developing nations are pillars supporting the home industry. They produce halfthe food consumed, they constitute a quarter of the labour force in the industry and athird in services, especially mineral jobs. Women are responsible for most householdfood security, house maintenance, caring for the seek and rearing children, paliicipationin in-come generating activities and the provision of water and local sources of energy.Men as policy makers recognise such life supporting roles, but have not built on therecognition to invest in women education and heaith care.

Thus, women find themselves at the bottom of the social power structure as wellas perceive their roles as sex objects subservient to men and trapped in, rather thanchoosing, traditional roles (Friedman 1992). Perhaps, more devastating is the fact thatgiven their heavy responsibilities for care and provision in the household, women, morethan men are the victims of the scourges of ignorance, disease, poverty, wars, nationaland man made disaster and the burden of external debts plaguing developing nations.

In the last 10-15 years life expectancy at bilih has risen for men and women inall regions of the world. In high income economies, life expectancy for women is 80years and 73 years for men. In transitional economies of Europe and Central Asia, thepattern is similar to those in higher economies. In Latin America and the Caribbean theaverage is 71 years while in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa female life expectancyis less than 60 years (World Bank 1993a).

Research reports provide ample evidence that maternal mortality is one of thesignificant causes of death for women. About 50,000 women die each year from directcomplications of pregnancy and childbirth. In developing nations the average maternalmortality rate is 290 deaths per 100,000 births whereas industrial nations record only24. Specifically Nigeria's rate is 800 deaths per 100,000 births (UN 1990).

In respect of illiteracy, women and girls more than men are causalities of thecrisis in education. According to UNESCO's estimates, the number of adult illiterateswas 133.6m in 1985 of which more than half are women aged 15 years and above.Globally, the female illiteracy rate in 1985 was 234.9 percent (as against 20.5 formales) while the rate for developing countries was 48.9 percent. In 14 countries, 10in Africa and 4 in Asia female illiteracy exceeded 80 percent. In these countries, ofthe 116m children aged 6 to 11 years who had no access to primary education in1985, 60 percent were girls (Hamadache 1990). At the second level illiteracy ratewas 53 females per 100 males in 1960 and 75 females to 100 males in 1990; while atthe third level 30 females per 100 males were recorded in 1960 and 64 per 100 in1990. However, in the high transitional economies of Europe and Central Asia,gender parity has long been achieved. In point of fact, girls' educational qualificationsexceeded those of boys at the end of schooling, a reflection at the third level wherewomen are over represented relative to men in several disciplines (World Bank1939a). Thus it appears that experiences from developed nations show that investingin women education and health care directly empower them to play economic, socialand political roles in the society, to improve child rearing practices and the generalwell-being of the family, reduce fertility and poverty.

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CHAPTER ONE

THE SITUATION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

The first primary school in Nigeria was established in 1842, at Badagry, Lagos.However, organised records of educational data are not available for the period 1842to 1951 for the entire country. Some. statistics are available for the three regions.

Western Nigeria

An Education law of 1954 which came into force on April 14, 1955 provided thelegislative basis for the development of primary education. In pursuance of the policy offree and universal Education, the government of the region:

provided free primary education for all eligible childrenshortened the duration of primary education from eight to six years andmade promotion from one class to another automatic.

Quantitative issues

Statistics of primary education are give in table 1.1.

Table 1.1.Children in Primary Schools in Western Nigeria 1955 - 1970

Year Number Percentage Increase overPrevious Year

1955 566,676 77.71956 610,035 10.51957 664,421 8.91958 690,912 4.01959 720,298 4.31960 751,402 4.3

f--1961 751,048 -.05

(Decrease)1962 736,323 -.7

(Decrease)1963 729,547 -.9

(Decrease)1964 733,170 0.51965 737,148 0.51966 741,842 0.61967 756,717 2.01970 802,534 6.0

Source Statistics of Education in Nigeria Lagos. Federal Ministry of InformationPrinting Division. 1970

From the table it can be seen that enrolment increased from 1956 and reached apeak in 1960. Enrolment dropped for three consecutive years 1961 to 1963, but

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increased from 1964 to 1970. Average growth for the period was about 2 percent. Twoobservations are noteworthy from the statistic. First, rthe policy makers planned for anannual enrolment of 170,000 children aged 6-7 years. However, during the first year ofimplementation 394,000 children were enrolled (representing 77.7 percent) comparedwith the proposed expansion of 15 percent. Second, the region achieved only 45.6percent enrolment by 1969, the year government expected 100 percent enrolment.However, it appears the status of primary education in the region was low in qualityinspite of the increase in school enrolment. This was revealed in Taiwo's CommissionReport :

The striking advance in numbers in primary schools has however beenbought at the price of a high wastage rate and falling standards. Since1959 for example, wastage in every primary school generation has beenrunning at not less than 52.5 percent, which represents a cost of #$1.6million over and above the budgeted expenditure. Furthermore, since1961, the percentage of passes in the Primary Six School LeavingCertificate Examination has been on the downgrade from 71.2 in 1961 to44.1 in 1964 and 50.2 in 1965.. What emerges from the above figures isthat of every hundred pupils who entered Primary One, barely 25 finishPrimary Six successfully. Although an educational system is not to bejudged by examination results alone, these are, by any yardstick poorreturns to the investment in primary education, especially when it isremembered that the standard of attainment in the present primary schoolleaving examination is, by common consent, inferior to the old.

Report of the Committee on the Review of the primary Education System in theWestern State of Nigeria (Ibadan : Government Printer, March 1968) Also referred to asthe Taiwo Report.

Universal Free Primary Education in Eastern Nigeria

The 1955 - 60 Development per plan made provision for the UPE scheme. InDecember 1956 Universal Primary Education was introduced into all parts of the region.The part Development plan assumed a growth rate of 6 percent annually and a 100%enrolment by 1970. In 1956, first year of UPE, enrolment increased from 775,000 to1,209,107, representing 56% expansion over the previous school year. Thephenomenal increase necessitated immediately modification and abolition of thescheme.

Educational Expansion in the Northern Region

The concept of universalising access to education was not implemented in thisregion. British expatriates planned and administered the educational system. ThreeEducation plans were implemented between 1944 and 1972. There was the 1944 tenyear plan which proposed expansion in enrolment from 27,000 in 1944 to 77,000 in1954. Secondly, the 1955 plan suggested a growth rate of 10% annually between 1955to 1960 and third, the Ashby commission that recommended 25% enrolment ratio by1970. Performance in the execution of these plans is depicted in table 1.2

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Table 1.2.The Development of primary Education in Northern Nigeria

Year Primary Enrolment1952 122,0551953 142,4771954 153,6861955 168,5211956 185,4841957 205,7691958 230,0001959 250,9121960 282,8491961 316,2641962 359,9341963 410,7061964 452,3191965 492,5101966 518,864

Source Statistic Year book, 1960-1967, Northern Nigeria (Kaduna: Ministry ofEconomic Planning). P. 218

From the table it can be observed that enrolment between 1955-1960 expandedat an average growth rate of 10.7%. Thus, government of the region second to havecontrolled enrolment in accordance with stated targets in the 1955 plan. An annualgrowth rate of 10.8% was achieved from 1961 to 1966 and 11.5% at the end of 1969.

In spite of the efforts of the regional government and assistance of Britishexpatriates in administering the educational system, the region could not attain 25%enrolment of children of school age by 1970.

Highlights of Regional Efforts on the Expansion of Primary Education

Generally, the education policies implemented in the regions improvedenrolments in Primary School. However, the efforts failed to achieve quantitative targetsas well as widened regional and gender disparities.

In the words of chief A.Y. Eke, then Federal Commissioner for Education. Sowide is the gap that, roughly speaking, for every child in a primary school in theSouthern States; for every boy or girl in secondary school in a post-secondary school inthe North there are five in the South; and for every student in a post-secondary schoolin the North, there are six in the South. Speaking on the same issue in Zaria in 1972 asNigeria's Head of State, General Yakubu Gowon declared; "I believe the basic andmost important solution to the question of educational imbalance in the country must befound at the primary school level and all our energies must be geared towardsincreasing throughout the Federation especially in the educationally backward areas,the primary school population progressively until primary education becomes free andcompulsory for all children in Nigeria.

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Thus it was necessary at the national level to fond more effective ways on ashort term basis to redress the situation.

Accordingly, the Federal Military government of Nigeria launched the UniversalPrimary Education in September 1977 and made compulsory in 1979.

Landmarks of Nigeria's Educational Development

Nigeria's most pressing problem at independence was that of nation building.Political leaders of the new nation recognised education a a central strategy forachieving the goal of nation building, both at the regional and national levels. Thepolitical parties in the three existing regions initiated different educational policies but allemphasized Increased access to formal education.

Specialised CommiSSions were established to study the problems of education ineach region and make appropriate recommendations: The Banjo Commission for theWest, the Dike Commission for the East and the Oldham Commission for the North.

The Commissions recommended both qualitative and quantitative improvementsin the educational system. However, implementation of the recommendations wasdetermined by political considerations. Thus expansions focused on quantitativeimprovements at the first and second levels. While professional courses in addition tomedicine and agriculture were introduced at the third level. This was hinged mainly onthe need to train high level manpower for the emerging Nigerian economy (Obanya1985).

The Military regime (1966 to 1979) made remarkable breakthrough ineducational thinking. A National curriculum conference was held in 1969. Theconference assembled a group of Nigerians from different works of life to provideanswers to the question. What type of education is best for Nigeria? The Conferencereport, A philosophy for Nigerian education, provided the basis for the publication of aNational Policy on Education (1977, 1981).

The oil boom of the 1970s stimulated rapid expansion of higher education. In1975 the number of Universities increased from six to 13. Similar expansions wererecorded in other forms of !-,igher education to the extent that in 1979 each state had atleast a College of Education and a Polytechnic. These events increased access to thirdlevel education. However, while it is true that there was visible quantitative expansion tounderscore the concept of catchment area, the policy failed to promote consolidation,through expanding facilities and appropriate funding. Thus Nigerian academics wereapprehensive that unbridled expansion would lead to the lowering of academicstandard. The introduction of a crash programme for training of intermediate levelmanpower in Europe and North America heightened the apprehension.

The Universal Free Primary education Programme was launched in 1976 toensure that every Nigerian child had access to primary education by 1986.

From 1979 to 1983 notable landmarks in the educational scene are (i) freeeducation in five south western states (ii) expansion of access to all evels of education(iii) introduction of the 6-3-3-4 educational system.

Quantitative impact of UPE in Nigeria

Quantitative impact addresses the question: how successful was the UPE in theprovision of access to primary education and to what extent has the programmereduced or eliminated regional and gender disparities in enrolment? In this analysis, we

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compared school statistics for 1975/76, prior to the introduction of UPE, with those for1976/77 and 1987. Particular attention was focused on 1982/83 and 1986/87.

The 1982/83 school year is remarkable for the fact that enrolment was at itspeak. Moreover, the impact of the oil slump in the early 1980s were visible duringsession. For example, the Federal government reduced the building grants for primaryschools from N3500.00 to 2.500.00 per classroom and then stopped the subsidy. Theresponsibility was shifted to states .and local governments. Many states defaulted onteachers' salaries and allowances for upward of 10 months, resulting in protractedstrikes.

To meet the financial demands of primary education, state governmentintroduced tuition fees in various guises. In point of act by 1984, 15 of the 19 states hadintroduced tuition fees while three other states made it mandatory for all taxable adultsto pay an annual education levy ranging from N10 to N25.

As teaching and learning conditions in primary schools deteriorated enrolmentsdeclined, particularly in states which had made significant gains in enrolments. ThusUniversal Primary Education which was one of the legacies of the oil born in the 1970s,hecame the first casualty of the oil slum, beginning with the 1982/83 school year.

In order to arrest the decay in the education sector, The Federal Government in1987 commissioned a study on Educational imbalance in Nigeria. This action, itseemed was a surreptitious indication of the "collapse" of the UPE programme and anew chapter opened with the establishment in 1988, of the National Primary EducationCommission to co-ordinate the new Primary Education Project.

Statistics of primary school age population, gross enrolments ratio, enrolmentratio by state, region and the country (1975-87) are given in table 1.3. to 1.6.

Table 1.3Nigeria: Growth and Decline in Primary School Enrolment (1975-1987

Pupil Enrolment School-Age Population GrossSchool Year Enrolment

Millions % Average Millions % Ratio (%)Change Change Change

Growth 6.2 - 13.3 - 471975/761976/77 8.1. 30.6 15.8 18.8 511977/78 9.8 21.0 16.2 2.5 611978/79 10.8 10.2 16.6 2.5 651979/80 12.1 12.0 17.0 2.4 71--1980/81 13.7 13.2 17.5 17.5 2.9 781981/82 147 7.3 15.9 -9.1 921982/83 18.8 27.9 18.3 15.1 103Decline 14.3 23.9 16.4 -10.4 881983/841984/85 13.0 91 -8.8 16.2 -1.2 801985.86 12.9 0.8 16.8 3.7 771986/87 11.5 1.4 17.4 3.6 66

Average73.%

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Table 1.4East Region: Growth and Decline in Primary School Enrolment (1975-1987



Growth 22 - 39 - 751975/761976/77 2.8 25.3 3.5 18 1 801977/78 3.1 11.4 3.6 2.5 871978/79 32 1 1 37 2.6 851979/80 3.3 5.7 38 24 881980/81 3.5 4.0 9.5 3.9 33 891981/82 3.1 -911 3.5 -93 1 861982/83 3.1 I -0 1 , 4.0 1~1 .~.Decline 2.91 -8.2 3.7 -7.511983/84

77I

1984/85 2.9 2.5 -8 8 3.6 -2.8 821985.86 3.1 5.8 37 33 841986/87 28 11 0 -02 3.8 3.2 72

Growth rate =2.4 Percent Average =82%

Source: Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria

Table 1.5Western Region: Growth and Decline in Primary School Enrolment

(1975-1987

Pupil Enrolment i School-Age Population Gross~School Year

IEnrolmentI


Growth 2.2 - 3.2 - 671975/761976/77 2.5 13.4 3.9 20.2 651977/78 2.8 10.4 4.0 2.3 701978/79 3.0 8.6 4.1 2.6 741979/80 3.4 14 1 4.2 2.6 821980/81 3.8 10.6 12.8 4.3 3.1 881981/82 4.5 19.70 3.9 -9.8 1171982/83 4.3 -4.0 4.5 17.5 961Decline 4.8 10.0 4.0 -12.7 1201983/841984/85 4.2 11.6 -8.8 4.0 1.6 1051985.86 4.1 -1 8 4.2 3.8 991986/87 35 -155 -0.1 4.3 3.5 81

Growth rate = 7 Percent Average =89%


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Table 1.6Northern Region: Growth and Decline in Primary School Enrolment

(1975-1987)


Millions % Average Millions % Rati~ (%)Change Change Change

Growth 1.8 - 7.1 - 251975/761976/77 2.8 58.5 8.4 17.9 331977/78 3.9 38.4 8.6 2.4 451978/79 4.6 19.9 8.9 3.4 521979/80 5.4 15.3 9.1 2.4 591980/81 6.4 20.2 12.8 9.3 2.3 691981/82 7.0 9.0 8.5 -9.1 831982/83 11.1 61.4 31.8 9.7 15.2 116Decline 6.7 -41.0 8.7 -10.9 771983/841984/85 5.9 -12.4 -8.8 8.6 -0.7 671985.86 5.6 -4 0 8.9 3.3 631986/87 5.3 -6 3 -4.6 9.2 3.2 57

Growth rate - 4.4 Percent Average = 62%


At inception of the UPE (1976) 6.23m children of school age were enrolled inprimary schools. Enrolment expanded on the average 26 percent in the next twoyears, the expansion streak continued for the three years though the figures on theaverage were about half of the earlier years. The school year 1981/82 witnessed asharp drop in enrolment but picked up and then peaked in 1982/83 school year withenrolment of 18.8 m and a growth rate of 27.9 percent. Significantly, enrolment in1982/83 was three times the figure for 1975/76.

Generally, an average growth rate of 17.5 percent was obtained for 19751983. However, the implementers of the programme could not sustain themomentum. As a consequence, enrolment declined from 1984 to 1987.

The trend at the national level is a reflection of the performance at regionallevels, with some vocations in the growth rates. As can be seen from Tables 1.3 to1.6 growth rates for the regions are: North 14.4 percent, West l percent and East2.4 percent. Indeed, growth rate in the north was 6 times the figure for the East anddouble that for the West. Similarly, growth rate in the West was three times the figureearned by the East.

Thus, it could be said that Universal Primary Education Programme has aphenomenal impact on the growth rate of enrolment in Primary Schools in the northunlike in the West and East respectively.

Inspite of the performance of the northern region in terms of growth rate, theregion recorded the lowest Gross Enrolment Ratio GER. Table 1.3 to 1.6 also whothat the West on the average achieved 89 percent, the East 82 percent and the North62 percent. For Nigeria, the average was 73 percent.

On the basis of these analysis a pertinent question is : has the UniversalPrimary Education Programme achieved its quantitative goals of providing access toprimary education? The response is not in the affirmative. Statistics in the tablesabove give vent to the magnitude of the problem of primary education in Nigeria. On

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the average, 16.5m children of school age were eligible to start primary school eachyear from 1976 to 1987. However, about 12.2m had access to primary education.Thus 4.3m or 24 percent of the children were not made literate by the formal schoolsystem for every year under review.

Disparity in enrolment at the regional level is alarming. The proportion ofchildren who were not made literate ranged from 12.2 percent to 37.5 percent. Thenorthern region had 37.5 percent (or 3.3m), East 18.9 percent (or 9.7m) and theWest 12.2 percent (orO.5m). In other words, for every 100 eligible children who werenot in school between 1976 and 1987, the north accounted for 73, the East 16 andthe West 11.

The Situation of Girls in primary Education

Statistics for female share of total enrolment by state and region are presentedin Tables 1.7. From the statistics, much progress has been made in providing femaleaccess to primary education. However, there exist moderate disparity between bothsexes.

Nine States have already achieved approximately 50 percent enrolment.These are Anambra, Bendel, Cross River, Imo, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Oyo, and Rivers.

States in the Eastern region maintained a consistent lead in female enrolmentbetween 1976 and 1987, with a peak of 49.9 percent in 1981.

States in the Western region which maintained the second position until 1982,witnessed the highest enrolments between 1982 and 1987, peaking at 49.7 percentin 1983/84 school year.

Benue, Gongola and Plateau states have achieved 40 percent, while othernorthern states recorded below 40 percent (Yoloye et al 1987).

Assessment of the quantitative goals of primary education in UPE Yearsprovide evidence to draw the conclusion that the programme has successfullyredressed the inequality in access to primary education between males and femalesin States within the Western and Eastern regions of Nigeria.

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o

Table 1.7Total Enrolment in Primary Schools by State

-·I~· 1976/77 -~I--- 1977/78 1978/79 197980

State pOPulation-I Enrolment Enwimenf -- --- Enrolment Enrolment EnrolmentPer 1000 Population Enrolment Per 1000 Population Enrolment Per 1000 Population Enrolment Per 1000

iPopulation Population Population Population

~n?mbra ---- 50;O-61-;-;5=O-;O:O-\-~82;;-;6~7;;;8-;::-3+---'--1633_~j18960b-f-- 907252 1748 5321000 911377 1713 5455600 978885 1794Bauchl 3421500 220211 644 3508100 329611 940 3596900 362881 1009 3688000 372382 1009Bendel - 3463-300 687643 -1§96 --3551000 -751712 2116 3640800 792202 2176 3733000 788278 2112

t!enue_ _ _341§500 _ 535096 - 1567 3502000 629213 1797 3590600 750810 2091 3681500 852691 2345Borno 4218300 121982 289 4325100 200764 464 4434600 325307 734 4546900 408978 899Cross River--- 4894700 71-95-50 --1-470 - 5b-1-86-0cf 768292 1531 5145700 759460 1476 5275000 776895 1473GOriQOra--- --- ~300 265941 723 ---3759ioo- 322159 857 3854300 355229 922 3951900 407506 1031Imo 5168500 938398 -~- --5299300 1014826 1915 5433500 1014467 1867 5571000 1095023 1966Kaduna------- 5767500 449296 ----6779 --5913500 673091 1138 6063200 633928 1045 6216700 649211 1044Kano ----- 8126800 341806 421 --8332600 478413 574 8543500 659928 772 3579800 854639 996Kwara - - 2412800 251502 1042 2473800 394030 1593 2536500 433434 1709 2600700 606449 2332Lagos 1 24937001 3884291 1558 I 25955001 4114181 1585/ 27014001 4345431 16091 28117001 4394381 1563Niger 1681000 113852 677 1723600 181731 1054 1767200 277495 1570 1811900 319755 1759Ogun 2182600 282577 1295 2237900 299011 1336 2294600 345293 1505 2352600 322417 13701Ondo - 3841400 403210 1050 8938700 427980 1087 4038400 425509 1054 4140600 583847 1410oyo-------- 7330400 734832 1002 7516000 866362 1153 7706200 996362 1293 7901300 1281744 1622Plateau 2852100 297187 1042 2924300 365676 1250 2998300 452056 1508 3074200 441130 1435Rivers 2420400 316823 1308 2481700 439878 1736 2544500 470868 1850 2608900 485030 1859Sokoto 1 63871001 2062041 3231 65491001 3015421 4601 6714800\ 397401 I 5921 68848001 4461851 6481

Source: Statistics Section, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.

-->.-->.

State

AnambraBauchlBendelBenue

i Borno60ss River

G°rlQola .ImoKadunaKanoKwaraLagosNlgerOgunOndoOyo-PlateauRiversSoh;to

Table 1.7 cont.Total Enrolment in Primary Schools by State

1980/81 1981/82 1982/83 1983/84 iPopulation Enrolment Enrolment : Enrolment : Enrolment ' Enrolment

Per 1000 PopulZltlon ! Enrolment I Per 1000 Population Enrolment Per 1000 Population Enrolment Per 1000Population I Popul;Jtlon Population PopulationI .. . .

5593800 983274 1758 57J5400 j 1005467 1753 5880600 i3~)3452 1451 6029400 838470 13913781400 394703 1044 3877100 370349 955 3975200 4-:J4155 10C)2 4073900 326472' -08113827500 3924400 i 818794 2086 4023700 859922 2137 4125600 92'7708 2249

00110'1 r'J'1~Jl ,,)Q7n')('In1 F'r' .... " ......... ,.... ...... ,.." ...... A,...,....rlnAr, r..~,-:...,. ...... r. .... ".r' "r;~::'-;::'-""",rI r';: ...... ,,.... .....

~4095()0 80El825) 1495 r 5546400 I 835827 15071

56868061 - 8684841'1527 t-- 58:30~06 El72370).. 14964051900 486943 1201 I 4154500 52119 1254 4259700 1 520198 1221 4367500 518369 11875712000 1183300 . 2072 5856600 854835 1460 60049001- 826584 1377-6156900 793867 12896374100 1015177 1593 6535400 1060196 1622 6700800 1112240 1660 6870500 1134475 16518981600 1026430 ~ .. -1143 9208900 1200342 1303 9442()OO' '1214920 i 1287 9681000 752278 77726f3..6500 _-!402~!' 2776 2734000591340 2163[ 2803200 6209271 22152_874200s65972 3~Y132926400 522236 1785 3045900 565190 1856 3170200 570921 1801 3299500 637778 19331857800 4190-76-2256 190480'0 462168, 2436 19531~() 450765J 2308j6025QO 1()2034 2§Q~

211220 353495 1674 2473300 400522 1G19 2535900 2462941 1681 2600100 445168 17124145500 628939 1481 4352900 664480 1527 4463166 691898 1550 '. 45761'60 693997 15178101300 1463516 1806 830640Q 1877880 2261 8516700 19.11274 j 231_5 .8!_3~2}00 2.070362 2~71

3152000 526039 'j' 1669 323180() 609892 1859 3313600 j 56502Q \ 1705 .}397500 524305 151326750QO 495337_ 1851 27427QQt... ~1~73~1 1873 281_2100 1~83238 _ 207428_83300 369363 128170591QO _~~4129 ... 7991 723780()_ 644657]891 74~uOOL 68403()L_ 922i __ !~?~90 705777 9?El

Source Statistics Section, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.

Problem

Progress in the Education of women and girls is critical for enhancing this;participation in national development. In recognition of their regional governmentsemphasised the importance of girls and women's education during. the UPE drive.Most states initiated policies or specific measures to sustain their participation ineducation. These included Establishment of Women Education Branch at the FederalMinistry of Education, Women Education Centres at local levels, AwarenessCampaigns by women societies, Awarding scholarship, Material incentives andAdmission Policies.

While these measures were being implemented at the national level, stategovernments introduced all sorts of educational levies in their areas of jurisdiction,and in response some parents withdrew their children from school. At the schoollevel, teachers motivation was low, salaries unpaid for upwards of ten months andinstructional materials were lacking in most schools. At the society level, especiallywithin the eastern state of Nigeria, the economic recession occasioned thewithdrawal of boys from school to seek early employment or be apprenticed in atrade. Indeed, these are potent sources of negative influence on efforts at ensuringequity in the education of boys and girls.

Given this scenario, it becpmes imperative to carry out an in-depth study of theEducation of Women and girls in the 1990s in Eastern states of Nigeria, particularlyAnambra, Imo, Enugu and Abia states where the problem of gender inequality inaccess to primary and secondary education seem to have been redressed.

Objectives of the Study

The overall objective set within the framework ot the Worlds Declaration forEducation for All as stated in UNESCO's Aide Memoire is to ensure access at animprove the quality of education of women and girls, and remove every obstacle thathampers their active participation in education.

Immediate Objective

The thrust of the immediate objective is to probe further into the island ofEquity in the Eastern Region, Nigeria and examine the factors inherent in theenvironment, in favour of women and girls' education. In order to achieve thisobjective the study will address the foljowing specific issues ..

11 Investigate the status and dynamics of access and retention in formaleducation for woman and girl of all levels of education

11 Investigate the status and dynamics of access and retention of women andgirls Non-formal Educational Divisions.

11 Undertake an in-depth analyses at success factors which have helped thecourse of girls and women in attaining and sustaining gender equity at theformal and non-formal forms of education.

11 Undertake an in-depth analysis of constraints to the stability of genderequity in formal and non-formal education.

12

Scope

In accordance with the guidelines in the UNESCO Aide Memoire informationfor this study was obtained from the island of equity located in Eastern (region)Nigeria. There are eight states in the region. The Draft Constitution of the FederalRepublic of Nigeria 1995 restructured the country into six Geo-political zones FormerEaster region now consists of the Core East and Southern Minorities. The four statesof interest in thiS study: Abla, Anambra, Enugu and Imo are situated in the Core EastZone.

The study is also delimited to the issues stipulated in the immediateobjectives, viz, investigating the status and dynamics of access and retention ofwomen and girls In formal and non formal education; as well as undertaken anindepth analySIS of success factors and constraints associated With gender equity informal and non-formal education in the study location.

Definitions

Status was conceived as the state of gender equity in access ro andparticipation in educational activities.

Dynamics was conceived as the process of change in the status (If any) overthe years

13

CHAPTER TWO

METHODOLOGY

The study methodology consisted of three sections:

i) Sampling procedure and sample;ii) Methods of date collection; andiii) Data analysis procedure

Sampling Procedure and Sample

The study location was stratified along the component states (as at August,1996): Anambra, Enugu, Imo and Abia. Each of the four participating states was alsostratified along urban and non-urban locations.

For each urban stratum within a state, simple random sampling was used tomake the following selections:

10 secondary school principals; 20 secondary school teachers; 20 secondaryschool students;; 10 headmasters of primary schools; 20 primary schoolteachers; 10 early school leavers; 4 parents of early school leavers; 10 parents ofsecondary school leavers.

However, for each non-urban stratum within a state, simple random samplingwas also used to select:

15 secondary school principals; 30 secondary school teachers; 30 secondaryschool students; 15 headmasters of primary schools; 30 primary school teachers;15 early school leavers; 6 parents of early school leavers; and parents ofsecondary school students.

The following significant others were also randomly picked within each state toparticipate in the study:

2 ministry of education officials; 2 religious leaders; 1 traditional leader and 5leaders of traders' association.

Altogether, the sample consisted of 1080 subjects (580 males, 500 felmaes)that were equally distributed across the four states of the study location. It includes:

14

100 secondary school principals; 100 primary school heddmasters; 200secondary school teachers; 200 primary school teachers; 200 secondary schoolstudents; 100 parents of secondary school children, 40 percent of early schoolleavers; 8 ministry of education officials; 6 religious leaders; 4 traditionalleaders; and 20 leaders of traders association.

Methods of Data Collection

Data collection involved the use of four procedures : interview schedule,questionnaire, analysis of records, and focused group discussion.

Interview Schedule

This consisted of eight open-ended questions that solicited for information onthe status of equity in the education of boys and girls, its effects on political, socialeconomic and educational development of the participating states, policies andpractices that are aimed at ensuring balance in the education of boys and girls aswell as suggestions for ensuring equity in the ;)rlucation of boys and girls. Thesequestions were developed by the investigators CiIIJ validated with the assistance ofthree university lecturers and some key people in policy formulation andimplementation in education. A sample of the Interview Schedule is provided inAppendiX I.

The instrument was used to get the opinion of significant people in the field ofeducation. In all, 780 people were interviewed on the four states that participated inthe study. They include 8 officials in the ministry of education, 8 religious leaders,400 teachers, 140 parents, 4 traditional leaders and 20 leaders of tradersassociations.

Questionnaires

A short questionnaire on gender- was developed by the investigators. Itconsisted of two sections: A and B. Section A solicited for personal information ongender, age, state and occupation/status. The section also reqUired a studentrespondent to indicate his present class, what he plans to do at the end of thesecondary school, his major reasons for enrolling in school and the aspects of theschool he likes. However, a non-student respondent was required to indicate his lastclass while in school and his major reasons for leaving school.

Section B consisted of nine reasons (items) that could have helped in ensuringbalance in the education of boys and girls in the study location. These items wereplaced beside a four point scale in which the respondents were required to indicatethe extent of their agreement/disagreement.

The questionnaire was pretest using 60 respondents in Oyo State (not in thestudy location). The pretest results showed no ambiguities in the instrument andproduced a Cronbach coefficient alpha of 0.89.1 (for construct validity and internalconsistency reliability). A sample of the questionnaire is provided in Appendix 11.

The questionnaire was administered to all members of the study sample bythe investigators and four other research assistants. This exercise lasted for twoweeks.

15

Analysis of records

The investigators analysed the records of the following agencies from whererelevant data were obtained for the four states that participated in the study:

i) Federal and State Ministries of Educationii) Federal Office of Statisticsiii) National Primary Education Commissioniv) National Institute for Social and Economic Researchv) National University Commissionvi) Joint Admission and matriculation Board.

Focused Group Discussion

The investigators organised group discussions with leaders of tradersassociations and early school leavers who are learning a trade under variousmasters. The discussion was focussed on equity in the education of boys and girlswithin the study region, its effects on social, political, economic and educationaldevelopment of the region, the various factors that make a person to leave schoolearlier than expected and the various factors that encourage the education ofgirls/women within the study region.

The issues raised by the participants were extensively discussed and only thosethat turned out to be the most significant, both in terms of the number of peopleholding such view and the opinion of the investigators were finally selected forreporting.

Data Analysis Procedure

The data analysis involved the use of descriptive statistics: frequency counts,percentages and ratios.

16

CHAPTER THREE

STATUS AND DYNAMICS OF FEMALE ENROLMENTSIN EDUCATION

The purpose of this chapter to highlight in qualitative terms the status anddynamics in the provision of access to, and retention, in the formal and non formalsystems of education in states of Eastern Nigeria. In this respect statistics of schoolage population, gross enrolment, dropout rates, transition rates and gender wereobtained and analysed to reveal possible dynamic shifts from the status pcture.

As has been reported in chapter one, the last 21 years witnessed rapidexpansion in education at all levels. However, the development, organisation andmanagement of statistical information could not keep pace with the rate of expansionin the education sector. As a .consequence, statistics on student peliormance,retention, dropout and transition rates at the primary and secondary levels are notavailable for a number of year. In some states with comprehensive statistics,discrepancies were observed in the date obtained form different sources.

At the tertiary level, in particular, the Polytechnics and colleges of Education,statistics for the years prior to 1985 are mainly gross enrolments and graduateoutput. For this reason, 1985 wa selected as baseline for analysis and reporting onthe status of enrolment. However, observations on dynamics were focused on thestatistics for 1988 to 1995.

Statistics on the key elements of enrolment are presented in the sections thatfollow, beginning with the formal education system.

FORMAL EDUCATION

Primary Education Policy Issues

Primary Education as stated in the National Policy on Education (1981, section3) is education given in an institution for children normally 6 to 11 +. Since the rest ofthe education system is built upon it, the primary level is the key to the success orfailure of the whole system. Government policy on education is to provide free andcompulsory universal primary education. To achieve this goal, government is makingeffort to correct gender and regional disparities in the provision of educationalfacilities and opportunities.

This being the case, the general educational goal of primary education are:a) the inculcation of permanent literacy and numeracy, and the ability to

communicate effectivelyb) the laying of a sound basis for effective and reflective thinkingc) citizen education as a basis for effective participation in and contribution to

the life of the society.d) Character and moral training and the dev.elopment of sound attitudese) Developing in the child the ability to adopt to his changing environmentf) Giving the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will

enable him to function effectively in the society within the limits of hiscapacity

17

g) Providing basic tools for further educational advancement includingpreparation for trades and craft of the locality.

The key objectives of Nigeria's Primary Policy are to :

a) provide free universal educationb) correct regional education-conscious, absorbing suitable Koranic and

Islamic schools into the primary school system, and getting all governmentand community agencies to encourage parents to end their daughters toschool

c) introduce measures to reduce dropouts but if they do occur to provide forthem through adult and non formal education

d) encourage voluntary agencies, communities, and private individuals toestablish and manage schools

e) plan for an eventual teacher-pupil ratio of 1:30 but accept a ratio of 1:40during the transition to UPE

f) provide for continuous assessment and automatic promotion throughprimary school and junior secondary school by abolishing the primaryschool leaving examination

g) strengthen the curriculum in all subject areas, but especially, science andmathematics

h) ensure that all schools are properly equipped by providing funds for schoollibraries, textbooks and equipment and devising a scheme to provideinexpensive textbooks

i) set up a national committee to advise on the production of suitabletextbooks and instructional materials

j) ensure that the medium of instruction is initially the mother-tongue oflanguage of the local community and at a later stage, English

k) provide adequate educational services such as libraries, health-care,counselling, audio-visual aids and specialist teachers, and

I) ensure that up-to-date innovative teaching/learning methods are used inschools (World Bank 1989).

Status and Dynamics of Female Enrolment in Primary Education:

Tables 3.1 to 3.3 present the statistics on female enrolment between 1975 and1995. From Table 4.1, it can be seen that female enrolment for the region prior to theinception of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) in 1975 was 44.6 percent.Female enrolment in 1976/77 school year, the first year of UPE, was 47.8 percent, anincrease of 3.2 percent over the 1975/76 ratio. Moderate increases were recordedeach year and peaked at 50.1 percent in 1980/81. In efect, equitable access offemales to primary education was attained in 1981, some five years into theimplementation of UPE. However, female enrolment ratios witnessed slight decline ofone to two percent points between 1982 and 1987.

The dynamics of female enrolment in the region shows that the ratio variedbetween 33 percent and 50 percent from 1988 to 1991 (Table 3.2). Furtherinspection of the statistics reveals an interesting picture. For instance, between 1992

18

and 1995, enrolment ratios in the four states (with te exception of Abia in 1992)ranged from 50 percent to 52 percent with regional average of above 51 percent.

In other words, more girls than boys were enrolled 1995 in primary schools inthe eastern states between 1992 and 1995 (Table 3.3).

Table 3.1% of Female Enrolment in Primary School by Region and Nigeria

Year East West North Nigeria1975/76 44.6 47.6 33.8 39.91976/77 47.8 47.6 34.8 41.01977/78 49.0 47.8 37.8 42.81978/79 49.7 48.5 36.0 42.21979/80 49.7 47.4 36.7 42.21980/81 50.1 49.5 32.3 40.51981/82 49.4 49.2 36.6 42.61982.83 49.0 49.5 37.0 42.81983/84 49.3 49.7 37.9 43.41984/85 48.3 48.8 38.8 43.91985/86 48.1 49.4 38.9 44.41986/87 48.1 49.4 38.6 44.4

Source: Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria.

Table 3.2.Enrolments in Primary School in Eastern States, Nigeria 1988-95

1988

States School Age Gross Gross Female FemalePopulation Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment as(Ages 6-11 yrs) Ratio Ratio (%) Ratio (%) % of School

M F Age Population

I (m) (m)Anambra 1.15 .90 . 42 1 78.0 47 37Imo 1.12 ,1.38 .46 123.0 33 41Nigeria 17.9 12.69 5.38 72.0 42 30

1989

Anambra 1.8 .94 .45 80 48 38Imo 1.21 97 .48 80 49 40[\Jigeria 18.52 12.72 5.72 69 45 31

1990

! Anambrai ImoI Nigeria

!

I!

1 211.24

17,10

: 911 1.06113.61

.44 !

51 I5.88 I

19

75!85180 I

484843

364134

iII

Enrolments in Primary School in Eastern States, Nigeria 1988-95

1991

Anambra 1.24 .98 .46 79 47 37Imo 1.28 1.03 .51 80 50 40Nigeria 17.5 13.76 6.04 79 44 35

1992

IState School Age Gross Gross Female FemaleI Population Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment as %

I(Age 6-11 yrs) M F Ratio (%) Ratio (%) of School Age

Population(m) (m)

'Abia I .68 .52 .23 76 44 34Anambra .64 .42 .21 66 50 33Enugu .76 .65 .33 86 51 43Imo .73.73 .58 .30 79 52 41Nigeria 18.1 14.8 6.53 82 44 36

1993

Abia .70 .56 .28 80 50 40Anambra .66 .48 .24 73 50 36Enugu 78 .67 .34 86 51 44Imo .76 57 .29 75 51 38Nigeria 18.4 15.90 6.94 86 44 38

1994

Abia .72 .54 ...........27 75 50 38Anambra .68 .48 .25 71 52 37Enugu .80 .68........... 34 85 50 43Imo .79 .58...........30 73 52 38Nigeria 18.9 16.19...... 7.14 86 44 38

1995

Abia .75 .50............ 26 67 52 35Anambra 71 .45.......... .23 63 51 32Enugu .83 .63 .32 76 51 39Imo .82 .55.......... .28 67 51 34Nigeria 19.2 114.59 6.84 76 47 36

20

Table 3.3Percentage Female Enrolments in Primary School in Eastern States Nigeria

1988-95

State 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995Abla - - - - 44 50 50 52Anambra 47 I 48 48 47 50 50 52 51Enugu - 51 51 50 51Imo 33 49 48 50 52 51 52 51Average 40 48,5 48 48,5 49,3 50,5 51 51 3Nigeria 42 45 43 44 44 44 44 47

Secondary Education Policy Issues

Secondary education is the form of education children receive after primaryschool and before the tertiary stage.

The broad aims of secondary education within the overall national objectivesshould be :

a) preparation for useful living within the society, andb) preparation for higher education.

In specific terms the Secondary School should provide an increasing number ofprimary school pupils with the opportunity for education of a higher quality,irrespective of sex, social, religious and ethnic background.

To achieve the stated objectives:Government plans that secondary education should be of six-year duration and

be given in two stages, a junior secondary school stage and a senior secondaryschool stage; each stage being of three-year duration.

Status and Dynamics of Female Enrolment in Secondary Schools

Tables 3.4 and 3.5 give a summary of statistics of female enrolment in States ofEastern Nigeria. The statistics show that enrolment at state levels varied between 2.6percent and 51 percent during the period 1976 and 1982. Average enrolment for theregion ranged between 35 to 44 percent.

In the period under review there was visible evidence of expansion in theprovision of females' access to secondary education. However, the growth rate wasnot consistent from one year to another.

21

Table 3.4

Percentage Females Enrolled in Secondary School in Eastern State

I State 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982Anambra 37 37 40 36 49 45 51Imo 34 36 36 31 38 26 31Average 35. 37 38 34 44 24 41

State 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994Abia - - - - - - - - - 52 54 53Anambra 53 54 62 62 60 59 56 54 55 54 55 55Enugu - - - - - - - - - 53 52 52Imo 53 52 56 54 55 I 53 55 55 54 53 54 52Average 53 53 59 58 58 56 55 55 55 53 54 53Nigena 43 44 41 40 42 41 42 43 42 45 46 46

Table 3.5.

1983 ('000) 1984 ('000) 1985 ('000) 1986 ('000)State M F+_: F % F M F F %F M F F % F M F F % F

Anambra 201 106 53 206 127 61 7 200 108 54 202 126 62.4Imo 395 1 209 53 244 136 55.7 284 148 52 215 117 54.4

1-r'J .I 43 2,988 I 1.249 41.2 44 3,088 1,334 396Igena

I

1- 1987 ('000) 1988 ('000) I 1989 ('000) 1990 ('0002~

~State M F F t1% F M F F! % F=fM F I F % F M F F ~_~~

~~am: ~ 171 10~ - 59 ~ 177 I 104j 58.8 f 181 I 101 55.8 I 179 96 I 54'mo ~1251.- -1371-S4sr-233-r 124 1--s3 ,~T 139 55.4 245 135 I 551I NlgenaJ 2. 934l 1,234 I 421 I 2,9~ 1,~12 I 41 2 1-2c-,-72~4--~I1~,1-42CC--+-----'-41-.8-c--1----c-2,-"-9-c-01-+1-1.241 L 431

Source Annual Abstract of StatistiCS 1992-1995Federal Ministry of StatistiCS, Lagos, Nlgena.

In 1983, the first set of UPE graduates were eligible for enrolment insecondary schools. Therefore a high demand for Secondary education wasenvisaged . From Table 3.4, is observed that female enrolment in the region was53 percent in 1983. On the average, female enrolment ranged from 53 percent to 59percent between 1984 and 1994. These observations demonstrate that the status offemale participation in secondary education was such that in 1983, at least 53 out ofevery 100 students enrolled in secondary school in the region were females.

22

Generally, enrolment in the region was dynamic in the positive sense sincefemale enrolment for the year under review did not fall below that for 1982. It seemspolicy measures 'and practices were able to sustain the "beyond equity" provision offemales' access to secondary education.

Technical (and Vocational) Education Policy issues

Technical education is that aspect of education which leads to the acquisitionof practical and applied skills as well as basic scientific knowledge.

The aim of technical education should be :a) to provide trained manpower in applied science, technology and commerce

particularly at sub professional grades;b) to provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for

agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic development;c) to provide people who can apply scientific knowledge to the improvement

and solution of environmental problems for the use and convenience ofman;

d) to give an introduction to professional studies in engineering and othertechnologies;

e) to give training and impart the necessary skills leading to the production ofcraftsmen, technicians and other skilled personnel who will be enterprisingand self reliant;

f) to enable our young men and women to have an intelligent understandingof the increasing complexity of technology.

Status and Dynamics of Female Enrolments on Technical/Vocational Education

Generally secondary education dominates the other forms of second-leveleducation Enrolment in TechnicallVocational education represented only 2.4 percentin 1983 and 15.9 percent in 1993.

Statistics on enrolment for 1985 to 1995 are given in Tables 3.6 to 3.8.The figures show in comparative terms, trends in enrolment of females in

vocational and Technical Institutions for the three regions and Nigeria. States in theEast recorded only 20 percent enrolment in 1985, and 22 percent in 1986. In 1987,expansion was phenomenal and peaked at 48 percent, representing an increase of118 percent over the previous year. In term of status at the end of 1987, femaleenrolment and participation in Technical and Vocational Education was only 2percent short of equitable representation.

23

Table 3.6

Percentage of Female Enrolment in Vocational/Technicallnstitution 1985-1993

Source: Federal & States Ministry of Education 1994

Table 3.7Enrolment in VocationallTechnical Institutions in Eastern States, Nigeria

1985-1987

2\iC<-1 ~ 2'~3 .

----------- ----A'-'ilmbra 2 ..k)2Tmo· - .--- -- cc, c:c,~

-B'_Q-eri~J--- -72, 1

. State1985

--- ---- ---. --- -

M F F('000) 1986 ('000) 1987 ('000) I___ _ - ...-------~ ~_~ J

"u F M F F °'0 F M F F % F······1~J~ -li2'30 1.0G2-'- -17-- -5643·-E47T·-----49~

----i1--------t=1803 -- 1-5u~j~~ - -2f3----~~5~-b-52-- --16-~f74~ ------47~

17 7G43.i~-T2:y94 ,-- f7~--89-536---28,652'-----~--_. -- --- ----- -- ~-- ----- ------~--------~....._~--~

~() F

Table 3.8Enrolment in Vocational/Technical Institution in Eastern States, Nigeria 1988-93

1S!88 1989 1990"- --._.--- -- ---------- -- ------. --- ~ -- - -----.----. ------

State M F Fee F rv1 F F' 0 F M F FiAbla----'-· - --~-----,- ,- ----.--.----~Aran-1T);-:1_:--1G146'----8,526 .- 5(j ·225 -- Xj;''3 -----gT~ -- --250-----:,-68·-- '(37:

i~~~~Sigli~i~~~~if~J ~7;~-=~j-~~--~~-~m~-·:3~~,=-=~;t:

Source: Federal & States Ministry of Education 1992-1995

Tables 3.6 also present the dynamics of female enrolment in vocational andtechnical institutions for the states and regional average. Female enrolment in theregion increased from 48 percent in 1987 to 61 percent In 1988 and peaked in 1989,with 93 percent enrolment. What IS striking from the statistics is the dynamics innumerical gains between 1987 and 1989. While there were 48 females in every 100

24

students enrolled in vocational and technical centres in 1987, 93 out of every 100student in such centres in 1993 were females.

HIGHER EDUCATION

Policy Issues

Higher Education covers the Post-secondary section of the national educationsystem which is given in Universities, Polytechnic and Colleges of Technologyincluding such courses as are given by the Colleges of Education, the AdvancedTeacher Training Colleges, Correspondence Colleges and such institution as may beallied to them.

Higher Education should aim at

a) the acquisition, development and inculcation of the proper value-orientationfor the survival of the individual and society;

b) the development of the intellectual capacities of individuals to understandand appreciate their environments;

c) the acquisition of both physical and intellectual skills which will enableindiViduals to develop Into useful members of the community;

d) the acquIsition of an objective view of the local and external environments.

Status and Dynamics of Female Enrolments in Colleges of Education

Tables 3.9 to 3.11 summarize the status and dynamics of female enrolment inthe Eastern states. As can be seen from the statistics, average enrolment rangedfrom 64 to 70 percent between 1985 to 1987. Given these statistics, it is safe toconclude that the College of Education IS a form of third-level educational institutionwith a predominantly female population

Table 3.9Enrolments in College of Education in Eastern States, Nigeria 1985-87

Table 3.10Enrolments in Colleges of Education in Eastern States Nigeria 1988-1994

25

1992 1993 1994State M F F %F M F F %F M F F %FAbia - - - 2,885 1,760 61 2,348 1,479 63Anambra 594 374 63 3,162 2,213 70 3,006 2,014 67Enugu 248 141 57 3,831 2,452 64 3,392 2,105 62Imo 5,711 2,399 42 5,323 3,513 66 4,789 3,113 65Nigeria 70,513 38,894 55 67,149 34,528 51 69,685 35,057 50

Table 3.11Percentage Female Enrolment in Colleges of Education Eastern States, Nigeria

1985-1994

Status DynamicsState 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 I 1993T1994Abia - - - - - - - - I 61 63 IAnambra* 71 72 82 90 88 86 84 63 I 70 67 IEnugu - - - - - - - 57 I 64 62Imo* 56 56 57 65 67 71 75 42 ! 66 65 IAverage 54 64 70 78 78 79 80 I 54 62 64 I

for theI IEast :-F1Nigeria 40 42 41 41 47 46 42 I 55 50 I-

Source: Federal and State Ministries ot Education, 1985-1994Note ** This was the situation before the creation of Nine States in 1991.

Developments in enrolment between 1988 and 1994 are also presented inTables 3.11. The statistic reveal that female enrolment was dynamic in the separateyears with growth rate of 8 percent from 1987 to 1988. Enrolment was stable for1989 and peaked at 80 percent in 1991.

Enrolments declined sharply to 54 percent in 1992, but increased by 8 percentand 2 percent in 1993 and 1994 respectively.

Status and Dynamics of Female Enrolment in Polytechnics and Colleges ofTechnology

Table 3.12 to 3.14 present statistics on the status and dynamics of femaleenrolment in polytechnics. From the Tables, it can be seen that:

the status of females was such that only 29 percent of them were enrolledin 1987.Enrolment ratios varied between 1987 and 1994, and void of a discerniblepattern. An increase of 19 percent was recorded in 1988 compared with1987 figures. The figures for 1989 show 17 percent increase over 1988,but dropped by the same percentage points in 1990. Enrolment declinedprogressively from 1991 to 1994.In the eight years review the statistics seem to suggest that the quest forequity in female participation in Education in polytechnics has not beenattained over the years in the eastern states. This observation is areflection of the national average which reached a peak of 51 percent in1989 but declined in subsequent years.

26

Table 3.12Enrolment in Polytechnics and Colleges of Technology in Eastern States,

Nigeria 1985-87

I I 1985 I 1986i

1987II

: M Fi

i: State F %F1

M F i F %F I M F F %FI I !

! Anambra ! 5,003. 1,657 : 33 ! 7,715 i 2,260 29 7,727 2,768 36!Ima I 2,290 i 356 1

16! 2,7261 450 17 2,585 580 22I Nigeria I -a,009 i 11,285 1 19 i 71,292 I 13,207 19 60,533 15,508 26

Table 3.13Enrolments in Polytechnics and Colleges of Technology in Eastern States

1988-1994

1988 I 1989 ! 1990 1991State M F I F i ! M F

iF

i%F IF M F %F F M F i % F II

I i %F I I! I

Abia - I _ 1- i - i - I - 1- - - - - -

Anambra I 3,2371 1.614 ! 50 : 3,327 1 2,151 ! 65 i 8,017 4,125 51 3,702 2,480 67Enugu - I - ! - i

- 1 - ! - 1 - - - - I - - I

Imo* 1,821 : 824 ! 45 I 2,761 • 1,832 ! 66 I 5,344 I 2,422 45 2,909 1,335 461Nigena 125,288 i 10,421 • 41l33,824117,3121 51 I 55,065 i 17,392 I 32 33,058! 14,194 i 43 i

I 1992 1993 1

~ State I M F ~=-F~~----'-0lc~oF~i~-c-MC-=F---'-I~-F=-----rl~~~~~::~~~-:-:::~~~::::~~Olc~o-~F=---;-:::----11

0~_ia~_~574 i ~_1:--,-'0=-c9=-=4:-11~--=4:-::::3--,-!~-:-1'-cc,4-=-9-:-3-l--i__--=-69-=-0,---,-~--,=-=-I~~~,_~____=_:__::_+_-~~_=_48:11i Anambra* I 2,487 I 1,368 I 55 i 1,664 ; 861 ! 50 !i-Enu9u i 2,4 17 I -:-1-'-,3-:-9-:-6'-i~-5-c-8"--;-:1~1--'-,6-:-0~7+-' 833! 57 iLima' i 1,832-i-- 851! 45 1 3521~ 625 3]i Nigeria~42,302 ! 18,111 I 43 I 30,580 i 14,925 1 37 :

Source: Federal Ministry of Education, NigeriaNote * This was the situation before the creation of new States in 1991

27

Table 3.14Percentage of Female Enrolment in Polytechnics and Colleges of Technology

1985-1994Status Dynamics I

State 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994Abla - - - - - - - 43 46 48Anambra* 33 29 36 50 65 51 67 55 52 50Enugu - - - - - - - 58 52 47Imo* 16 17 22 45 66 45 46 46 46 43Average 25 23 29 48 66 48 57 51 49 47for theEastNigeria 19 19 26 41 51 32 43 43 49 37

Source: Federal & States Ministry of Education 1985 - 1994Note: * This was the situation before the creation of new States in 1991

Status and Dynamics of Female Enrolments in Universities:

Statistics of female enrolment for first degree courses are provided in Tables3.15t03.17

Table 3.15Placement for First Degree Courses in the Eastern States 1985 - 1987

I

I 1985 1986 1987State IM F I F %F M F ! F %F M F F %FAnambra i 2,464 i 788 32 3,137 1,004 32 3,266 1,110 34Imo I 2,366 i 781 83 3,418 1,196 35 3,741 1,197 32Nigeria I 24,347 1 5,356 22 30,809 6,470 21 31,637 7,593 24

Source : Annual Abstract of Statistics, Federal Office of Statistics, Lagos,Nigeria, 1992-1994

28

Nco

Table 3.16Placement for First Degree Courses in the Eastern

States 1988-1992

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992State M F F % F M F F % F M F F %F F M F % F M F F %F

Abia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Anambra 3,461 1,177 34 4,622 1,664 36 3,560 1,246

--33 4,956 1,735 35 6,614 2,381 36

Enugu - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Imo 4,219 1,350 32 5,384 1,777 33 4,686 1,546 33 6,014 2,105 35 7,412 2,742 37Nigeria 32,839 7,881 24 41,063 9,855 24 36,616 9,520 26 48,168 14,932 31 61,212 20,200 33

Source' Annual Abstract of Statistics, Federal Office of Statistics, Lagos, NIgeriaNote * includes figures for Enugu State In 1992 includes figures for Abia State in 1992.

Table 3.17Percentage of Female Placement into Nigerian Universities 1985-1992

Status DynamicsState 1985 1986 19~7 85-87 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 88-92Anambra 32 32 34 33 34 36 33 35 36 35Imo 33 35 35 34 32 33 33 35 37 34Nigeria 22 21 24 22 24 24 26 31 33 28

Source Annual Abstract of Statistics, Federal Office of Statistics, Lagos,Nigeria

The highlights are:average female participation for the region ranged from 32 to 34 percent.Although the figure are low, nonetheless, they are higher than the nationalaverage of 25 percent. The statistics indicate the low status of femaleparticipation in university education between 1985 and 1987;minor increases occurred in female enrolments between 1987 and 1992.The numerical gains account for only three percent over a period of fiveyears;on the whole, female participation and representation in educationalinstitutions is lowest at the university level. The imbalance is skewed infavour of males inspite of the policies and practices put in place to enhancefemale enrolments.

ADULT AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

Policy Issues:

Adult and Non-formal Education consists of functional literacy, remedial,continuing, vocational, aesthetic, cultural and civic education for youths and adultsoutside the formal school system.

The objectives of adult and continuing education are:a) to provide functional literacy education for adults who have never had the

advantage of any formal education;b) to provide functional and remedial education for those young people who

prematurely dropped out of the formal school system;c) to provide further education for different categories of completers of the

formal education system in order to improve their basic knowledge andskills;

d) to provide in-service on-the-job, vocational and professional ttraining fordifferent categories of workers and professionals in order to improve theirskills;

e) to give the adult citizens of the country necessary aesthetic, cultural andcivic education for public enlightenment.

In order to eliminate mass illiteracy within the shortest possible time, anintensive nation-wide mass literacy campaign was launched as a matter of priorityand as a new all-out effort on adult literacy programmes throughout the country.

30

Status and Dynamics of Female Enrolments in Adult Literacy Centres

Statistics on status and dynamics of female enrolments in adult literacyprogrammes are displayed in Tables 3.18 to 3.20

Table 3.18Enrolments in Adult Literacy Education Centres in Eastern States, Nigeria,

1985-1987

1985 1986 1987State M F F %F M F F %F M F F %FAnambra 2,464 788 32 3,137 1,004 32 3,266 1,110 34Ime 2,366 781 83 3,418 1,196 35 3,741 1,197 32Nigeria 24,347 5,356 22 30,809 6,470 21 31,637 7,593 24


Table 3.19Enrolments in Adult Literacy Education Centres in Eastern States, Nigeria

1988-1994

1988 1989 1990State' M F F M F F %F M F F %F

%FAbla - - - - - - - - -Anambra 30,564 18,586 61 4,622 15,046 60 28,714 16,656 58Enugu - - - - - - - - -Ime 9,720 5,431 56 5,384 12,810 70 27,712 20,889 75Nigeria 791,913 320,674 41 697,536 291,811 42 772,845 314,976 41

I 1991 1992 1993 1994IState

IM F F M F F % F M i F % F M F %

i i %F F ! F FAbla I - - 13,315 7,856, 59 12,610 8,197 65 10,009 6,306 63

I AnamI

30,150 17,489 58 16,283 10,095 62 14,561 9,901 68 11,8a- E,396 66I braEnugu - I - - 12,863 7,203 56 9,407 5,738 61 8,853 5,577 63Imo* 34,140 25,826 76 15,633 11,256 72 13,178 9,752 74 11,804 8,381 71Nigena 788,303 331,087 42 746,771 321,112 43 701,965 294,825 42 638,788 I 274,679 43

Source Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria

31

Table 3.20Percentage Female Placement into Adult Education Centres 1985-1994

Status DynamicsState I 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 I 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994Abla - - - - - I - - 59 65 63Anambra 62 60 62 61 60 I 58 I 58 62 68 66Enugu - - - - - I - - 56 61 63Imo 70 71 67 56 70 I 75 76 72 74 71Average

66 J:~ I 65

IIfor the 59

I65 67 67 62 67 66

region INigeria 34 , 331--33 41 ~~~- 41 42 43 42 43

Tables 3.20 shows that at least 65 percent of gross enrolments in adult literacyprogrammes between 1985 and 1987 were females.

From 1988 to 1994 female enrolments ranged from 59 to 67 percent.Enrolment dropped by six percent in 1987 to 59 percent in 1988, but increased by thesame margin in 1989 and peaked at 67 percent in 1991. Enrolment dropped in 1992to 62 percent, gained five percent in 1993 and dropped a percent in 1994. Generally,the pattern of growth in female enrolment in adult literacy programmes does notreveal a definite pattern.

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SUMMARY

On the whole, the statistics reveal that female enrolment ratio is higher thanthat of males in primary schools, secondary schools, technical and vocationalinstitutions, Colleges of Education and in Adult Literacy Programmes. Indeed,student in colleges of Education and Adult Literacy Institutions are predominantlyfemales. However, the inequality between male and female enrolment ratios inPolytechnics and Universities has not been redressed.

Germane to these observations are three fundamental questions:(i) What success factors are responsible for ensuring equitable female

participation in education at the first and second levels of education, thecollege of education and in adLilt and non-formal education institutions?

(ii) What is the impact of gender equity in education in political, economic,social and educational development of the region?

(iii) What factors constrained the provision of gender equity in education.

These questions are the subject matter of chapter four

33

CHAPTER FOUR

SUCCESS FACTORS, IMPACT AND CONSTRAINTS ASSOCIATED WITHEQUITY IN THE EDUCATION OF MALES AND FEMALES

Success Factors Associated with Gender Equity in Education

A list of factors responsible for ensuring a balance in the education of boysand girls in the region is reported in Table 4.1. The table, in addition, shows thefrequencies and percentages of respondents who perceived each factor to be soresponsible. In all, a total of eleven factors are identified by the respondents andthese are presented in a decreasing order of frequency.

Table 4.1Success Factors Associated with Gender Equity in Education

I --gy4. Negative attitude of parents towards education of boys I 1,0045. Influence of Christian religion 993 926. Negative attitude of parents and girls towards early 972 90marriage7.High status of educated women in 19bo society 907 84

1-8.. Strategy of each-one-teach-one or fund the education 864 80I of one relative I9. Nearness of schools to most homes I 831 77

.10. Differential cut-off points for school admission I 626 5811. Establishment of special schools for girls I 583 54

I Factors lFrequency ,Percentage]1. Urge to get rich quick among r1]ale~ ~~_~~t- 1~ ~2. Parents awareness of social and economic gains I 1,036 ! 96 !

~ssociated with education of girls and women: IJ 3. Improved attitude of girls and women towards 1,026:----

1

951I education of boys I

As can be seen from the table, the "urge to get rich quick among the youngmales" is top on the list; while "increa6ed parents" awareness of the social andeconomic gains associated with education of girls/women" and "improved attitude ofgirls/women towards education of females" are second and third respectively. On theother hand, "establishment of special schools for girls" and "differential cut-off pointsfor admission into schools (in favour of girls)" are among the lowest success factorson the table.

The get- rich -quick syndrome

In the eastern region of Nigeria, particularly Anambra, Imo, Enugu and AbiaStates, there appears to be an urge to get rich quick among the young malesincluding those of primary and secondary school age. A good number og these boyshave' therefore abandoned school for one business or the other. Most of the early

34

school leavers indicated that they prefer to be in business because of the quickfinancial reward associated with it. Perhaps, in this period of economic hardship,these early school leavers and the other respondents feel that it is not worth itspending many years in school when a typical university graduate in the country (ifhe is lucky to be employed) cannot afford good feeding and modest shelter forhimself, how much more for other members of the family. In the course of thefocused group discussion, the respondents had argued that since the Igbo societyexpects a man to bear the financial burden of a family which is enormous these days,it is better for the man to spend most of his time on activities that provide quickfinancial returns. A good proportion of the respondents (69%) had indicated that partof the money they generate from trading is used in training their wives and girls inschool up to the university level. According to them, a girl can afford to spend most ofher time in school since a good education is considered necessary for a girl to copewith her responsibilities in the society (e.g. attracting a capable man as husband,care-giving for children and aged parents, etc). It would thus appear that most familyunits in the region (including the families where their males leave school early to starta trade) encourage their girls and women/wives to enrol in school and get a fair shareof the much education can provide.

Parents' Awareness of Social and Economic Gains Associated with Educationof Girls/Women

There is a high level of awareness among parents concerning the social andeconomic gain associated with the education of girls and women. Most of the parents(86%) share the view that to get married to a man considered capable by theirimmediate society, a girl needs to acquire at least a secondary school education.Such a girl, they argue, is also likely to be employed for a salary (which they think isgood enough for a woman but not for a man). In their opinion, the education of awoman has direct positive influence on her capacity to care for children as well asaged parents within the family. It thus appears that parents in the study location arepositively disposed towards the education of girls and women and they seem tosupport it inspite of their meagre resources, probably because of the fore-mentionedbenefits associated with an educated girl/woman.

Improved attitude of girls/women towards Education of females

The attitude of girls and women towards the education of females appears tohave improved over the years. As shown in tables 4.1, 95% of the respondentsshared the view that such an improved attitude is one of the success factorsassociated with the education of girls and women in the region. Such a result willencourage the efforts of those implementing the women Education Programme in thefour states investigation; since one of the programme objectives (as stipulated in theBlue Print on Women Education in Nigeria) is, to improve the attitude of girls/Womentowards education. The females, perhaps, have come to appreciate that men in theregion, including those who had only primary school education, prefer to marryfemales who had, at least secondary school education. It thus seems that the girlsstrive to enrol in school because they want to increase their chance of gettingmarried to capable men, among other things; while the women/wives enrol in parttime programmes in education because they want to increase their value (worth)within the family circles and the society.

35

Negative Attitude of Parents Towards Education of Boys

Another success factor is "negative attitude of parents towards the education ofboys". In the course of the focused group discussion, the participants shared the viewthat parents that are facing economic hardship are likely to be disposed towards theirboys embarking on a business venture that brings quick financial reward for thefamily. They however indicated that such parents would tend to use some of themoney generated by the males to support the education of the female children.

It has been indicated that the "urge to get quick among the young males" isranked first among the success factors. The investigators, however, contend that theintensity of such urge would be more in families that expenence economic hardshipand negative attitude of parents towards education of boys. Naturally, the youngmales from poor families would want to uplift their families beyond poverty level. Assuch, they would leave school early to start activities (e.g. trading) that provide quickfinancial returns to the families.

Influence of Christian Religion

The two major religions in Nigeria are Christianity and Islam. In terms ofgeographical spread, Northern Nigeria has more Muslims than Christians, while inWestern Nigeria, muslims and christians are about the same in population. In theseplaces because of the strong presence of Islam, the activities of girls and women areregulated by the norms of Islamic religion and these restrict the presence ofgirls/women in public places (including schools), and their contact with men(including male teachers). Typical moslem tends to have conservative attitude togirls/women in general and western education in particular. They perceive the typicalschool environment as a place of promiscuity where boys and girls live togetherusually under the authority of a male teacher. This type of religious orientation doesnot augur well for education of girls and women.

The situation is however different in the eastern states of Nigeria particularlyAnambra, Imo, Abia, and Enugu state where, for all practical purposes, practisingmuslims are less than 1% of the population. There has therefore been a strongchristian influence on the educational development of the religion. It is common tofind christian organisations in the region supporting and promoting the education ofgirls and women directly (e.g. by building schools and training centres for girls andwomen), as well as indirectly (e.g. through workshops, conferences and seminarsarranged by the christian women organisations). The seminars/conferences tend toconstitute fora for enlightenment of the church members on the importance ofeducating their daughters and wives; while the workshops tend to focus on teachinggirls and women some relevant skills on home management and care-giving forchildren and aged relatives. It is therefore explicable that the influence of christianreligion is ranked among the success factors that are associated with ensuring equityin the education of males and females in the region.

36

Negative Attitude of Parents and Girls towards Early Marriage

The culture of early marriage(girls being involved in marriage at the age of 13years and below). Appears not to be popular among the contemporary Igbos and theeastern state of Nigeria. In a society characterised by high awareness amongparents about the social and economic gains associated with the education of girls/women and positive attitude of girls/women towards education; where christianity isthe dominant religion of the people and men (including those who had no secondaryeducation) prefer to marry girls who had at least secondary school education, it isexpected that the culture of early marriage will be highly discouraged.

These, perhaps, explain the study result that a good proportion of therespondents (90%) consider "discouragement of early marriage" as one of theimportant success factors associated with ensuring equity in the education of malesand females in the region.

High Status of Educated Women in Igbo Society

The Igbo society accords respect to men and women who have achieved invarious fields of endeavour; and usually an achieved status is much more respectedthan an inherited one. One of the fields where women have achieved is education.There are women graduates (from the universities) in all aspects of learning:medicine, engineering, social science, liberal arts, education, physical sciences,biological sciences, agriculture and forestry, etc. These women are highly respectedwithin their family/village/town circles. Girls and less educated women look up tothem to direct the various women organisations/meetings that exist at the differentlevels of the society. The girls and the less educated women also perceive thesewomen achievers in education as models. It is thus explicable that the respondentsconsidered the "high status accorded to educated women in Igbo society" as one ofthe success factors associated with ensuring equity in the education of men andwomen within the region.

Strategy of Each-One-each-One or Fund the Education of One Relative

In the early 90s, the Federal Ministry of Education launched operation "EachOne-Teach-One or Fund the Teaching of One Relative". This programme/strategyseemed to have encouraged female access to education within the eastern region ofNigeria as reported in Table 4.1. The strategy and its publicity seem to havesensitized most parents in the region on the need to provide basic formal educationfor all their children. As revealed during the focused group discussion, parents thesedays do not tend to allow their daughters to serve as househelp unless the girls willbe sent to school or provided with the opportunity to learn a skill for self reliancewhile rendering services to the families in question. However, most master trainerswithin the region tend to insist that a potential apprentice needs at least primaryschool education as a prerequisite to succeed in the training programme. Thisscenario must have encouraged the new wave of evening primary and secondaryschools in the region. As observed by Ibiam (1992), most evening schools inAnambra and Enugu states are dominated by females most of whom are househelpsof one sort or the other.

37

Nearness of Schools of Most Homes

As a result of community/neighbourhood schools built through the efforts ofeach community, the number of schools appear to be so many especially when oneconsiders the little land mass of the four states that make up the study location. Forinstance in Anambra state, every autonomous community has at least a secondaryschool. Usually, one finds a co-educational type of secondary school in thesecommunities particularly the rural communities. Next in the priority is a girls school,while the boys secondary school is mainly associated with urban communities mostof which have many secondary schools. It could thus be said that school location inthe states are within walking distance of most family homes. This situation, perhapshas emboldened parents to allow their girls walk for long distance to school. Inaddition, the girls can now undertake some household chores in the morning, attendschool early and still return early enough to further help their parents at home. Itcould be in the light of these that the respondents considered "nearness of schools tomost homes" as one of the success factors associated with ensuring equity in theeducation of males and females in the region.

Differential Cut-off Points for School Admission

The government of the states under investigation operate a gender-biasedpolicy on admission into secondary schools in higher institutions. The policy is suchthat differential cut off points are used for admission (girls having lower cut off pointthan boys). Thus, it is easier for a girl to be selected for a programme than a boyprovided the girl has the basic entry requirements. The subjects in this study mighthave realised this and thus considered the "use of differential cut off points for schooladmission" as one of the success factors.

Establishment of Special Schools for Girls

The result that "establishment of special schools for girls" is a success factor isapplicable considering that the government of the four states (as part of their effortsto attract girls/women into science-related professions) established some specialscience secondary schools for girls. These schools are special in the sense that theyoffer only science subject (including mathematics) and they are more equipped forscience teaching and learning than the normal schools (which offer science and nonscience subjects). This is an extra educational opportunity for the girls since they arealso considered for admission (along side with the boys) into the normal secondaryschools.

Impact of Gender Equity in Education on Political, Economic, Social andEducational Development

Several factors have been associated with the success of attaining equity inthe education of males and females in the study location. The factors border oneconomic, socio-cultural and specific policies in education. In this section, attentionare made to present the perceived impacts of gender equity in education on political,social, economic and educational development of the region.

38

Table 4.2 presents a summary of the response from the questionnaires andinterviews conducted, showing the frequency with which each point was made.

Table 4.2Impact of Gender Equity in Education on Political, Economic, Social and

Educational Development

IMPACT FREQUENCY PERCENTAGEImpact on Political Development

1. Improves females awareness and 71participation in politics 766

2. Reduces political manipulation andexploitation 680 63

3. Reduces male dominance of politicalpower 615 57

Impact on Economic Development

1. Aids economic growth/power 885 82

2. Makes people to be aware ofeconomic opportunities in the region 799 74

3. Increases the chances fully tappingavailable economic resources 712 66

Impact on Social Development

1. Accelerates social development 691 64

2. Aids provision of equal opportunity forsocial development 615 57

3. Improves the status of women 604 56

4. Reduces social demand on the men 550 51

Impact on Educational Development

1. Reduces the educational gap betweenmales and females 896 83

2. Improves total manpower production 864 80

3. Reduces educational wastage 788 73

39

Political Development

As reported in table 4.2 the balance in the education of boys and girls (interms of access) seem to have a positive influence on the political development ofthe region. This is because the increased female participation in education is likely tomake the females more politically aware than before. With an improved level ofpolitical awareness, this females are likely to participate more actively in the politicaldevelopment of the region. As a result, less people in the region will be prone topolitical exploitation and manipulation that is usually associated with illiterate andignorant electorate. In addition the tendency for educated males to dominate theinstrument of bureaucratic power and thus perpetuate themselves in positions ofauthority/leadership will be highly reduced since the females now participate as muchas the males in education.

Economic Development

The development of human resources in a region is expected to aid economicdevelopment of the region. This situation is hinged on the following reasons, amongothers:(i) Education is the basic tool for mobilisation and active participation in modern

sector economy; and(ii) It is the educated individuals, because of their knowledge of the modern sector

of economic opportunities existing in the region, that can positively participatein the dynamics of economic development of the region. It is thus explicablethat the respondents in the present study share the view that the improvedfemale participation in education in the region (to a point of ensuring genderequity) has aided economic empowerment and growth of the region, mademore people to be aware of the economic opportunities within the region to befully tapped.

Social Development

The balance in the education of males and females seem to aid socialdevelopment in the region (see Table 4.2). This result could be explained consideringthat in Nigeria, one of the elements of social superstructure is education (westerneducation). Thus, the more western education an individual acquires, the morechances he/she has to move upwardS along the social ladder. There is also a direct relationship between social mobilityand dynamics of economic development. Thus, social and economic factors interactto create a disparity between the way of life of those who acquired western educationand those who did not.

It is also given that in cases where more people become educated, perhaps asa result of increased women/girls participation in education, the socio-economicdemands on the initially few educated men are likely to be reduced. This is becausethe educated men and women in a family (who are now more in number) are likely toshare the responsibilities of catering for he fewer illiterate and ignorant members ofthe family. In the course of the focused group discussion, the participants indicatedthat educated wives uplift the image of the husbands not just economically but also

40

socially. These days, the average male trader in the region who did not completesecondary school education is keen on marrying a graduate of any of the higherinstitutions (Polytechnic/College of Education/University) because of the benefitsassociated. with the improvement of social status of the man and his family members.

Educational Development

The state of balance in the education of males and females in the region isassociated with improved females participation in education (see Table 4.2). It is thusexplicable that the study respondents perceived that such a state of balance would ,reduce the educational gaps between males and females, improve total manpowerproduction and reduce educational wastage in the region.

CONSTRAINTS TO GENDER EQUITY IN EDUCATION

A list of factors militating against equity in the education of boys and girls inthe region is reported in Table 4.3. The Table in addition shows the frequency andpercentage of respondents who agreed that each listed factor is militating againstefforts to ensure a balance between the education of boys and girls in the studylocation. In all, a total of five factors are identified and these are represented in Table4.3 in descending order of occurrence.

Table 4.3.Constraints to Gender Equity in Education

CONSTRAINTS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

1. Lack of finance to educate all children inthe family 961 89

I

12. Relative high cost of educating a girl 896 83

1 3. Perceived wasteful nature of education ofgirls 378 35

4. Conservative attitude of the roles of girls!

and women 118 11

As can be seen from the Table "lack of finance to educate all children in thefamily" is top on the list, while the "belief that it is a waste educating a girl who ongetting married joins other family/tow" and the "high cost of educating a girl relative toa boy" are listed as second and third respectively. A close observation of theseconstraints however would reveal that they arise mainly from economic hardship

41

facing most families in the face of cultural realities of the Igbo society. There is acurriculum dimension to the constraints identified.

Lack of Finance to Educate all Children in the Family

It is becoming increasingly costly to educate a child especially at thesecondary school level. Parents are expected to pay fees and several levies. Theyare also to provide textbooks most of which are usually costly. In the course of theinterview and the focused group discussion the participants expressed the view thatyhe average parent, particularly those in rural areas may have enough fund to caterfor the educational requirements of all the children in the family. It is thus likely thatparents who have many children (and most Nigerian parents tend to have at leastfive children) may not have enough finance for the education of all the children. Intheir attempt to train some of the children in school, some of the girls may not becatered for.

Relative High Cost of Educating a Girl

The impact of the above scenario becomes particularly meaningful when oneconsiders that most of the respondents (83%) indicated that the "education of girlsinvolves more expenses that that of boys". It is thus easier for a typical family withlimited resources to prefer the training of a boy in school to that of a girl. It is in thelight of this perhaps, that the extra cost associated with educating females could be aconstraint in the education of girls and women.

Perceived Wasteful Nature of Education of Girls

Again some repondents (35%) still perceive that investment in the education ofgirls is a waste of resources especially at the university level. In the course of thefocused group discussion, it was noted that these parents had such perceptionbecause(i) the girls join other families/towns when they get married, and(ii) the time spent by the girls in school could be invested in domestic work or paid

employment.

It is likely that such perceptions would reduce the tendency for these parents to traintheir female children in schools.

Inadequate Nature of School Curriculum

Another constraint borders on the adequate nature of the school curriculum.This view is based on the fact that a good proportion borders on the inadequatenature of the school curriculum. This view is based on the fact that a good proportionof the respondents (31 %) noted that the school curriculum and learning experiencesdo not take into consideration some productive activities carried out by girls/women(e.g. needle work, home management, care giving, etc.). It is thus means that,perhaps, the education of girls and women in the region would receive a boost if theschool curriculum and learning experiences are reorganised to accommodate theproductive activities that are associated with girls and women in Igbo society.

42

Conservative Attitude Towards the Roles of Girls and Women

The study result that some respondents (11 %) exhibit conservation attitudetowards the roles of girls and women provides a cultural dimension to the constraintsidentified. These respondents expressed the view that the special place for girls andwomen is in the kitchen and that their responsibilities are to bear and rear children,look after their husbands and engage in domestic chores for the comfort of theirhusbands and children. It is likely that individuals which have such conservativeorientation towards the roles of girls and women will not be enthusiastic aboutfunding or encouraging the education of girls and women. It is in the light of this thatconservative attitude towards the roles of women/girls could militate against efforts toensure equity in the education of males and females in the region.

43

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study provides; in chapter one to three; detailed analyses of the statusand dynamics of female enrolments in formal and non formal educational institutions.To explain the status and dynamic shifts in enrolments; chapter four focused onsuccess factors; impact and constraints associated with equity in the education ofmales and females. In this chapter, is presented, a summary of major findings andrecommendation for policy formulation.

Major Findings

Prior to the inception of UPE in 1976/77 school year, females accounted foronly 44.6 percent of gross enrolment in primary schools. Female enrolmentincreased by 3.2 percent in the first year of UPE. However in 1980/81 school year.that is, five years of UPE, female enrolment peaked at 50.1 percent. Essentiallyequitable access of females to primary education was achieved in 1981 in theEastern region.

Female enrolment ratio for the year 1992 to 1995 ranged between 50-52percent, with an average of 51 percent. In effect more girls than boys were enrolledin primary school in the region between 1992 and 1995.

There was visible evidence of expansion in the provision of females' access tosecondary education. States in the region recorded an average of 53 percent femaleenrolment in 1983, which ranged between 53 percent and 59 percent up to 1994.Generally female enrolment was dynamic in a positive sense. As it seems; policymeasures and practices were able to sustain the ratio attained in 1983.

Enrolment in Technical and Vocational Education Institutions represented only15.9 percent in 1993. The region made phenomenal increase in female enrolmentbetween 1986 and 1989. In point of fact enrolment increased from 22 percent in 1986to 48 percent in 1987, representing 118 percent. At the end of 1987, femaleenrolment and participation in Technical Education was only 2 percent short ofequ itable representation.

The striking observation from the statistics on Technical and VocationalEducation is the dynamics in numeral gains in 1989 in which females in every 100students enrolled in technical institutions in 1987, 93 out of every 100 students insuch institutions were females in 1989.

The status and dynamics of enrolment in Colleges of Education show thatfemales are predominantly more than men, a case of "beyond equity" participation,even in the years of rapid decline in enrolment.

Female enrolment in polytechnics showed a steady growth from 1985 andpeaked in 1989 at 66 percent. However, enrolment declined progressively from 1991to 1994.

44

At the University level female enrolment is very poor, with a range of 32percent to 37 percent. Numerical gains represent only 4 percent over a period of fiveyears.

Females dominated adult literacy programmes in the region. Although thegrowth rate does not reveal a definite pattern, female enrolment ranged from 59percent to 67 percent between 1983 and 1994.

Success Factors, Impact and Constraints

The study identified eleven factors that are associated with the success ofattaining equity in the education of males and females in the region. The factorsborder on economic, socio-cultural and specific policies in education.

More specially, they include:

.:. The urge to get rich quick among the young males. This makes the males to optfor trading (which provides quick financial returns) instead of schooling .

•:. Parents' awareness of social and economic gains associated with education ofgirls and women .

•:. Improved attitude of girls and women towards education of females .

•:. Negative attitude of parents towards education of boys.

•:. Supportive influence of christian religion on education of boys.

•:. Supportive influence of christian religion on education of girls and women .

•:. Negative attitude of girls and parents towards early marriage.

•:. High status of education women in Igbo society.

•:. Strategy of each-one-teach-one or fund the education of one relative .

•:. Differential cut-off points for school admission .

•:. Establishment of special schools for girls.

In addition, the study results showed some impact of gender equity in education on:

Political development of the region.

improves females awareness and participation in politicsreduces political manipulation and exploitationreduces male dominance of political power

45

Economic development of the region

aids economic growth/powermakes people to be aware of economic opportunities in the regionincrease the chances of fully tapping available economic resources

Social development in the region

accelerates social developmentaids the provision of equal opportunities for social developmentimproves the status of womenreduces social demand on the men

Educational development of the region

reduces educational gap between males and femalesimproves total manpower productionreduces educational wastage.

The study also identified five major constraints arise mainly fromeconomic hardship experience by most families in the face of cultural realitiesof the Igbo society. There is a curriculum dimension to the constraintsidentified.

More specifically, the constraints include:

.:. Lack of finance to'educate all children in the family

.:. Relative high cost of educating a girl

.:. Inadequate nature of school curriculum

.:. Conservation attitude towards the roles of girls and women.

Recommendations

Improve on the existing data base in the region particularly as it concernspopulation of males and females (at various age levels) and educational statistics(enrolment, retention, success, etc.). The data should be computerised at the localgovernment and state levels as well as !n various educational institutions. A gooddata base will enhance the educational planning processes with a view to ensuringgender equity in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions.

Increase the promotion of girls and women educational enlightenment. Effortsshould be made through public enlightenment to remove the perception that it iswasteful to educate a girl. The public enlightenment should also be geared towardschanging the conservative attitude of people towards the roles of girls and women inthe society.Awareness campaign should be stepped up an sustained to dissuade:

(a) young males from leaving secondary school early to learn a trade; and

46

(b) parents from encouraging their boys to start trading during secondary schoolage

The legislation on street children, child abuse and other practices that tend todistract children from primary and secondary school education should be enforced.

The various levels for government (Federal, State and Local Government)should enunciate special policy, with budgetary provisions for its execution, on theeducation of children from low income families, rural children, the handicapped andstreet children particularly females. This, perhaps, would ease the problemsassociated with "lack of finance to educate all children in the family" and "therelative high cost of educating a girl".

Improve the relevance of primary and secondary school curriculum to suit theproductive activities carried out by girls and women in the society.

Encourage a periodic study of gender equity in education with a view ofidentifying problem areas that would require special attention in order to 'ensure abalance in the education of men and women in the region.

Faithful implementation of existing policies that are meant to encourage theeducation of females particularly at the polytechnics and universities where thefemales: males ratio is about 1:2. The effectiveness of such policies should beassessed periodically.

Funding agencies should ensure greater supervision of any funds that areprovided for encouraging girls and women participation in education.

Machineries should be set in place to ensure de-bureaucratisation ofprogrammes that encourage the education of girls and women.

47

Friedman A. 1992In Nkechi Mbanefoh:

Hamadache A. 1990

Ibiam A.C. 1992

Nigeria

Obanya, Pai 1985

United Nations Statistical

World Bank 1989

World Bank 1993a

Yoloye E.A. et al. 1987

REFERENCES

Access of Girls to Primary and Basic Education inNigeria, Dakar, 1994

Literacy, Human Rights and Peace UNESCO,International Bureau of Education Geneva,20 Switzerland

Evening and Day School Systems in AnambraState, Nigeria. Unpublished B. Ed. Project.Abia State University Uturu.

National Policy on Education, Federal Ministry ofEducation, 1981

Growth and Development in Nigerian Educationsince Independence in Kadoye and Usman (Eds).The Economic and Social Development of Nigeria.Vo!. 11, pp. 183-201.

Office 1990. United Nations Women's Indicatorsand Statistic spreadsheet Data base formicrocomputers WISTAT Version 2 New York.

Nigeria Primary Education Subsector study Report1989.

World Development and Re port 1993 New York,Oxford University Press.

Educational Imbalance in Nigeria, Final ReportVo!. I and II

48

APPENDIX I

Interview Schedule on Gender Equity in Education

SECTION A

Please, provide tJ1e following information on the interviewee:

1. Official designation: ~

2. Sex: ~

3. State of origin:~

5. Occupation~

SECTION B

1. Do you think there is balance (in terms of access and retention) in theeducation of boys and girls in the state?

2. If No, who is attracted to school more? The boys or the girls?

3. If Yes, what do you consider to be the major reasons for the balance in .theeducation of boys and girls?

4. In what ways has the balance affected the state in terms of

political development

economic development

social development

educational development

5. Are you aware of any policie3 at the state level that are aimed at ensuringbalance in the education of boys and girls with respect to (collect copies ofwritten policies)

financial allocation

admission to educational institution

establishment of schools

49

employmentothers

6. Are you aware of any practices that are being executed at the state level toensure balance in the education of boys and girls with respect to

financial allocation

admission to educational institution

establishment of schools

employment

others

7. To what extent are the practices being executed to ensure the balance?

8. What are you own suggestions for ensuring balance in the education of boysand girls?

Interviewer

50

Date

APPENDIX 11

Questionnaire on Factors Associated with Gender Equity in Education

SECTION A

Please, provide the following information on the interviewee:

1. Official designation: -----------------------.~

2. Sex: ------------------------------.~

3. State:

4. Occupation and status

SECTION B

The nine reasons (item) provide could have helped in ensuring balance in theeducation of boys and girls in the state.

Please indicate the extent to which you agree/disagree with each item.

ITEM SA A 0 SO1. Supportive influence of christian religion on

education of girls and women.

2. Improve attitudes of girls / women towardseducation of females.

3. Urge to get rich quick among young males.

4. Differential cut-offs points for schooladmission.

5. Establishment of special schools for girls.6. High status of educated women in Igbo

society.7. Parents' awareness of social and economic

gains associated education of girls / women.

8. Negative attitude of parents towardseducation of boys.

9. Negative attitude of parents towards earlymarriage.

51

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