The Black Church and Millennial Philanthropy: Influences on College Student Prosocial Behaviors at a Church-Affiliated Black College

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The Black Church and MillennialPhilanthropy: Influences on CollegeStudent Prosocial Behaviors at a Church-Affiliated Black CollegeNoah D. Drezner aa University of Maryland , College Park , USA

To cite this article: Noah D. Drezner (2013) The Black Church and Millennial Philanthropy: Influenceson College Student Prosocial Behaviors at a Church-Affiliated Black College, Christian HigherEducation, 12:5, 363-382

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CHRISTIAN HIGHER EDUCATION, 12(5), 363–382, 2013Copyright C© Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1536-3759 print/1539-4107 onlineDOI: 10.1080/15363759.2013.824813

The Black Church and Millennial Philanthropy: Influenceson College Student Prosocial Behaviors

at a Church-Affiliated Black College

Noah D. DreznerUniversity of Maryland, College Park, USA

Colleges and universities are increasingly relying on philanthropic contributions to allow them tocontinue to provide high-quality education. Christian higher education is no different. African Amer-icans give a larger percentage of their disposable income to nonprofits than any other racial group; thisgiving is primarily directed to the Black church. Limited literature addresses Black giving to highereducation, and even less focuses on fundraising for church-affiliated Black colleges and universities.As part of a larger case study of the United Negro College Fund’s (UNCF) National Pre-AlumniCouncil (NPAC), this research examined how African Americans in the millennial generation thinkabout and choose to act philanthropically and the role that Black colleges and the African Americanchurch play in the cultivation of these behaviors. The findings in this article draw upon a case studydataset of interviews with 21 students and four NPAC advisors from 13 UNCF institutions, represent-ing one third of the member colleges. More specifically, this article focuses on the document analysisand interviews of four students from Tougaloo College. This work is supported by and advances ourunderstanding of the theoretical literature surrounding philanthropy, fund-raising, prosocial behavior,and the involvement of religion, specifically the Black church, on giving within African Ameri-can communities. Beyond adding to the scholarly discourse, this paper offers recommendations forpractice to increase prosocial behaviors of college students at religiously affiliated institutions.

Religions throughout the world ask their followers to give of themselves to benefit others.Forms of giving include both service and monetary offerings. These “requirements” are ap-plicable to all who follow their respective religions—not only the most wealthy. Even be-fore the founding of the United States, religion played an influential role in philanthropy;the first gifts to education, health care, and the support for those in need of assistance weresolicited by clergy or on behalf of the church (Curti & Nash, 1965). However, as highereducation fundraising became more professionalized in the second half of the 20th century,the clergy’s involvement in direct fundraising waned (Drezner, 2011). Within the growingliterature on philanthropy and fundraising related to American higher education, researchershave paid little attention to the contemporary influence of religion on giving to colleges anduniversities.

Address correspondence to Noah D. Drezner, University of Maryland, College Park, Department of Counseling,Higher Education, and Special Education, Center for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Leadership, 3205 Benjamin Building,College Park, MD 20742. E-mail: [email protected]

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LITERATURE REVIEW

Giving to Higher Education

Philanthropy, once seen as a means to a margin of excellence in American higher education, isnow central to the essential functions of most colleges and universities (Council for FinancialAid to Education [CFAE], 1973; Drezner, 2010, 2011; Hall, 1992; Leslie & Ramey, 1988;Walton, Gasman, Huehls, Wells, & Drezner, 2008). Without the voluntary dollars provided bydonors that supplement tuition and other sources of institutional income, universities wouldnot be able to meet their fiscal obligations, academic, and cocurricular goals. Voluntary giving,through unrestricted annual giving programs, comprises 10% of current operations at the nation’scolleges and universities (Drezner, 2011). However, when combined with income includinginterest from endowments, which reflect prior voluntary support, this percentage increasesdramatically at some institutions. Total voluntary contributions to colleges and universities fell11.9% from 2008 to 2009, from $31.60 billion to $27.85 billion (Council for Aid to Education[CAE], 2010a). This decline is the steepest decline ever recorded for giving to higher education(CAE, 2010b). Ann E. Kaplan, director of the Voluntary Support of Education survey conductedby CAE, noted that fiscal year “2009 was a difficult year for colleges and universities and,indeed, also for the individuals and institutions that care about them” (CAE, 2010b, p. 2). It iswithin this context that the influence of the church and religion on Millennial generation givingto a religiously affiliated historically Black college is examined. The following sections explorethe current state of alumni giving and fundraising at Historically Black Colleges and Universities(HBCUs), giving for religious causes, specifically the African American church, and finally, thegiving differences among generations of donors.

Contemporary Alumni Giving and Fundraising at HBCUs

Levels of alumni giving vary across institutions and institutional types, size, and affiliation. TheCouncil for Aid to Education’s annual Voluntary Support of Education (VSE) survey reportsthat private liberal arts colleges rely on alumni support for 22.3% of their budget (2004). Thispercentage has risen as a result of the great recession and shrinking endowments and state supportof higher education (Drezner, 2011). In 2006, only 52 of the 105 HBCUs reported their alumniparticipation rates to either the VSE or U.S. News & World Report. Of the HBCUs that reportedalumni participation, giving rates ranged from 1% to 38%. These percentages are consistentwith other findings. In Gasman and Anderson-Thompkins’s 2003 study, 53 historically or pre-dominantly African American institutions reported alumni participation; half of the institutionsreported that 10% or fewer of the alumni donated funds. In recent years, a larger percentage ofHBCUs have begun to report alumni participation rates. Gasman and Bowman (2012) reportedparticipation rates from 73 institutions (70% of all HBCUs), ranging from 0.1% (University ofthe District of Columbia) to 50% (Alabama A&M), with 45 institutions reporting participationat or below 10%.

Voluntary support of all segments of American higher education is necessary for its continuedsuccess. This necessity is no different for HBCUs. However, some argue that the need for increasedalumni giving and engagement is even more imperative for the continued existence of HBCUs(Gasman & Bowman, 2012). In 2010, John S. Wilson, then-executive director of the White

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House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities and newly installed presidentof Morehouse College (an American Baptist Home Mission Society-affiliated HBCU for men)stated, “Whereas building larger endowments [at HBCUs] is key, there is also an immediate needto build the kind of operational and academic ‘scaffolding’ required for institutional robustnessin areas related and conductive to endowment growth” (as cited in Gasman & Bowman, 2012,p. ix). For HBCUs to remain successful and competitive, these institutions must increase theirendowments and their ability to raise annual funds. In actuality, historically Black colleges donot raise as much for operational needs or endowment funds as their predominantly Whitecounterparts (Gasman & Bowman, 2012; Gasman & Drezner, 2007; Yates, 2001).

Additionally, HBCU alumni participation lags behind alumni participation rates at traditionallyWhite institutions (Drezner & Gupta, 2012; Gasman & Anderson-Thompkins, 2003; Gasman &Bowman, 2012; Voluntary Support of Education Survey, 2012). According to the most recentVSE survey, alumni participation for all of American higher education averaged 10.7% in fiscalyear 2011, representing a steady decline in participation over the past decade. During the sameyear, alumni participation across HBCUs was 6.4%. These lower alumni participation rates mightbe the result of alumni misconceptions about the needs of their alma mater, including the myththat HBCUs are funded significantly by the state and federal governments (Gasman & Anderson-Thompkins, 2003; Yates, 2001), as well as corporate and foundation giving (Drezner, 2005; Yates2001). Beyond these misconceptions about HBCU needs, Black colleges often have much lessstaffing for advancement—sometimes half or less—than their predominately White peers (Ayers& Associates, 2002; Gasman & Bowman, 2012). Smaller staffs make it more difficult to engageand solicit alumni, adding to the challenge of raising funds and increasing alumni participationrates.

Giving in the African American Church

Although each religion and culture approaches giving differently, philanthropic giving is impor-tant within all religions. Within the Black church and predominantly African American congre-gations, giving takes on an additional role of racial uplift through religion itself and beyond theconfines of the church (Carson, 1990b, 1993, 2001, 2005).

Racial Uplift

Racial uplift is the use of both individual and collective agency within a minority communityto help advance the race within the larger majority society (Anderson, 1988; Drake & Cayton,1945/1993; Perkins, 1981). The ways in which racial uplift has been manifested within AfricanAmerican communities has changed over time. During the 18th and 19th centuries, racial upliftwas viewed as “organized social activities consciously designed to raise the status of the groupas a whole” (Drake & Cayton, p. 716). During slavery, these racial uplift efforts included thecreation and support of mutual aid and benevolent societies—forms of early African Americanphilanthropy—that helped Blacks support themselves in times of economic crisis (Perkins). Theminutes of the 1879 National Negro Conference at Nashville, Tennessee, describe this need of thenewly-freed slaves to help themselves: “We are to an extent the architects of our own fortune, andmust rely mainly upon our own exertions for success” (Meier, 1963, p. 44). After emancipation,

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racial uplift efforts included the struggle to educate the newly freed slaves for active citizenship(Anderson, 1988).

Black elites viewed racial uplift differently in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. No longerwas racial uplift the collective struggle for equal citizenship rights; rather, it became an individualeffort to continue to enhance Black Americans’ status within American society (Gaines, 1996).Racial uplift still exists within African American communities. Today, racial uplift is viewedas relating to how individual members of the community can help one another through theirown success and actions. In other words, modern racial uplift emphasizes the responsibilityof the Black upper and middle classes to use their resources to advance the larger AfricanAmerican communities (Drake & Cayton, 1945/1993). Throughout history—including today—the Black church has played an important role in fostering and encouraging actions of racial uplift(Anderson, 1988; Butler-Mokoro, 2010; Gasman, Drezner, Epstein, Freeman, & Avery, 2011).

Racial Uplift as a Motivation for Philanthropic Giving Within the Black Church

While looking at African American participation in the church, Ellison and Sherkat (1995)observed, “Throughout American history, the Black church has occupied a distinctive position inthe individual and collective lives of African Americans” (p. 1415). One form of this “distinctiveposition” is the fundraising ability of the church. Whether the request for support was for thechurch itself or for other causes deemed important by the church leadership, the power of churchmembers is great. Carson (2001) summarized:

African Americans understand the role of the Black church—especially in the area of fundraising islegendary. We [African Americans] recognize that the Black church puts the force of authority andlegitimacy behind its appeals to reach givers in the Black community. (p. 4)

Throughout the civil rights movement and beyond, the Black church was viewed as one ofthe most effective institutions at promoting the social needs of its congregants (Hurst Adams,1985). Research has documented that African Americans often look to the church for advocacy,guidance, and the promotion of social needs within the community (Ellison & Sherkat, 1995).Lawrence Jones (1982) articulated, “In point of fact, no institution or organization seeking tomake an impact in Black communities could do so without the support of and cooperation of thechurches” (p. 403).

Jones (1982) points to the historic connection between Black church denominations and thedevelopment and support of Black schools, acknowledging the power and agency of the clergy inraising money to establish and support Black colleges and schools. By 1900, Baptist bodies weresupporting some 980 schools and 18 academies and colleges. The African Methodist Episcopal(A.M.E.) Church raised more than $1 million for educational purposes between 1884 and 1900and supported 22 institutions providing education above the elementary level. According to Jones,the A.M.E. Zion church at the beginning of the 20th century was supporting eight colleges and/orinstitutes, while the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church (now Christian Methodist EpiscopalChurch) had established five schools during its first 35-year history (1870–1905) (p. 404).

Holloman, Gasman, and Anderson-Thompkins (2003) advocate that historically Black collegesand universities of today need to learn from the fundraising ability and strategies within theAfrican American church and that HBCU leaders should engage local ministers, “asking them topersonally endorse their colleges” (p. 161). However, few scholars have considered the influence

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of the Black church on student philanthropic involvement at HBCUs. The research describedbelow has sought to address this gap.

Those who attend African American churches are taught from a young age to participatephilanthropically (Gasman et al., 2011; Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). Billingsley and HowardCaldwell (1992) reported that more than two thirds of African Americans believed that thechurch “was a very important institution in their early childhood socialization” (p. 428). Further,Lincoln and Mamiya (1990) found that through messages of spiritual, social, and political uplift,clergy motivate congregants’ participation. Research funded by the Lilly Foundation (1998)determined that nearly all members of historically Black churches (96%) thought that they had anobligation to give and 85% believed that their obligation was at least 10% of their income. Giventhis commitment to philanthropy, this study explores the Black church’s influence on givingamong students at a church-affiliated HBCU.

Giving Across the Generations

Differences in levels of generosity across generations have been noted in several studies. Forexample, Steinberg and Wilhelm (2003), using data from the Council on Philanthropy PanelStudy, found the prewar generation (born before 1945) to be more generous than Generation X(born between 1965 and 1981), even after controlling for wealth and other differences. Usingconstant dollars, the prewar generation annually donated $1,764 per person, Baby Boomers (bornbetween 1945 and 1964) $1,254, and Generation X $1,100. In other words, Generation X wasfound to be about one-third less generous than the prewar generation. At the time of the Steinbergand Wilhelm study, the first wave of the Millennial generation (those born between 1982 and 2001)was approaching college graduation and, therefore, was not included in the study. Interestingly,nearly a third of Generation X first learned about the nonprofit organization that they deemed astheir highest priority during their childhood (Bhagat, Loeb, & Rovner, 2010).

Nearly 10 years later, little is known about Millennials’ giving, perhaps because of theiryoung age and life situation. According to the Center on Philanthropy at Indiana University, theMillennial generation was more likely than any other generation to cite the “desire to make theworld a better place to live” as a key motivator for their philanthropic giving. Bhagat et al. (2010)reported that 56% of the Millennial generation are philanthropic donors. Their research foundthat the average Millennial donor gave $341 annually. In 2009, nearly 15% of Millennials gaveat least one gift of $1,000 or more. Additionally, Millennials are known for their volunteering.According to survey findings, teenagers in this generation volunteer on average of 125 hours peryear, nearly double the figure of 10 years prior (Oates, 2004). However, it is important to note thatin the same time period, more and more high schools required community service to graduate.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS STUDY

Historically Black Colleges and Universities, even those that are church-related, rarely receiveattention as religious institutions. The vast majority of academic literature on Christian highereducation focuses on predominantly White, evangelical Christian colleges affiliated with theCouncil for Christian Colleges & Universities (CCCU) or the Association for Biblical HigherEducation (ABHE). Although HBCUs tend to be endorsed by regional accreditation agencies

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rather than religiously affiliated agencies such as the CCCU or ABHE, church-related HBCUsshould not be excluded from the conversations about Christian higher education.

Of the 105 HBCUs, 47 are church-affiliated colleges and universities. Most HBCUs are alignedwith mainline Protestant churches (23), with affiliations to Black/African American churches(14), other Protestant denominations (10), and the Roman Catholic Church (1) comprising theremainder. This breakdown includes one institution (Paine College) that is jointly affiliated withthe United Methodist Church, a mainline Protestant denomination, and the Christian MethodistEpiscopal Church, an African American denomination. Table 1 identifies the denominationalaffiliation of each HBCU. Although none of the HBCUs holds membership in the CCCU orABHE, it is important to understand the continued Christian influence within these institutions.

The Christian church, both through White missionaries and historically Black denominations,has had a major influence on Black colleges and universities. In the establishment of Black collegesin the antebellum, Anderson (1988) found three distinct motivations and groups, two of whichwere religious. White missionaries considered their work as having a “civilizing mission” thatwould help create a class of well-educated Black leaders (p. 241). Black religious organizationsfocused on creating private liberal arts colleges that would provide teacher training and otherlocal needs. White industrial philanthropists considered educating Blacks as a means to create aneducated workforce but ultimately maintain the hierarchal status quo.

Gasman and Drezner (2009) summarized:

Within the uneven and generally out-of-date literature on the history of philanthropy and fundraisingin higher education, there has been much attention paid to White industrial philanthropists and theirsupport of Black colleges during the late 19th and early 20th century. (p. 468)

However, little has been written about the role of the Church either historically or in a contem-porary context in fundraising for Black colleges. Within the two religious groups that Anderson(1988) describes, Black congregants continued to support these Black colleges as Black philan-thropy was strengthened throughout the twentieth century. Black philanthropy from the ante-bellum through today is rooted in mutual aid, self-help, and racial uplift (Carson, 1993; Davis,1975; Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). The Black church and those predominantly Black congrega-tions of historically White Christian denominations emerged in the civil rights era as vehiclesfor Blacks to express their frustrations with racism (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). Within a highereducation context, Leak and Reid (2010) described how the church empowered African Americanself-determination:

Blacks in the South resisted the constraints of de jure segregation by establishing and supportingcolleges and universities that provided educational opportunities while privileging racial uplift. Forgraduates, congregations inspired an ethos of giving back to their alma maters and establishing theirrole as leaders in the project of racial uplift. (p. 242)

Black churches have historically been—and continue today to be—the primary mechanism forcommunicating cultural values within their communities. These values include both racial upliftand philanthropic giving (Holloman et al., 2003). A better understanding of this influence withinthe Millennial generation is warranted, as well as implications for practice.

Given the current financial landscape, administrators must increasingly garner alumni supportto meet financial needs. Thus, additional research on philanthropic giving patterns is merited.Brittingham and Pezzulo (1990) described fund-raising as being “thinly informed by research”

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TABLE 1HBCU Church Affiliation

Institution Founded Religious affiliation

Allen University 1870 African Methodist Episcopal ChurchArkansas Baptist College 1884 BaptistBarber-Scotia College 1867 Presbyterian Church (USA)Benedict College 1870 American Baptist Churches USABennett College 1873 United Methodist ChurchBethune-Cookman University 1904 United Methodist ChurchClaflin University 1869 United Methodist ChurchClark Atlanta University 1865 United Methodist ChurchClinton Junior College 1894 A.M.E. ZionConcordia College, Selma 1922 Lutheran Church - Missouri SynodDillard University 1869 United Church of Christ and the United Methodist ChurchEdward Waters College 1866 African Methodist Episcopal ChurchFisk University 1866 United Church of ChristFlorida Memorial University 1879 American Baptist Churches USAHuston-Tillotson University 1881 United Church of Christ and the United Methodist ChurchInterdenominational Theological Center 1958 InterdenominationalJarvis Christian College 1912 The DisciplesJohnson C. Smith University 1867 Presbyterian Church (USA)Knoxville College 1875 Presbyterian Church (USA)Lane College 1882 Christian Methodist Episcopal ChurchLeMoyne-Owen College 1862 United Church of ChristLivingstone College 1879 A.M.E. ZionMeharry Medical College 1876 United Methodist ChurchMiles College 1905 Christian Methodist Episcopal ChurchMorehouse College 1867 American Baptist Home Mission SocietyMorris Brown College 1881 African Methodist Episcopal ChurchMorris College 1908 Baptist Educational and Missionary ConventionOakwood University 1896 Seventh-day AdventistPaine College 1882 United Methodist Church and Christian Methodist Episcopal

ChurchPaul Quinn College 1872 African Methodist Episcopal ChurchPhilander Smith College 1877 United Methodist ChurchRust College 1866 United Methodist ChurchSaint Paul’s College 1888 Episcopal ChurchSelma University 1878 National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.Shaw University 1865 National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.Southwestern Christian College 1948 Church of ChristSpelman College 1881 American Baptist Home Mission SocietySt. Augustine’s College 1867 Episcopal ChurchTalladega College 1867 United Church of ChristTexas College 1894 Christian Methodist Episcopal ChurchTougaloo College 1869 American Missionary AssociationVirginia Union University 1864 American Baptist Churches USAVirginia University of Lynchburg 1886 BaptistVoorhees College 1897 Episcopal ChurchWilberforce University 1856 African Methodist Episcopal ChurchWiley College 1873 United Methodist ChurchXavier University of Louisiana 1915 Roman Catholic

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TABLE 2Alumni Participation (Voluntary Support of Education Survey, 2012)

All higher Association for Biblical Historically BlackFiscal year education Higher Education Colleges & Universities

2001 16.90% 11.80% 8.20%2002 16.20% 11.80% 5.80%2003 15.30% 11.00% 7.40%2004 14.90% 10.80% 4.50%2005 14.40% 11.50% 5.70%2006 13.70% 11.00% 10.30%2007 13.10% 10.50% 7.40%2008 12.60% 10.20% 7.40%2009 11.50% 8.90% 7.00%2010 11.30% 8.70% 6.80%2011 10.70% 6.60% 6.40%

(p. 1). Although existing research offers some guidance for practitioners, the implications arelimited by the failure to base such research in theoretical or conceptual frameworks. In thisarticle, the influence that religion, the church, and its clergy have on the Millennial generation’sprosocial and philanthropic behavior within the context of a religiously affiliated historicallyBlack college is considered. Further, understanding how the Black church and predominantlyBlack congregations work with HBCUs to encourage student philanthropy and volunteerismmay have a beneficial effect on other church partnerships with predominantly White, religiouslyaffiliated colleges and universities. Notably, similar to the HBCUs, evangelical Christian collegesaffiliated with the Association for Biblical Higher Education have alumni participation ratesconsiderably below the rest of American higher education (Table 2).

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

The concept of learning from modeled behaviors stems from the sociology, psychology, andeducation literature. From sociology and psychology, social learning theory suggests that a personlearns within a social context and that learning and even behavioral change is facilitated throughmodeling and observation (Bandura, 1977; Ormrod, 1999; Sims & Manz, 1982). Social learningtheory “actively recognizes the role of cognitive processes as an integral part of behavioral change”(Manz & Sims, Jr., 1981, p. 105). Modeling is a form of “vicarious learning” (Manz & Sims, Jr.,1981, p. 106) that can lead to the observer taking different action based on observations ratherthan first performing the behavior or experiencing the consequences of the action (Bandura, 1969,1977; Miller & Dollard, 1941; Mischel, 1973). Similarly, within the disciplines of sociology andpsychology and the field of education, social cognitive theory posits that aspects of an individual’sacquisition of knowledge are related to observing others within the context of social interactions,experiences, and outside influences. In other words, people do not learn new behaviors solely bytrial and error; rather, they do so by the replication or modeling of the actions of others (Santrock,2011).

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Building upon social learning and social cognitive theories, philanthropic studies scholarsdeveloped the concepts of philanthropic modeling (Bar-Tal, 1976; Bentley & Nissan, 1996;Schervish & Havens, 1997) and social justice modeling (Cascione, 2003; Gasman et al., 2011;Rosenhan, 1970) to explain the importance of observations in learning and deciding to take partin prosocial behaviors, such as giving, volunteering, and taking social action. Using the conceptsof (a) philanthropic modeling and (b) social justice modeling within a religious giving context,this research analyzed data from a larger case study of the National Pre-Alumni Council of theUnited Negro College Fund. Before going into the details of the case study and my findings, abrief overview of the frameworks is provided.

Philanthropic Modeling

Often, one generation transmits the concept, importance, and encouragement of philanthropicgiving to another (Gasman et al., 2011). Bentley and Nissan (1996) found that elementaryschool students can learn philanthropic and altruistic behavior through witnessing an influentialadult (e.g., parent or guardian, teacher, or a religious or youth organization leader) engage inacts of prosocial behavior. Bentley and Nissan (1996), along with Drezner (2005, 2008) andGasman et al. (2011), noted that witnessing philanthropic actions is most effective in passingalong the importance of helping others from one generation to the next, whether it be within aparental context or other influential adult. Further, using data from the 1992 Survey of Giving andVolunteering in the United States, Schervish and Havens (1997) found that children’s observationof volunteerism from at least one parent or guardian was associated with higher levels of givingas an adult. Hunt (1990) referred to this as modeling theory. Bar-Tal (1976) and Bentley andNissan (1996) argued that philanthropic modeling was intensified when it was coupled with adiscussion about the importance of such actions.

Parental Influence Through Religion

Philanthropic modeling occurs within a church context. Religion plays an important rolein the philanthropic decisions of African Americans (Carson, 1987a, 1987b, 1989a, 1989b,1990a, 1990b, 1993, 2001, 2005; Ellison & Sherkat, 1995; Gasman et al., 2011). Within a largerreligious context, Hodgkinson and Weitzman (1996) determined that 73.6% of individuals whoremembered observing a member of their family help another person also made philanthropicgifts. In contrast, among those did not recall observing a helping action, the likelihood of givingdeclined to 50%. Other scholars have discussed adult influence in teaching prosocial values(Bremner, 1996; Grusec & Kuczynski, 1997; Steinberg & Wilhelm, 2003). Research by Wilhelm,Brown, Rooney, and Steinberg (2008) concluded that parents’ giving to religion was stronglycorrelated to their children’s giving to faith-based organizations. The same study determined thatparents’ philanthropic giving toward religion was “positively associated with children’s seculargiving, but in a more limited sense” than that of children’s giving to religious organizations(p. 2146). In other words, children who know that their parents donate to religious organizationsgive more to secular nonprofits (about one-third more than those who only observe their parent’sgiving to nonreligious groups); however, the child’s secular giving does not increase as the parents’religious giving increases. The influence of parental giving to religion has a significant effect onthe philanthropic behaviors of their children. These findings are similar to those of a study by the

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Independent Sector (2002), a coalition of nonprofits, foundations, and corporate giving programs,regarding religious giving and volunteering for religious and secular nonprofit organizations.

Social Justice Modeling

Similar to philanthropic modeling, parents and other important individuals can model socialjustice beliefs and actions and pass along the importance of those beliefs and actions to othersthat observe them. For example, Rosenhan (1970) found that many people involved in the civilrights movement claimed that their sense of action and volunteerism had been born out of theirhome environment. Cascione (2003) found that the influence of family affects the motivations ofmajor gift donors within higher education, noting that:

participation drew directly from their family backgrounds, [sic] and was assisted by the historicalmilieu in which they were living. Having individuals who are able to teach generosity through theiractions and lifestyles plays a crucial role [in] carrying on a philanthropic tradition. Role modelingrepresents a form of teaching philanthropic values and individuals who represent such generosityencourage others by their actions. Extraordinary acts of generosity become ordinary events and sincethey are seen as ordinary events, the ability to replicate them would be a typical response in the courseof an individual’s life. (p. 69)

Gasman et al. (2011) observed that many of the leaders in their study spoke of their religiousexperiences in the context of social justice and progressive rights movements, connecting theirupbringing and their parents’ involvement in the civil rights movement in the 1960s with theirdecision to pursue work focused on social justice and equality. Within a religious context, Ellisonand Sherkat (1995) found that African Americans often look to the church for advocacy, guidance,and the promotion of social needs within the community. Similarly, Trulear (2009) argued:

In many communities, the leadership of both the religious community and the local NAACP [NationalAssociation for the Advancement of Colored People] was one and the same, challenging the notionof a deradicalized Black church, and replacing it with the more nuanced view that churches oftensupplied the spiritual and moral vision for persons to exercise social advocacy work through secularorganizations. (pp. 30–31)

Ellison and Sherkat’s (1995) findings, as well as those of other scholars, indicate that AfricanAmericans are more closely affiliated with the church than other Americans (Glenn, 1964; Ja-cobson, Heaton, & Dennis, 1990; Roof & McKinney, 1987) and look to the church for advocacy,guidance, and the promotion of social needs within the community. African American communi-ties are committed to financially support the church in order to gain the community support thatthey seek from the religious institution. Given this exchange of financial support and advocacyand guidance, how does the Black church influence behaviors of college students at a church-affiliated historically Black college and university? This question is explored within the contextof a larger study from which it emerged.

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Case Study Context: The United Negro College Fund and its National Pre-AlumniCouncil

The United Negro College Fund (UNCF), established in 1944, is a comprehensive fundraisingorganization that solicits donations from individuals, corporations, and foundations. The UNCFprovides operating funds for its 39 members (private HBCUs), scholarships and internshipsfor students at hundreds of institutions, and faculty and administrative professional training.Then-president of Tuskegee Institute Fredrick D. Patterson founded the UNCF after callingon his fellow private Black college presidents to coordinate their fundraising, believing thatcooperation among the HBCUs would be more successful than as individual institutions (Gasman,2007). The organization generated funding in a number of ways: alumni appeals, solicitation ofcelebrities, annual telethons, and student fundraising through the National Pre-Alumni Councilsystem (Numerous, personal communications, November 8, 2005 and November 10, 2005).

In 1946, two years after the founding of the UNCF, James E. Stamps, an alumnus of FiskUniversity (Nashville, TN), one of the College Fund’s charter members, established the NationalAlumni Council (NAC). NAC’s purpose was to bring alumni together in partnership with theUNCF to serve the needs of private Black colleges. Twelve years later, in 1958, Walter Washington,a Tougaloo alumnus and then-president of Utica Junior College (Utica, MS), created the NationalPre-Alumni Council (NPAC), which was housed under the NAC. The NPAC was establishedto instill a culture of giving in its members and promote loyalty between institutions and theiralumni and the UNCF (United Negro College Fund, n.d.).

The National Pre-Alumni Council, with its affiliated chapters at the UNCF member colleges, isa student-alumni association in which participants engage in fundraising and alumni-relationshipbuilding for their alma mater and the UNCF (Tipsord Todd, 1993). The UNCF’s National Pre-Alumni Council was established in 1958 to:

stimulate interest and participation of students in the programs of the United Negro College Fund, topreserve and to further loyalty and fellowship between the member colleges and universities, assistin raising funds during the annual campaign and help them become better alumni while in school andupon graduation. (United Negro College Fund, n.d.)

Over the last 47 years, NPAC students have raised more than $3 million for the UNCF annualcampaigns (Benedict College Division of Institutional Advancement, n.d.). In 2004, NPAC raised$277,000 (Sam, personal communication, November 10, 2005). This case study explores theUNCF National Pre-Alumni Council as a model of socialization and how it encourages collegestudents to develop prosocial behaviors.

METHODS

Qualitative methods are useful in investigating emerging ideas and in creating new theories(Creswell, 1998; Strauss & Corbin, 1994). Additionally, qualitative methods are used to betterunderstand the context of a situation, the influence of the environment or personal backgroundon the participants’ actions, the process of how events take place, and the meaning of differentvariables in the phenomenon (Maxwell, 1996; Merriam, 1988). Therefore, when exploring theinfluences of religion on an individual’s behavior, qualitative research is appropriate.

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Notably, scholars have based much of the philanthropic literature, both in and out of highereducation, on large-scale quantitative surveys that do not address how young alumni choose tomake their first gifts to an institution. Nor do these studies describe how students make decisionsto engage in prosocial behavior or choose to volunteer, which are also complex phenomena.

Case study methodology, where researchers investigate a contemporary phenomenon withinits real-life context, was appropriate given this study’s focus on understanding the “contextualconditions” that instill prosocial behavior among college students (Yin, 2003a, 2003b). Addition-ally, Yin recommended using an explanatory case study when research questions are concernedwith why an event occurs. Utilizing interviews, observations, and content analysis, a case studywas undertaken of the UNCF’s National Pre-Alumni Council.

The study included perspectives of key external and internal stakeholders; additionally, acontent analysis of primary and secondary documents and interviews was performed in order togain understanding regarding how prosocial behavior development is encouraged among youngBlack donors. The primary and secondary source analyses included institutional documents(e.g., The Torch, the NPAC newsletter, and NPAC fundraising manuals) and national fundraisingreports (e.g., Giving USA, and the Voluntary Support for Education annual studies). Primary andsecondary source analysis, informal conversations, and observations added context to the study.

In-depth interviews were used to explore the phenomenon in question, as recommended byMarshall and Rossman (1999). The interviews included representatives from UNCF students andadvisors, two stakeholder groups. This study included 1- to 1.5-hour interviews with 21 studentsand four NPAC advisors from 13 institutions, representing one third of the UNCF membercolleges.

Research Questions

The data utilized in this research were drawn from a larger study that explored what stimulatesstudents to act in a prosocial manner. More specifically, the study explored three major researchquestions: (a) How does the National Pre-Alumni Council of the UNCF instill the importanceof giving in its members, other students, and young alumni? (b) Why do students choose toparticipate in NPAC fundraisers? (c) What influences their philanthropic behaviors? (Drezner,2008, 2010).

Analysis

Data analysis began by being (re)familiarized with the cases. After reviewing the transcripts mul-tiple times and recording general impressions and themes that emerged, theoretical propositionswere developed that were both inductive (emergent themes) and deductive (based in literature)(Creswell, 1998; Polkinghorne, 2005). The influence of religion and religious leaders on manystudent participants’ decisions to engage in prosocial behaviors and, more specifically, philan-thropic giving was one theme that emerged. Although this theme was apparent throughout thelarger study, it was particularly strong among the four student participants attending TougalooCollege.

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Tougaloo College

Tougaloo is a private, historically Black, religiously affiliated, liberal arts college in Mississippiwith approximately 900 students. Founded in 1869 by the American Missionary Association,and for a brief period between 1954 and 1962 named Tougaloo Southern Christian College, thecollege is affiliated with the United Church of Christ. Tougaloo’s vision is to produce studentswho are servant-leaders in their community (Tougaloo College Vision Statement, n.d.).

Participant Selection

Interviews were conducted with UNCF students and advisors; these stakeholders were able tospeak to the activities, programs, and mission of NPAC, given that they are currently active inthe organization. Potential participants were initially contacted via the NPAC executive boardand through personal contacts within the United Negro College Fund and the Black collegecommunity. These contacts were made via e-mail and telephone. During these initial contacts,the general characteristics of the desired participants for interviews were described, with therequest that participants suggest others to interview based on the criteria set forth. If multipleparticipants recommended the same person, a concerted effort was made to include that individualin the study (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003). Advisors and students alike were willing to sharenames and contact information of potential participants. Gaining access to interviewees wassuccessful either through a PAC advisor or a student making an introduction to another potentialinterviewee.

Participants

Each of the four student participants at Tougaloo College had been a member of the TougalooPre-Alumni Council for at least one year. The three men and woman identified as either Black orAfrican American. Each participant was given a pseudonym.

Jared, a senior, was on the Tougaloo Pre-Alumni Council executive board and had just finishedserving on the National Pre-Alumni Council’s national executive board. He joined the PAC duringhis freshman year. Although neither of his parents attended Tougaloo College, they both attendedan HBCU.

Sam, a junior, had been on the Pre-Alumni Council for two years. Although Sam was a first-generation college student, he was encouraged to join the Pre-Alumni Council by a close familyfriend who was an alumna of Tougaloo College.

Monica was a senior and joined the Pre-Alumni Council as a first-year student. She hadreceived a scholarship for her freshman year from her local UNCF regional Alumni Council. Thescholarship committee encouraged her join the Tougaloo PAC.

Marc was a sophomore in his second year on the Pre-Alumni Council. He aspired to join theexecutive board of the PAC during his junior year. Both of his parents were college graduates;however, neither attended an HBCU.

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FINDINGS: THE CHURCH AS AN EXTERNAL INFLUENCEON PHILANTHROPIC PARTICIPATION

African Americans have consistently demonstrated generosity to the church. As many of theprivate HBCUs have church roots, it is not surprising that many students at these institutionscome from families of faith, where their parents modeled tithing and philanthropy, and thestudents participated in these activities prior to college. Sam recalled that he believed the church’sinfluence on philanthropy was great and that “one of their [the church’s] foundational principlesis the need to give back and to empower communities as well.” Marc spoke about both hishometown pastor and pastor at Tougaloo encouraging him to give as a student, even though hedid not have a job or income. “We are all blessed and can give thanks through helping others . . .small donations, services, or leadership all add up.” Empowering students with a message thatphilanthropy can take many forms, especially when a young person does not have a considerabledisposable income, was an important lesson. Essentially, his pastors were saying, “We can all bephilanthropists.”

Monica spoke about the influence of the church on her upbringing and sense of philanthropy:

We were always active in the community. I’m very church-oriented, so especially where my churchis located, it’s on a busy intersection. Wherever you have a busy intersection, you have a lot of lessfortunate people. They would come to church and they’re your church members. You help them out.If I have a dollar, hey, I’m going to put 50 cents in church. . . . It was always, “If I have it, you haveit.” It was always that mentality that was instilled in us and it’s still now. If I can do it, if it’s in myauthority and I can do it, we’re going to make it happen. I’m behind it 110% because everybodydoesn’t make great life decisions but I think it’s our responsibility to help them get back to wherethey are, where they’re supposed to be.

Students throughout the study acknowledged the influence and commitment to giving to othersthrough religion.

Jared, a member of the executive board of the Tougaloo Pre-Alumni Council, spoke of howlocal churches in Mississippi were involved in fundraising for his college and the influence thatthis program had on current students. The Great Churches Project at Tougaloo College is a yearlyfundraiser for the institution. Each year, local churches come together on one Sunday and take upa special offering from their congregations specifically for Tougaloo College. Many of the localministers are Tougaloo College alumni, and are especially devoted to helping their alma mater inthis way.

All four Tugaloo participants spoke, unprompted, about the Great Churches Project and howthey appreciated how the local religious communities supported their college. Three participantsmentioned that they had spoken at some of the churches on the Sunday of the Great ChurchesProject in order to help raise money for the college. This project was organized through thePre-Alumni Council.

Religion and involvement with the church also influenced these HBCU students’ philanthropywhile in college. Inspired by the Great Churches Project, the unity of local churches, and bytheir alma mater, students created an external philanthropy project called Sharing Our Waters.Cosponsored by the Tougaloo Pre-Alumni Council, Sharing Our Waters raises funds to give cleanwater to African communities by providing funds to build wells. According to the student in chargeof this initiative, Tougaloo means “the place where two rivers meet”; therefore, they share their

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abundance of water. For this project, students meet with local ministers and parishioners to tellthem about the effort and to ask for their support. A number of students successfully received thefull support of the clergy, including having the ministers ask for the support of the congregationfrom the pulpit.

As illustrated by these findings, the influence of the church in promoting African Americanphilanthropy continues to be significant. Students spoke about needing to share what extra theyhad with those less fortunate than themselves. The students frequently mentioned that theirinvolvement in the church taught them the importance of giving.

DISCUSSION

African Americans often model their philanthropy through tithing to church. According to theliterature, religious causes are the number one recipient of philanthropic dollars in AfricanAmerican communities (Byrd, 1990; Carson, 1990b; Community Foundation of Greater Atlanta,2004; Gasman, 2002, 2006; Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). According to Carson (2001):

African-Americans understand that the role of the Black church—especially in the area of fundraisingis legendary. We recognize that the Black church puts the force of authority and legitimacy behindits appeals to reach givers in the Black community. The Black church is a triumphant example ofphilanthropy among friends. (p. 4)

As previously mentioned, Holloman, Gasman, and Anderson-Thompkins (2003) noted that theAfrican American church can play an important role in Black college fundraising, given thatthe Black church is so highly regarded as a center for African American philanthropy. Theseresearchers argued that using the structure of the church can add to Black college’s fundraisingsuccess.

As illustrated by the findings, church continues to play an important role in promoting AfricanAmerican philanthropy. Students spoke about the need to share what extra they had with thoseless fortunate than themselves. The students frequently mentioned that their involvement in thechurch taught them the importance of giving; in essence, the African American church wasexhibiting, through pastoral conversations and observations, a form of philanthropic modelingfor the participants in this study.

The church’s influence on giving was not only experienced through parental and pastoralmodeling. The Great Churches Project at Tougaloo College is another example of the churchinfluencing giving while students are outside the confines of home and living on their own atcollege. Having local churches come together to “take up a special offering” for the institutionshows students that the church considers Black colleges to be an important element of its mission.The additional mission of the church to support African American education and, more generally,racial uplift is a form of social justice modeling. The need to improve the well-being of otherAfrican Americans is seen through a lens of the ongoing civil rights movement and continuedneed for racial uplift.

By collecting money for the college, the church endorses the college’s mission, and increasesthe likelihood that religious students will support the Black college of the UNCF. Thus, byendorsing the work of the college and the UNCF, the church helps communicate the institution’s

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missions to its congregants. This is another example of the importance of both the conversationand action aspects of philanthropic modeling.

Further, by including student members of the Pre-Alumni Council in sharing the messageof the work of Tougaloo and the need for the local community to support the college, andhaving the students help solicit congregants for support during the Great Churches Project,the participants learn other means of prosocial and philanthropic behavior. Researchers havedemonstrated that philanthropic modeling and involvement has been effective in increasingphilanthropic participation (Bar-Tal, 1976; Bentley & Nissan, 1996; Drezner, 2005, 2008; Gasmanet al., 2011; Hunt, 1990; Schervish & Havens, 1997). Additionally, in coming together duringservice projects, such as Sharing Our Waters, students go into the community to build financialsupport, which is important in the cultivating of future prosocial behaviors.

It is important to reiterate NPAC’s involvement with the African American church and thetradition of philanthropy through religion. Connecting giving to the UNCF and an alumnus’alma mater to the work of the African American church has added benefit to the College Fund.Much like the intrinsic motivations discussed earlier, African Americans often predicate theircommitment to the church on racial uplift. As Gasman and Anderson-Thompkins (2003) noted,if HBCUs can demonstrate that they are instruments of racial uplift, these institutions might beable to benefit from the passion of giving toward racial uplift, paralleling how African Americancommunities support the work of the church. Encouraging pastors to make that claim is important,given that respect for clergy in the African American communities is high (Ellison & Sherkat,1995). The use of local pastors to solicit congregants to support student fundraising efforts,as illustrated by Tougaloo College, is beneficial in the development of the students’ prosocialaptitude. For example, observing the generosity of the local community is a model of prosocialbehavior that students can subscribe to after graduation (Holloman et al., 2003).

Implications for Practice

This study has many different implications for religiously affiliated colleges and universities.Although the study is specific to a church-related historically Black college, many of the findingscan also inform practice at predominantly White Christian institutions. The importance of tithingand giving to one’s community transcends the Black church (Carson, 1989a, 2005; Ellison &Sherkat, 1995; Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1996; Wilhelm, Brown, Ronney, & Steinberg, 2008).Christian colleges and universities should consider the role of faith and community when speakingand modeling philanthropic and other prosocial behaviors to students. When trying to cultivatea culture of student philanthropy that will lead to alumni support of their alma mater over futuredecades, showing students that the religious community supports the institution and how supportof higher education is one manifestation of supporting the community—a basis for religiousgiving—is important (Gasman, et al., 2011; Holloman et al., 2003; Smith, 2010).

Additionally, many students who choose to attend a religiously affiliated college or universityare likely predisposed to philanthropic modeling from their parents’ church activity and pastoralmessages (Carson, 1987b, 2001, 2005; Ellison & Sherkat, 1995; Gasman et al., 2011; Hodgkinson& Weitzman, 1996; Wilhelm et al., 2008). Institutions of higher education should build on thisexposure and continue to encourage and model prosocial and philanthropic behaviors for theirstudents.

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Consistent with the Judeo-Christian concept of tithing, student participants spoke about theirunderstanding of philanthropy as both a “responsibility” and “expected.” Interestingly, theseconcepts extended beyond giving to church and community to giving to their alma mater. Althoughstudents did not use these exact words, it was clear from their intonation and discussion of theimportance of giving to their alma mater that they had a shared understanding of this responsibilityas conceived by their discussions, upbringing, and religious participation.

If students understand this responsibility, giving will typically follow, as long as their almamater remains in contact and continues to cultivate young alumni. Too often, Black collegesdo not maintain contact and engagement with their alumni. It is important to remain in touch,maintain a current database of addresses, and inform alumni of positive things happening oncampus and achievements of fellow alumni (Gasman & Anderson-Thompkins, 2003). Accordingto Friedmann (2003), student-alumni associations at predominantly White public institutionsalso reflected little cultivation of participants after graduation. Although interactions with localpastors and religious affiliations with the college are a natural cultivation tool for students, suchfoundational efforts must be built upon in order to increase alumni giving.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

This paper emerged from a larger case study that explored engagement strategies at privateHistorically Black Colleges and Universities with chapters of the United Negro College Fund’sNational Pre-Alumni Council. While the findings that the Black church has influence on giving inthe African American communities is not new, the influence that the Black church had on studentand young alumni engagement with their alma mater was unexpected. This was not the originalfocus of the study, and only emerged after additional exploration at one institution. As such, thisis an open area of future research. Given the historic mission of the HBCUs and evidence ofthe influence of the Black church on philanthropic giving, volunteerism, and racial uplift, thisconnection merits further exploration.

CONCLUSION

This research has broadened our understanding of how African Americans in the Millennialgeneration think about and choose to act philanthropically and the role that Black colleges andthe Black church play in the cultivation of these behaviors. In many ways, this finding may notbe considered very significant, as there is a clear connection between religion and philanthropicgiving (e.g., Carson, 1987a, 1987b, 1989a, 1989b, 1990a, 1990b, 1993, 2001, 2005; Hodgkinson& Weitzman, 1996; Ellison & Sherkat, 1995; Wilhelm et al., 2008). However, the understanding ofthis influence of the church on engaging members of the millennial generation in philanthropic andprosocial behaviors, especially within a higher education context, merits additional exploration.Religiously affiliated colleges and universities have a unique opportunity when considering howto engage their students as future donors. By aligning the students’ understanding of religiousgiving and community support with the mission of their institution, colleges may be able tocultivate support through a means and model that many of their students have long understood.

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