The Architecture of the Early Mosques and Shrines of Java: Influences of the Arab Merchants in the 15th and 16th Centuries?

The Architecture of the Early Mosques and Shrines of Java: Influences of
the Arab Merchants in the 15th and 16th Centuries?
Volume 1: The Text
by
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Acknowledgments Finishing a Ph.D. is in fact a very long experience, and I would not have been able to complete this endeavor without the aid and support of numerous people over the past four years. I must first express my gratitude towards my advisor, Professor Barbara Finster. Her leadership, support, attention to detail, hard work, and scholarship have set an example I hope to match some day. I would also like to thank Professor Lorenz Korn for his determination to help and for taking time out from his busy schedule to serve as my external reader. I recognize that this research would not have been possible without the scholarship presented by the Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst (DAAD); not only did they financially support my stay in Germany, but also provided assistance, advice, and care to which I am deeply grateful. My thanks goes to the Barakat Trust of the University of Oxford for financing my trips and stay in Southeast Asia. I must also acknowledge all the professors, students and staff of the many universities, libraries and archives that I have visited for the completion of the field work of this dissertation. Special appreciation goes out to Dr. Syed Ahmad Iskander of The Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) in Johor Bahru and to Professor Mohammad Taguldin Rasdi. Director of the Centre for the Study of the Built Environment in the Malay World (KALAM). My thanks also goes to those who provided me with letters of introduction at times of critical need; Dr. Inajati Adrisijanti of Universitas Gadjah Mada, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya in Jogjakarta, Dr. Heba Barakat of the Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM) in Kuala Lumpur, and Agung Murti of The Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). No words can describe my gratitude to Professor Hasan Ambary, former director of the Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional Jakarta (National Centre for Archaeological Research), who did not only introduce me to many of his students who currently hold posts in Indonesian governmental offices, but personally accompanied me to meet them and to visit several libraries, archives, and archaeological sites. To his kindness I am indebted. I would also like to thank the staff of the library of the, Jakarta Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional and those of the archives of the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala (BP3) [Directorate for the Preservation of the National Heritage] in East, West, and Central Java and the head office at the Ministry of Education and Culture in Jakarta for the patience they displayed in showing me their drawings and allowing me to take photographs. In Germany I acknowledge Professor Manfred Schuller, Chair of the Department of Historical Architecture and Monument Preservation at the Technische Universität München (TUM) for his support and also my colleagues Dr. Stephan Popp, Mehmet and Aysun Çebeçi, Haidi Ruperts, and Andrea Klink. A very special thanks goes out to Professor Bernard O’Kane, of the American University in Cairo, without whose motivation and encouragement I would not have considered a graduate career in Islamic art and architecture. Professor O’Kane is the one professor/teacher who truly made a difference in my life. It was under his tutelage that I developed a focus and became deeply interested in Islamic art. He provided me with direction, support and became more of a mentor and friend, than a professor. It was through his, persistence, understanding and kindness that I completed my
undergraduate degree and was encouraged to apply for a Ph. D. I doubt that I will ever be able to convey my appreciation fully, but I owe him my eternal gratitude. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude towards my parents for the never ending support and care they granted me through my entire life; nothing in this world would justly reward them for all the years of kindness, and devoted love that I have enjoyed. Last but not least, I must acknowledge my wife and best friend, Shaymaa, and my son Kareem without whose love, encouragement, assistance, endurance and patience, I would not have finished this thesis.
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Abstract
Architecture of the Early Mosques and Shrines of Java: Influences of the Arab Merchants in the 15th and 16th Centuries?
In spite of the Malay Archipelago’s location at the crossroads of the maritime spice route which allowed reception of ideas and influences from China, the Middle East and Europe, Javanese mosques and shrines are widely believed, by local Indonesian and international scholars, as originating from earlier local Hindu-Buddhist predecessors. Variations of local buildings such as temples, cock-fight arenas, communal buildings, and vernacular houses have been suggested as the prototype on which the masjid was modeled. The mausoleums were linked to earlier mountain sites and Hindu-Buddhist practices of veneration of the dead. Two scholars however, Graaf and Slametmuljana, contested the dominant perception and suggested a foreign origin for the Javanese mosque; the former, on basis of similarities in the use of timber as the construction medium, suggested the western Coast of India and the latter on basis of reports in a local Javanese history which records the visit of the Chinese Zheng He to a mosque in Java in the early 15th century, proposed China as the source for the earliest Javanese masjid. This dissertation addresses the issue of the origin of the Javanese Islamic buildings (mosques and shrines) by means of an architectural approach. Architecture, as suggested by Hillenbrand, being a combination of form, function, and meaning, the approach used here, therefore, looks beyond the external features of the buildings and into the embedded ideas in order to inspect whether the mosque concept, plan, orientation, functions, and construction, or any of its given cosmic associations relied on contemporary or older local or foreign beliefs. Not only are the mosques concerned here, but the shrines as well. The dissertation is divided into four chapters. The first is a broad historical introduction that gives an overall picture of he Malay Archipelago from the 3rd century A. D. when the Indians arrived to the islands till the 16th when the Portuguese established there hegemony in the region. Theories regarding the arrival of Islam and the foundation of Muslim polities in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and Java and the “Islamization” of the Spice Islands are addressed in more detail. The second chapter is a descriptive and pictorial catalogue of the case monuments; 15th-16th century mosques and shrines of the northern coast of Java. Mosques selected are those of Demak, Banten, Cirebon and the Masjid Panjunan in Cirebon. The shrines are those of Drajat, Gunung Jati, Ratu Kalinyamat, Sendang Duwur, Bonang and Kudus. The third chapter is an analytical comparison between the architecture of local buildings, their associated iconography and religious beliefs, architectural details, and decorations and those of the Javanese mosque and shrine. The aim is to asses whether the Javanese mosque and shrine are products of the local architecture. The fourth chapter questions the theories on China and India as the source for the Javanese Islamic buildings and hypothetically reconstructs the Javanese mosque design process in an attempt to unveil the source of the mosque’s architectural concept. The chapter concludes by evaluating the role of the Arab merchant in the design and construction of the Javanese mosque and shrine.
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Zusammenfassung
Architektur der frühen Moscheen und Heiligengräber in Java: Einflüsse der arabischen Händler im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert?
Trotz der Lage des malaiischen Archipels am Schnittpunkt der Seehandelsrouten für Gewürze, die die Rezeption von Ideen und Einflüssen aus China, dem Mittleren Osten und Europa möglich machte, werden javanische Moscheen und Heiligengräber von indonesischen und von ausländischen Wissenschaftlern zumeist für aus früheren hinduistischen und buddhistischen Vorläufern entstanden angesehen. Abwandlungen lokaler Gebäude wie Tempel, Hahnenkampf-arenen, Gemeinschaftsgebäuden und einheimischer Häuser sind als Prototyp für die Moschee vorgeschlagen worden. Die Mausoleen wurden mit früheren Bergheiligtümern und hindu-buddhistischen Praktiken der Totenverehrung in Verbindung gebracht. Jedoch haben zwei Wissenschaftler, Graaf und Slametmuljana, die vorherrschende Auffassung bezweifelt und sind von einem ausländischen Ursprung der javanischen Moschee ausgegangen. Ersterer befürwortete wegen Ähnlichkeiten in der Verwendung von Holz als Baumaterial die indische Westküste, und letzterer schlug auf der Basis von Berichten in einem lokalen javanischen Geschichtswerk, die den Besuch des Chinesen Zhèng Hé in einer Moschee in Java im frühen 15. Jahrhundert verzeichnet, China als die Quelle der frühesten javanischen Moschee vor. Diese Dissertation behandelt den Ursprung der islamischen Bauten Javas (Moscheen und Heiligengräber) mit Hilfe architektonischer Methoden. Architektur ist, wie Hillenbrand vorgeschlagen hat, eine Verbindung von Form, Funktion und Bedeutung. Daher sieht die hier verwendete Zugangsweise hinter die äußeren Merkmale der Gebäude und in die ihnen eingeschriebenen Philosophien, um zu prüfen, ob Konzept, Plan, Orientierung, Funktionen und Bauweise der Moschee, oder irgendeine ihrer gegebenen kosmischen Assoziationen sich auf zeitgenössische oder ältere und auf einheimische oder ausländische Glaubensvorstellungen stützt. Nicht nur die Moscheen werden hier behandelt, sondern auch die Heiligengräber. Die Dissertation ist in vier Kapitel eingeteilt. Die erste ist eine breite historische Einführung, die eine Übersicht des malaiischen Archipels vom 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. [oder: unserer Zeitrechnung], als die Inder an den Inseln ankamen, bis zum 16. Jahrhundert, als die Portugiesen ihre Vorherrschaft in der Region errichteten. Theorien von der Ankunft des Islams, die Grundlage der moslemischen Herschaften in Sumatra sowie in der malaiiischen Halbinsel und Java, und die Islamisierung der Gewürzinseln werden ausführlicher besprochen. Das zweite Kapitel ist ein deskriptiver Bilderkatalog der betreffenden Monumente, nämlich Moscheen und Heiligengräbern der javanischen Nordküste aus dem 15. und 16. Jahrhundert. Für die Moscheen wurden die von Demak, Banten, Cirebon und die Masjid Panjunan in Cirebon ausgewählt. Die Heiligengräber sind die von Drajat, Gunung Jati, Ratu Kalinyamat, Sendang Duwur, Bonang und Kudus. Das dritte Kapitel ist ein analytischer Vergleich zwischen der Architektur einheimischer Gebäude, der damit verbundenen Ikonographie, den Glaubensvorstellungen, architektonischen Details und Dekorationen, und der der Moscheen und Heiligengräber von Java. Das Ziel dabei ist, zu bewerten, ob die Moscheen und Heiligengräber von Java Produkte der einheimischen Architektur sind.
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Das vierte Kapitel stellt die Theorien zu China und Indien als Quelle für die islamischen Gebäude in Frage und rekonstruiert hypothetisch den Anlageprozess der javanischen Moschee, um die Quelle des architektonischen Konzepts der Moschee herauszufinden. Das Kapitel schließt damit, dass es die Rolle des arabischen Händlers bei Planung und Bau der Moscheen und Heiligengräber von Java auswertet.
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List of Figures* Chapter 1 Figure 1. 1 Southeast Asia as known by the Arab Geographers (After Tibbetts).
Figure 1. 2 The Arrival of Islam in Southeast Asia (After Pluvier).
Figure 1. 3 Malay Peninsula and Sumatra from 1500-1641 (After Pluvier).
Figure 1. 4 Java in the Early 16th Century (After Pluvier).
Figure 1. 5 Tombstone of al-Malik al-Salih (After Ali, Kamaruddin).
Chapter 2 Figure 2. 1: Map of Java
Masjid Agung Demak.
Figure 2. 2 Demak, Alun alun (After Directorate for the Protection and Preservation of the National Heritage; thereafter ‘DPPNH’).
Figure 2. 3 Demak, Layout of the mosque (After Nasir).
Figure 2. 4 Demak, Early photograph of the mosque showing now-gone entrance (After Anonymous, Masdjid dan Makam).
Figure 2. 5 Demak, Mosque plan (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 6 Demak, modern minaret.
Figure 2. 7 Demak, general view of prayer hall and serambi.
Figure 2. 8 Demak, ground plan of the prayer hall and serambi.
Figure 2. 9 Demak, old paintings of the mosque.
Figure 2. 10 Demak, mosque elevations (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 11 Demak, Majapahit spolia columns in the Serambi.
Figure 2. 12 Demak, Sokoa Guru columns currently in the mosque museum
Figure 2. 13 Demak, mosque section.
Figure 2. 14 Demak, interior, view of the arches connecting the columns.
Figure 2. 15 Demak, interior, view looking towards the mihrab.
Figure 2. 16 Demak, mosque maqsura
Figure 2. 17 Demak, mosque minbar (sketches after DPPNH).
Figure 2. 18 Demak, necropolis and cenotaphs of the founders.
Figure 2. 19 Demak, mihrab decorations
Figure 2. 20 Demak, turtle silhouette in the mihrab.
Figure 2. 21 Demak, Vietnamese tiles decorating mosque walls.
Figure 2. 22 Demak, Pentu Beledeg.
* All Figures are by the author unless otherwise credited.
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Masjid Agung Cirebon
Figure 2. 24 Map of Cirebon’s Alun-alun (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 25 Cirebon masjid Agung, a: old picture of the mosque and b: shows the current situation. (a after Anonymous, Masdjid dan Makam).
Figure 2. 26 Cirebon masjid Agung, plan (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 27 Cirebon masjid Agung, ablutions’ pool.
Figure 2. 28 Cirebon masjid Agung, façade and mosque’s roof.
Figure 2. 29 Cirebon masjid Agung, side façade of prayer hall.
Figure 2. 30 Cirebon masjid Agung, southeast façade.
Figure 2. 31 Cirebon masjid Agung, view towards the north-western corner of the prayer hall.
Figure 2. 32 Cirebon masjid Agung, mihrab and details.
Figure 2. 33 Cirebon masjid Agung, detail of lotus hanging from mihrab niche.
Figure 2. 34 Cirebon masjid Agung, minbar and details.
Figure 2. 35 Cirebon masjid Agung, decorations of central door to prayer hall.
Figure 2. 36 Cirebon masjid Agung, central door to prayer hall, capital and base panels
Figure 2. 37 Cirebon masjid Agung, central door to prayer hall, Panels on jambs.
Figure 2. 38 Cirebon masjid Agung, panels on the façade.
Figure 2. 39 Cirebon masjid Agung, central door to prayer hall, wooden leaves.
Panjunan mosque, Cirebon
Figure 2. 40 location of Panjunan mosque (After Google Earth).
Figure 2. 41 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, plan by Brakel and Massarik.
Figure 2. 42 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, façade and minaret.
Figure 2. 43 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, burial chamber.
Figure 2. 44 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, candi bintar entrance and detail of wing.
Figure 2. 45 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, plan (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 46 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, qibla façade
Figure 2. 47 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, façade
Figure 2. 48 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, view of the two tier roof.
Figure 2. 49 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, Qibla wall and mihrab
Figure 2. 50 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, External fence decorations
Figure 2. 51 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, External fence decorations on the inner side.
Figure 2. 52 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, double star column capital
Figure 2. 53 Cirebon Panjunan mosque, western wall of serambi
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Figure 2. 55 Drajat, entrance canopy and detail.
Figure 2. 56 Drajat, pendopo in second courtyard.
Figure 2. 57 Drajat, steps to third courtyard.
Figure 2. 58 Drajat, pendopo in fourth courtyard.
Figure 2. 59 Drajat, stairway to fifth level.
Figure 2. 60 Drajat, lava rock formations.
Figure 2. 61 Drajat, stairs to sixth level.
Figure 2. 62 Drajat, Cungkup.
Figure 2. 63 Drajat, serambi before the mausoleum.
Figure 2. 64 Drajat, mausoleum plan (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 65 Drajat, Pligrims facing the screen of the outer square.
Figure 2. 66 Drajat, details of outer screen doors.
Figure 2. 67 Drajat, front area between the inner and outer square spaces.
Figure 2. 68 Drajat, façade of inner screen of mausoleum.
Figure 2. 69 Drajat, detail of mausoleum’s outer façade.
Figure 2. 70 Drajat, section drawings of the mausoleum.
Figure 2. 71 Drajat, museum.
Figure 2. 72 Drajat, outer screen of cungkup.
Figure 2. 73 Drajat, lion guarding door of outer screen.
Shrine of Sunan Kudus
Figure 2. 74 Kudus, foundation inscription and detail.
Figure 2. 75 Kudus, location of the shrine (After Google Earth)
Figure 2. 76 Kudus, general view of the shrine from jalan Menara.
Figure 2. 77 Kudus, shrine layout.
Figure 2. 78 Kudus, Candi bintar gate aligned with qibla.
Figure 2. 79 Kudus, external paduraksa gateway leading to the mausoleum.
Figure 2. 80 Kudus, entrances to the shrine to the right and left of the minaret.
Figure 2. 81 Kudus, shrine layout with old parts indicated (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 82 Kudus, Hindu-Javanese paduraksa gateway in the mosque’s Serambi
Figure 2. 83 Kudus, Hindu-Javanese paduraksa gateway inside the prayer hall.
Figure 2. 84 Kudus, Hindu-Javanese paduraksa gateway inside the prayer hall.
detail of decoration panels.
Figure 2. 85 Kudus, side entrance to the serambi with true arch opening.
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Figure 2. 87 Kudus, ablutions’ tank
Figure 2. 88 Kudus, detail of panel decorating the ablutions’ tank
Figure 2. 89 Kudus, step in pond before the ablutions’ tank
Figure 2. 90 Kudus, minaret.
Figure 2. 91 Kudus, minaret (After Kempers).
Figure 2. 92 Kudus, detail of minaret’s body.
Figure 2. 93 Kudus, detail of minaret’s body.
Figure 2. 94 Kudus, detail of minaret’s paduraksa entrance.
Figure 2. 95 Kudus, complex layout marked with courtyards leading to the mausoleum (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 96 Kudus, candi bintar entrance to the second courtyard that leads to the mausoleum.
Figure 2. 97 Kudus, paduraksa gateway of the third courtyard that leads to the mausoleum.
Figure 2. 98 Kudus, pendopo occupying the centre of the third courtyard to mausoleum
Figure 2. 99 Kudus, ablutions’ basin in the NW corner of the third courtyard to mausoleum
Figure 2. 100 Kudus, paduraksa gateway to fourth courtyard to mausoleum.
Figure 2. 101 Kudus, paduraksa gateway to fourth courtyard to mausoleum, detail showing the use of a true arch.
Figure 2. 102 Kudus, wall obstructing the entrance to the fourth courtyard to the mausoleum.
Figure 2. 103 Kudus, inscribed marble panel in the wall obstructing the entrance to the fourth courtyard to the mausoleum.
Figure 2. 104 Kudus, pavilion in the fourth courtyard to mausoleum.
Figure 2. 105 Kudus, fifth courtyard to mausoleum.
Figure 2. 106 Kudus, authentic short wall that divides the fifth courtyard to mausoleum
Figure 2. 107 Kudus, original walls in fifth courtyard to mausoleum.
Figure 2. 108 Kudus, paduraksa gateway leading to sixth courtyard to the mausoleum.
Figure 2. 109 Kudus, view of the mausoleum from the sixth courtyard.
Figure 2. 110 Kudus, plan of the Sunan’s mausoleum (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 111 Kudus, general view of the sunan’s tomb.
Figure 2. 112 Kudus, Sketch of stone screens around the Sunan’s tomb (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 113 Kudus, mausoleum elevation and cross section (After DPPNH).
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Figure 2. 114 Kudus, details of stone screens around the Sunan’s tomb.
Figure 2. 115 Kudus, details of stone screens around the Sunan’s tomb.
Figure 2. 116 Kudus, details of door jambs in stone screens around the Sunan’s tomb.
Figure 2. 117 Kudus, details of door leafs in stone screens around the sunan’s tomb.
Figure numbers from 2.118-2.132 are intentionally left out.
Shrine of Sunan Bonang in Tuban
Figure 2. 133 Bonang, layout of Tuban’s alun-alun and surrounding buildings.
Figure 2. 134 Bonang, street to the mausoleum.
Figure 2. 135 Bonang, current plan of the shrine (After DPPNH)
Figure 2. 136 Bonang, main entrance to the shrine.
Figure 2. 137 Bonnag, eastern entrance to the shrine.
Figure 2. 138 Bonang, archway of the main entrance.
Figure 2. 139 Bonang, pendopo in the first courtyard.
Figure 2. 140 Bonang, paduraksa gateway leading into the second courtyard, southern side
Figure 2. 141 Bonang, paduraksa gateway leading into the second courtyard, northern side.
Figure 2. 142 Bonang, side entrance flanking the main paduraksa leading into the second courtyard.
Figure 2. 143 Bonang, detail of main paduraksa leading into the second courtyard.
Figure 2. 144 Bonang, modern small mosque in the second courtyard.
Figure 2. 145 Bonang, early plan by the Dutch (After DPPNH)
Figure 2. 146 Bonang, pavilion in second courtyard.
Figure 2. 147 Bonang, bath tub claimed to have belonged to the sunan personally.
Figure 2. 148 Bonang, paduraksa gateway leading into the third courtyard.
Figure 2. 149 Bonang, aling-aling wall view from third courtyards looking south.
Figure 2. 150 Bonang, general view of the third courtyard looking north.
Figure 2. 151 Bonang, plan of cungkup (After DPPNH).
Figure 2. 152 Bonang, southern façade of the cungkup.
Figure 2. 153 Bonang, detail showing authentic parts of the cungkup’s…