The Aral Sea. The Aral Sea Basin Covers 5 of the old Soviet states, the Stans in the south eastern corner of the Soviet Union Once the 4th largest inland.

The Aral SeaThe Aral Sea

The Aral Sea Basin

The Aral Sea Basin Covers 5 of the old

Soviet states, the Stans in the south eastern corner of the Soviet Union

Once the 4th largest inland body of water in the world.

In the past few years the Aral Sea has gained global attention as one of the greatest man-made environmental disasters in the world.

Two major rivers runs into the Aral Sea, the Syr Darya and Amu Darya. The Aral Sea like the Caspian Sea has no outlet. Water runs into the sea and some evaporates, naturally causing saline waters, particularly in dry years

Prior to 1960Prior to 1960• Lake brackish app. 10 g/l• Mainly freshwater fish adapted to

saline water• Supported major fishing industry• Key regional transportation route• Supported irrigation, husbandry, reed

production, fishing, trapping and hunting

• River deltas support diverse flora and fauna

• Lake brackish app. 10 g/l• Mainly freshwater fish adapted to

saline water• Supported major fishing industry• Key regional transportation route• Supported irrigation, husbandry, reed

production, fishing, trapping and hunting

• River deltas support diverse flora and fauna

Irrigation traditionIrrigation tradition

• Practiced for several millennia, some say it started 6,000 years ago

• In 1900 3 mio hectares under irrigation• By 1960 4.5 mio under irrigation• However irrigation prior to 1960 did not

measurable reduce inflow to the Aral Sea• It is the explosion since then to 7.6 mio in

1990 which have caused the damage.

• Practiced for several millennia, some say it started 6,000 years ago

• In 1900 3 mio hectares under irrigation• By 1960 4.5 mio under irrigation• However irrigation prior to 1960 did not

measurable reduce inflow to the Aral Sea• It is the explosion since then to 7.6 mio in

1990 which have caused the damage.

• South of Amu Darya delta lies an area 28.000 sq km used for the production of rice and cotton.

• Production started here in 1918.

• The Soviet Union wanted to be self sufficient with cotton.

• Price of cotton was high after WWWI.

• By 1938 they could export cotton.

• South of Amu Darya delta lies an area 28.000 sq km used for the production of rice and cotton.

• Production started here in 1918.

• The Soviet Union wanted to be self sufficient with cotton.

• Price of cotton was high after WWWI.

• By 1938 they could export cotton.

The Kara Kum CanalThe Kara Kum Canal

The 850 mile Kara Kum Canal was opened in 1954 and bought prosperity to the desert region of Kara Kum.

The 850 mile Kara Kum Canal was opened in 1954 and bought prosperity to the desert region of Kara Kum.

Water and Land useWater and Land use

Courtesy The Aral Sea HomepageCourtesy The Aral Sea Homepage

Note the 1960 and 1990 shoreline

Note the 1960 and 1990 shoreline

What happens when you

practice agricultural

Suicide?

What happens when you

practice agricultural

Suicide?

Only a trickle of water has reached the lake since 1995

Only a trickle of water has reached the lake since 1995

• In the late 1980s salinity reached 23%

• A huge salt storm is brewing in the upper left corner

• Aral region pesticides have even been found in Antarctic penguins

• Salt and pesticide chemicals have seeped into groundwater

• In the late 1980s salinity reached 23%

• A huge salt storm is brewing in the upper left corner

• Aral region pesticides have even been found in Antarctic penguins

• Salt and pesticide chemicals have seeped into groundwater

• 60.000 people abandoned their fishing livelihood- as commercial fishing ceased in 1982

• 500 species of birds, 200 species of mammals, and 100 species of fish have disappeared

• 60.000 people abandoned their fishing livelihood- as commercial fishing ceased in 1982

• 500 species of birds, 200 species of mammals, and 100 species of fish have disappeared

Many fields have been poisoned by salt rising from waterlogged subsoil, encrusting young plants – increased salinity = higher water use.

Many fields have been poisoned by salt rising from waterlogged subsoil, encrusting young plants – increased salinity = higher water use.

Dust EverywhereDust Everywhere

Over 100 million tons of dust a year.

Airborne salt and dust causesrespiratory andeye problemsand possiblythroat and other cancersLiver and kidneyproblems

Poor quality drinking water is causing cholera, typhus and

gastritis

Poor quality drinking water is causing cholera, typhus and

gastritis

Hospitalization rates increased from 20 to 25% between 1980 and 1987

Hospitalization rates increased from 20 to 25% between 1980 and 1987

Mortality rates have increased by 15 times over 10 years

The infant mortality rate is the highest in the former Soviet Union by a factor of 3-4The infant mortality rate is the highest in the former Soviet Union by a factor of 3-4

Climatic Consequences:• Increased continentality (inland climate)• Increase in salt and dust storms• Shortening of the vegetation period

Ecological/Economic Consequences:• Degeneration of the delta ecosystem• Total collapse of the fishing industry• Decrease of productivity of agricultural fields

Health Consequences:• Increase of serious decease (e.g. cholera,

typhus, gastritis, cancer)• Increase of respiratory system deceases (e.g.

asthma, bronchitis)• Birth defects and high infant mortality

Climatic Consequences:• Increased continentality (inland climate)• Increase in salt and dust storms• Shortening of the vegetation period

Ecological/Economic Consequences:• Degeneration of the delta ecosystem• Total collapse of the fishing industry• Decrease of productivity of agricultural fields

Health Consequences:• Increase of serious decease (e.g. cholera,

typhus, gastritis, cancer)• Increase of respiratory system deceases (e.g.

asthma, bronchitis)• Birth defects and high infant mortality

What have been doneWhat have been done

• World Bank main player, spend more than US$0.5 bil to try and• Stabilize the Aral Sea level• Rehabilitate the region• Improve its water management

• In 2004 it was concluded to give up on the largely dead Big Sea and try to salvage the Small Sea

• Also UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, and scores of national gov. programs and NGOs

• World Bank main player, spend more than US$0.5 bil to try and• Stabilize the Aral Sea level• Rehabilitate the region• Improve its water management

• In 2004 it was concluded to give up on the largely dead Big Sea and try to salvage the Small Sea

• Also UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, and scores of national gov. programs and NGOs

Can the Aral Sea disaster be reversed?

Can the Aral Sea disaster be reversed?

• The Aral sea has received no shortage of attention in the past decade. Although measures have been taken on a limited scale to address the environmental and health problems in the basin, no conclusive or all-encompassing program has yet made satisfactory progress.

• In the mean time the Sea continues to dry up, drinking water remains contaminated, and crops yield less and less while pollution increases.

• Whether their will be an Aral Sea in 2010 remains a debatable question, and whether the proposed and approved programs make good their plans to assist the suffering people of the basin remains to be seen.

• The Aral sea has received no shortage of attention in the past decade. Although measures have been taken on a limited scale to address the environmental and health problems in the basin, no conclusive or all-encompassing program has yet made satisfactory progress.

• In the mean time the Sea continues to dry up, drinking water remains contaminated, and crops yield less and less while pollution increases.

• Whether their will be an Aral Sea in 2010 remains a debatable question, and whether the proposed and approved programs make good their plans to assist the suffering people of the basin remains to be seen.

ChallengesChallenges• Up until 1991 central Soviet decisions• Since 1992 agreements between seven

independent countries (also Afghanistan and Iran))

• Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan – irrigation• Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan - hydropower• Conflict of interest: summer or winter flow• Hydro-solidarity• Involvement of international organizations

• Up until 1991 central Soviet decisions• Since 1992 agreements between seven

independent countries (also Afghanistan and Iran))

• Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan – irrigation• Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan - hydropower• Conflict of interest: summer or winter flow• Hydro-solidarity• Involvement of international organizations

ChallengesChallenges

• Inadequate water for competing economic uses

• More than half the water used in irrigation is wasted due to inefficiency in delivery and application (37% before it reaches the field and 21% in field losses)

• Therefore water governance an issue – water user associations and intergovernmental and stakeholder cooperation

• Inadequate water for competing economic uses

• More than half the water used in irrigation is wasted due to inefficiency in delivery and application (37% before it reaches the field and 21% in field losses)

• Therefore water governance an issue – water user associations and intergovernmental and stakeholder cooperation

The Green RevolutionThe Green Revolution

Why “The Green Revolution”?

Why “The Green Revolution”?

• Late 1940s - India and Pakistan gained

Independence from England

• The World’s worst recorded food disaster

occurred in 1943 in British-ruled India. Known

as the Bengal Famine, an estimated 4 million

people died of hunger that year in eastern

India.

• When India and Pakistan gained

Independence, it was natural that food

security was one of the main items on the

agenda.

• Late 1940s - India and Pakistan gained

Independence from England

• The World’s worst recorded food disaster

occurred in 1943 in British-ruled India. Known

as the Bengal Famine, an estimated 4 million

people died of hunger that year in eastern

India.

• When India and Pakistan gained

Independence, it was natural that food

security was one of the main items on the

agenda.

Two responses to the food crises

Two responses to the food crises

• 1. Indigenous responses• Rooted in the Independence Movement• Aimed at strengthening the ecological base

of agriculture and the self-reliance of the peasants of the country

• This was the policy encouraged by Mahatma Gandhi the leader of the independent movement;

• Repairing nature’s cycle and working in partnership with nature’s processes was central to the indigenous approach

• A bottom up approach

• 1. Indigenous responses• Rooted in the Independence Movement• Aimed at strengthening the ecological base

of agriculture and the self-reliance of the peasants of the country

• This was the policy encouraged by Mahatma Gandhi the leader of the independent movement;

• Repairing nature’s cycle and working in partnership with nature’s processes was central to the indigenous approach

• A bottom up approach

• But while Indian scientist and policy-makers worked on self-reliance ecological alternatives,

• But while Indian scientist and policy-makers worked on self-reliance ecological alternatives,

1. Indigenous responses1. Indigenous responses

• another vision of agriculture developed in the US

• Alarmed by growing peasant unrest in new countries in Asia

• Korea, Malaysia, etc• Did not want other

countries to go the way of China

• another vision of agriculture developed in the US

• Alarmed by growing peasant unrest in new countries in Asia

• Korea, Malaysia, etc• Did not want other

countries to go the way of China

2. Exogenous responses2. Exogenous responses

The exogenous vision The exogenous vision

• It was not based on:• cooperation with but on the conquest

of nature.• self-reliance of developing countries

but on dependence of developed countries

• diversity but uniformity (a few super varieties)

• It was not based on:• cooperation with but on the conquest

of nature.• self-reliance of developing countries

but on dependence of developed countries

• diversity but uniformity (a few super varieties)

2. Exogenous responses2. Exogenous responsesGreen revolution based on• Introduction of a few ‘dwarf’ high yielding

varieties• Intensive large scale agriculture based on• High level of capital input in irrigation,

chemicals, fertilizer and machinery• Intensification of credit to purchase this input

• Rice was introduced into Punjab and Hyderabad, not a traditional crop in this arid area

• Favoring larger farmers

Green revolution based on• Introduction of a few ‘dwarf’ high yielding

varieties• Intensive large scale agriculture based on• High level of capital input in irrigation,

chemicals, fertilizer and machinery• Intensification of credit to purchase this input

• Rice was introduced into Punjab and Hyderabad, not a traditional crop in this arid area

• Favoring larger farmers

• Advisors and experts came from the US to shift India’s agricultural research and policy from and indigenous to an exogenous

• Finding support in sections of the elite as they stood to gain from this approach, it suited their political interests and priorities

• Driven by • Private organizations (the Ford and Rockefeller

Foundations)• The US Government• The World Bank

• Advisors and experts came from the US to shift India’s agricultural research and policy from and indigenous to an exogenous

• Finding support in sections of the elite as they stood to gain from this approach, it suited their political interests and priorities

• Driven by • Private organizations (the Ford and Rockefeller

Foundations)• The US Government• The World Bank

2. Exogenous responses2. Exogenous responses

• The Field Director of Rockefeller Foundation became head of Indian Agricultural Research and together with US-AID financed training of more than 2.000 Indian farmers in the US

• The World Bank provided credit to introduce a capital intensive agricultural model in India

• US-AID and World Bank also inserted pressure for favorable conditions for foreign investment in India’s fertilizer industry, import liberalization and elimination of domestic control

• The Field Director of Rockefeller Foundation became head of Indian Agricultural Research and together with US-AID financed training of more than 2.000 Indian farmers in the US

• The World Bank provided credit to introduce a capital intensive agricultural model in India

• US-AID and World Bank also inserted pressure for favorable conditions for foreign investment in India’s fertilizer industry, import liberalization and elimination of domestic control

2. Exogenous responses2. Exogenous responses

• Main support in India came from the Agricultural minister who was trained by one of the inventors of the G.R. and the young scientists trained in the US

• Opposition from Planning Commission , Economists, State Governments and Agricultural Scientists

• Fear of the social, economic and environmental impact as well as dependence on overseas input

• The 1966 drought caused severe drop in food production in India

• Lyndon Johnson conditioned food support to India on signing an agreement to adopt the Green Revolution package

• India signed in 1967

• Main support in India came from the Agricultural minister who was trained by one of the inventors of the G.R. and the young scientists trained in the US

• Opposition from Planning Commission , Economists, State Governments and Agricultural Scientists

• Fear of the social, economic and environmental impact as well as dependence on overseas input

• The 1966 drought caused severe drop in food production in India

• Lyndon Johnson conditioned food support to India on signing an agreement to adopt the Green Revolution package

• India signed in 1967

2. Exogenous responses2. Exogenous responses

The Miracle Rice and Wheat

The Miracle Rice and Wheat

• The new genetically modified rice and wheat varieties responded well to fertilizers and irrigation

• Increased water consumption for agriculture in India by 3 times

* From groundwater aquifers * Surface water from dams/canal systems• The new varieties were dwarf varieties,

with less output of straw, which in the indigenous production system was used to feed their cattle, and return producing milk and fertilizer, fuel and building material

• The new genetically modified rice and wheat varieties responded well to fertilizers and irrigation

• Increased water consumption for agriculture in India by 3 times

* From groundwater aquifers * Surface water from dams/canal systems• The new varieties were dwarf varieties,

with less output of straw, which in the indigenous production system was used to feed their cattle, and return producing milk and fertilizer, fuel and building material

The Miracle Rice and Wheat

The Miracle Rice and Wheat

• Plants that were displaced by the new monoculture are pulses and oilseeds, crucial to the nutrient needs of people and the soil• The Miracle Seeds are not self-

regenerating, so farmers can’t keep some of his grain for next season, but have to buy seeds• Not ‘high yielding’ but ‘high

responsive’ seeds

• Plants that were displaced by the new monoculture are pulses and oilseeds, crucial to the nutrient needs of people and the soil• The Miracle Seeds are not self-

regenerating, so farmers can’t keep some of his grain for next season, but have to buy seeds• Not ‘high yielding’ but ‘high

responsive’ seeds

Mono-croppingMono-cropping• Traditional crop rotation with fallow

periods• Added nutrients• Controlled weeds and pests

• mono-cropping – one of the responses to increased population• Continued cropping• Developed seeds• High input of fertilizer, pesticides, machinery

and water• Single high yielding varieties• Loss of Agro biodiversity

• Green revolution prime example

• Traditional crop rotation with fallow periods• Added nutrients• Controlled weeds and pests

• mono-cropping – one of the responses to increased population• Continued cropping• Developed seeds• High input of fertilizer, pesticides, machinery

and water• Single high yielding varieties• Loss of Agro biodiversity

• Green revolution prime example

Example of Mono-croppingExample of Mono-cropping

Mono-Mono-cropping of cropping of host plant host plant with minimum with minimum fallow periodsfallow periods

Shifting Shifting cultivation of cultivation of host plant host plant with long with long fallow periodfallow period

So The Green Revolution was introduced in Punjab in North Western India

Punjab has an ancient irrigation history

In the 8th century the rulers differentiated between irrigated and non-irrigated land for levying taxes

A network of inundation canals irrigated millions of hectares

So The Green Revolution was introduced in Punjab in North Western India

Punjab has an ancient irrigation history

In the 8th century the rulers differentiated between irrigated and non-irrigated land for levying taxes

A network of inundation canals irrigated millions of hectares

This did not cause water logging and salinization - only active 4-5 months of the year.

Aligned along natural drainage features, not interfering with natural run off

Many projects had several large canals and dams all following these guidelines

By the middle of the 20th century 31 large canal systems

In 1974 new major dams were build as part of the Indus River Irrigation Scheme

This did not cause water logging and salinization - only active 4-5 months of the year.

Aligned along natural drainage features, not interfering with natural run off

Many projects had several large canals and dams all following these guidelines

By the middle of the 20th century 31 large canal systems

In 1974 new major dams were build as part of the Indus River Irrigation Scheme

Increase in tubewellsIncrease in tubewells

Increase in tubewells and open wells

Increase in tubewells and open wells

Hydrograph of Junagadh

Hydrograph of Junagadh

• In the Southwest of Punjabi groundwater is saline. But still

1. Farmers demand more water to leach the salt out of the ground despite water logging conditions

2. Dropping water tables risk infusion of saline water from neighboring areas

• In the Southwest of Punjabi groundwater is saline. But still

1. Farmers demand more water to leach the salt out of the ground despite water logging conditions

2. Dropping water tables risk infusion of saline water from neighboring areas

Depleting groundwater aquifers

Depleting groundwater aquifers

The combination of large dams for surface irrigation, increased use of tubewells, and the high water demands for The Green Revolution varieties has led to major ecological impacts

The combination of large dams for surface irrigation, increased use of tubewells, and the high water demands for The Green Revolution varieties has led to major ecological impacts

Economic Impacts:Economic Impacts:High input costs: fertilizers, pesticides, herbicidesHigh capital investment for the farmerHigh capital investment for the infrastructureSocial Impact:Social Impact:Increased rural debt, rural unemployment and suicide ratesPolitical Impact:Political Impact:Civil unrest, at least 15.000 people have been killed in violent conflicts

Economic Impacts:Economic Impacts:High input costs: fertilizers, pesticides, herbicidesHigh capital investment for the farmerHigh capital investment for the infrastructureSocial Impact:Social Impact:Increased rural debt, rural unemployment and suicide ratesPolitical Impact:Political Impact:Civil unrest, at least 15.000 people have been killed in violent conflicts

• Loss of fertility• Plants need more

than NPK fertility also micronutrients, the use of HYV has depleted the soil of these nutrients

• With organic manure this does not happen because it contains these trace elements NPK fertilizer does not

• Loss of fertility• Plants need more

than NPK fertility also micronutrients, the use of HYV has depleted the soil of these nutrients

• With organic manure this does not happen because it contains these trace elements NPK fertilizer does not

Social Impact of the Green Revolution

Social Impact of the Green Revolution

• Local skills and labour are lost• Local economies destroyed• Mutual help is replaced by competition• The richer get richer and the poor gets

poorer• Farmers become indebted• Producing for export drives local

prices up• Knowledge is lost• The diet of the poor suffers because

monoculture replaces the diversity

• Local skills and labour are lost• Local economies destroyed• Mutual help is replaced by competition• The richer get richer and the poor gets

poorer• Farmers become indebted• Producing for export drives local

prices up• Knowledge is lost• The diet of the poor suffers because

monoculture replaces the diversity