The Americas on the Eve of Invasion. Entry Reading Assessment What was unique about the Aztec and Inca civilizations in this time period? Think globally.

The Americas on the Eve of Invasion

Entry Reading Assessment

What was unique about the Aztec and Inca civilizations in this time period? Think globally and about the PERSIAN chart characteristics

What was similar about the Aztec and Inca civilizations (both compared to each other and the world as a whole)

Mesoamerican and South American Civilizations. “It’s like America, but South”- Disney Pixar’s UP

2500s BCE-400 BCE Olmec300s-900s CE Mayas900s-1200s CE Toltecs1100s-1500s CE Incas1300s- 1500s CE Aztecs

Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000-1500 CE

8th century collapse of Teotihuacan and abandonment of classical Maya citiesToltecs (nomadic peoples from the north) took advantage of political vacuum left by Maya and established a capital at Tula about 968Toltec culture adopted any features from the sedentary peoples and added a strongly militaristic ethic

The Toltec Heritage

Topiltizin- Toltec leader and priest dedicated to the god Quetzalcoatl -legendToltecs created vast empire that spread over much of central Mexico and as far down as GuatemalaNorth and Easterly influence debated

Aztec Rise to Power

Toltecs lasted until 1150, when it was destroyed by nomadic invaders from the northPeople flocked to lake regions and argued over water resources and control of lakes. The Aztecs won this struggle (they called themselves Mexica)Aztec ancestry debated and unclearAztecs were a group of about 10,000 people who migrated to the shores of Lake Texcoco in the central valley of MexicoAfter the fall of the Toltecs many people moved to this area and the area around the lake was organized into city-states. Political units claimed power on the basis of military power and connections to Toltec culture

Aztec were tough warriors and worshippers of gods, to whom they made sacrifices1325 founded the city of Tenochtitlan1428 emerged as an independent power1434 created an alliance with two other city-states that controlled much of the plateau

The Aztec Social Contract

Aztec domination vast. Subject peoples made to pay tribute, surrender lands, and do military serviceBecame a stratified society under the authority of a supreme rulerHuman sacrifice expanded and military class played central role as suppliers of victims

Religion and Ideology of Conquest

128 major deitiesEach deity had a female form and many had different formsSupported by festivals and ceremonies3 major themes/cults of gods: gods of fertility and the agricultural cycle (Tlaloc, the god of rain) ; creator deities; cult of warfare and sacrifice (Huitzilopochtli- the Aztec tribal patron)Religion explained the birth and history of the gods and their relationship to peoples

Tenochtitlan: The Foundation of Heaven

The Aztecs considered their capital a sacred spaceThe palaces and temples were impressive architectural feats1519 population larger than 150,000City was an island connected by four waterways, which the calpulli, or kin group, maintainedPresent-day Mexico City on this site

Feeding the People: The Economy of the Empire

AgricultureDeveloped an ingenious system of irrigated agriculture by building chinampas (beds of aquatic weeds, mud, an earth placed in frames and rooted on the lake floor and formed artificial floating islands that were able to bring water to all the plants and produce four corn crops a year)Each Aztec community- local clan apportioned the lands. Individual nobles might have private estates . Each community had markets to exchange goods but they were regulated. Pochteca- special merchant class that specialized in long-distance luxury tradeTribute payments assigned

Widening Social Gulf

Aztecs had been divided into seven calpulli earlier when they were wandering. They maintained this division to include neighbors, allies, and dependants- they organized labor, military, schools. Calpulli were governed by councils of family heads but not all families were equalAs Aztec power expanded a class of nobility emerged- nobles born into their class and nobles controlled the priesthood and the military leadershipSocial gulf between nobility and comers grew with the empireAs nobility broke free from old calpulli and acquired private lands a new class of workers like serfs developed. Low status but higher than slavesScribes, artisans, and healers part of another group

Overcoming Technological Constraints

Membership in society defined by participation in wider groups, such as calpulli or specific social classWomen had a decent status- had political rights but in reality remained subordinate to menTechnology limited social development- women spent 30-40 hours a week preparing food because they had to grind maize by handHighly dense population

 A Tribute Empire

Each city-state ruled by a speaker chosen from the nobility- The Great Speaker was the ruler of Tenochtitlan and equivalent to an emperor Ancient cult of military virtues elevated to supreme position as the religion of the state and securing tribute for the state drove Aztec conquestsEmpire never integratedMany revolts against the Aztecs but they ruthlessly put them downAztecs were a continuation of earlier civilizations- a militarized version of them

The Incas

3000 miles in extent in Andean highlandsIncorporated many aspects of previous Andean cultures but fused them together in new waysState organization and bureaucratic control- high level of integrationAfter break-up of states of Tihuanaco and Huari (550-1000) several smaller regional states exercised some powerCoastal kingdom of Chimur emerged as most powerful. Between 900 and its conquest of the Incas in 1465 it gained the most power

Inca Rise to Power

Quechua-speaking clans around 1350 living near Cuzco1438 had defeated hostile neighbors in the area and under Pachacuti (1438-1471) extended control to Lake TiticacaFor next 60 years further expanded the empire. Topac Yupanqui (Pachacuti’s son) seized much of north and some of south. Next ruler Huayna Capac consolidated conquests and suppressed rebellionsBetween 9 and 13 million people of different ethnic backgrounds came under their rule

Conquest

Cult of the ancestors important in Inca beliefSplit inheritance – all political power and titles of the ruler went to his successor but all his palaces, wealth, land, and possessions remained in the hands of his male descendents, who used them to support the cult of the dead Inca’s mummy for eternitySelf-perpetuating need for conquestSun highest deity

Inca Rule

Empire was ruled by the inca, who was considered almost a godRuled from CuzcoPriest usually a close relativeDivided into four great provinces, each under a governor and then divided againState bureaucracy in which nobles played a roleSome local practices slowed to continueSpread of Quechua as means of integrating the empireExtracted land and labor from subject empires

Inca Rule

Did not demand tribute in kind but exacted labor on the lands assigned to the state and religionLabor turns (mita)- essential aspect of controlWomen almost on equal status- had gender-specific duties but recognized parallel descent. Of course, theory was better than reality. In reality gender hierarchy developedIntegration of imperial policy with regional and ethnic diversity a feat. Ethnic headmen kept in place but over them were administrators from Inca nobility in CuzcoNobility in Cuzco and greatly privileged No development of a special merchant classEmphasis on self-sufficiencyBy 1520s empire weakened by civil strife

Inca Cultural Achievements

Metalworking, pottery, cloth, copper and bronze tools and weaponsNo wheel, no writing systemUsed numerical system of knots like the abacus to record numerical data like census informationGenius at land water management, road system, architecture and public buildings (2500 miles of roads)

Comparing Incas and Aztecs

Both built on previous civilizations Both represented success at imperial and military organizationBoth created by the conquest of sedentary agricultural people and the extraction of tribute and labor from themBoth older kinship-based institutions changed with the rise in nobilityBoth recognized local ethnic groups and powers Aztec trade and markets more developed

The Other Indians

When comparing consider gradations of culture and social complexityMesoamerica and the Andes supported high levels of population- 67 million total population- almost equal to other groups in the world (china, India- 75-100, Europe- 60-70)Intermediate zone between Mesoamerica and northern South America- resembled sedentary agricultural states in many waysChieftainships ruled over many parts of Caribbean, Northwest South America- societies more egalitarian and material culture simpleAmericas lacked nomadic herdersGreat diversity in North America- as many as 200 languages by 1500Some hunter gatherers- northwest coast IndiansMost Indian societies strongly kin based, communal action and ownership stressed