The Americans - Chapter 9 · 2018. 9. 9. · 272 CHAPTER 9 Andrew Jackson is elected president. 1828 Martin Van Buren is elected president. 1836 Uruguay becomes an inde-pendent republic.

272 CHAPTER 9

AndrewJackson is elected president.

1828Martin

Van Buren is electedpresident.

1836

Uruguaybecomes an inde-pendent republic.

1828 SantaAnna is electedpresident ofMexico.

1833 Ferdinand Ibecomes emperorof Austria.

1835

The ErieCanal connectsthe East to theWest.

1825 JosephSmith establishesthe MormonChurch.

1830

Chief BlackHawk leads Sauk rebellion.

Andrew Jackson is reelected.1832

1832

Revolutionsoccur in Belgium,France, and Poland.

1830

1825 1830 18351825 1830 1835USAWORLD

William Ranney’s 1853 painting Adviceon the Prairie is an idealistic image of afamily travelling west in the mid-1800s.

Expanding Markets and Moving West 273

JohnTyler becomespresident whenPresidentWilliam HenryHarrison dies.

1841

Constitutionalrevolts occurin Lower andUpper Canada.

1837

James K.Polk is electedpresident.

1844

Gold is discov-ered in California.

Zachary Taylor is elected president.1848

1848

BenitoJuárez begins liberal reformmovement inMexico.

1840 U.S. wins Mexican-AmericanWar.

1847 Marx andEngels issue theCommunistManifesto.

1848

I N T E R A C TI N T E R A C TW I T H H I S T O R YW I T H H I S T O R Y

In the 1820s and 1830s the countrywas energized by new inventions andnew business. Now it is 1840, and aneconomic downturn dampens thehopes of workers and business ownersalike. Newspaper ads urge Americansto pack up and move west. But manypeople and nations already inhabitthe North American West. Mexicoowns a large part of the area, andNative Americans have been livingthere for centuries.

What are theways that anation increasesits territory?Examine the Issues

• What are some reasons countriesexpand their borders?

• What might be benefits or draw-backs of expansion?

John Deereinventsthesteelplow.

1837

1840 1845 18501840 1845 1850

Visit the Chapter 9 links for more informationabout Expanding Markets and Moving West.

RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM

274 CHAPTER 9

Terms & NamesTerms & NamesMAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

One American's Story

The Market Revolution

•Samuel F. B.Morse

•specialization•market revolution•capitalism

•entrepreneur•telegraph•John Deere•Cyrus McCormick

Technological changescreated greater interactionand more economic diversityamong the regions of thenation.

The linking of marketscontinues today, as newtechnologies are opening theUnited States to globalizedtrade.

WHY IT MATTERS NOWWHY IT MATTERS NOW

In 1837, painter and scientist Samuel F. B. Morse, with Leonard Gale, built anelectromagnetic telegraph. Morse’s first model could send signals ten milesthrough copper wire. Morse asked Congress to fund an experimentaltelegraphic communication that would travel for 100 miles.

A PERSONAL VOICE SAMUEL F. B. MORSE

“ This mode of instantaneous communication must inevitablybecome an instrument of immense power, to be wielded forgood or for evil. . . . Let the sole right of using the Telegraphbelong, in the first place, to the Government, who shouldgrant . . . the right to lay down a communication between anytwo points for the purpose of transmitting intelligence.”

—quoted in Samuel F. B. Morse: His Letters and Journals

Congress granted Morse $30,000 to build a 40-mile tele-graph line between Baltimore and Washington, D.C. In 1844,Morse tapped out in code the words “What hath God wrought?”The message sped from Washington, D.C., over a metal wire in lessthan a second. As new communication links began to put people intoinstant communication with one another, new transportation links carried goodsand people across vast regions.

U.S. Markets ExpandIn the early 19th century, rural American workers produced their own goods ortraded with neighbors to meet almost all of their needs. Farm families were self-sufficient—they grew crops and raised animals for food and made their ownclothing, candles, and soap. At local markets, farmers sold wood, eggs, or butterfor cash, which they used to purchase the coffee, tea, sugar, or horseshoes theycouldn’t produce themselves.

By midcentury, however, the United States had become more industrialized,especially in the Northeast, where the rise of textile mills and the factory systemchanged the lives of workers and consumers. Now, workers spent their earnings

▼

Samuel Morsewas a painterbefore he becamefamous as aninventor.

A

on goods produced by other workers. Farmers began to shiftfrom self-sufficiency to specialization, raising one or twocash crops that they could sell at home or abroad.

These developments led to a market revolution, inwhich people bought and sold goods rather than makingthem for their own use. The market revolution created astriking change in the U.S. economy and in the daily livesof Americans. In these decades, goods and services multi-plied while incomes rose. In fact, in the 1840s, the nation-al economy grew more than it had in the previous 40 years.

THE ENTREPRENEURIAL SPIRIT The quickening pace ofU.S. economic growth depended on capitalism, the eco-nomic system in which private businesses and individualscontrol the means of production—such as factories,machines, and land—and use them to earn profits. Forexample, in 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell and other Bostonmerchants had put up $400,000 to form the BostonManufacturing Company, which produced textiles. Otherbusinesspeople supplied their own funds to create capital—the money, property, machines, and factories that fueledAmerica’s expanding economy.

These investors, called entrepreneurs from a Frenchword that means “to undertake,” risked their own money innew industries. They risked losing their investment, butthey also stood to earn huge profits if they succeeded.Alexander Mackay, a Scottish journalist who lived inCanada and traveled in the United States, applauded theentrepreneurs’ competitive spirit.

A PERSONAL VOICE ALEXANDER MACKAY

“ America is a country in which fortunes have yet to be made. . . . All cannot be made wealthy, but all have a chance of securing a prize. Thisstimulates to the race, and hence the eagernessof the competition.”

—quoted in The Western World

NEW INVENTIONS Inventor-entrepreneurs beganto develop goods to make life more comfortablefor more people. For example, Charles Goodyeardeveloped vulcanized rubber in 1839. Unlikeuntreated India rubber, the new product didn’tfreeze in cold weather or melt in hot weather.People first used the product to protect their boots,but, in the early 1900s, it became indispensable inthe manufacturing of automobile tires.

A natural place for the growth of industrial-ization was in producing clothing, a process great-ly aided by the invention of the sewing machine.Patented by Elias Howe in 1846, the sewingmachine found its first use in shoe factories.Homemakers appreciated I. M. Singer’s additionof the foot treadle, which drastically reduced thetime it took to sew garments. More importantly,

ECONOMICECONOMIC

GOODYEAR AS ENTREPRENEUR

One entrepreneur who developedan industry still vital today wasCharles Goodyear (1800–1860).Goodyear took a big risk thatpaid off for the American public—but left him penniless.

While he was exploring theproblem of how to keep rubberelastic and waterproof underextreme temperatures, Goodyearpurchased the rights of an inven-tor who had mixed rubber withsulfur. In 1839, Goodyear discov-ered that when heated, the mix-ture toughened into a durableelastic. In 1844, he received apatent for the process, namedvulcanization after Vulcan, themythological god of fire.

Unfortunately, Goodyear earnedonly scant monetary reward forhis discovery, which others stoleand used. The inventor was deepin debt when he died in 1860.

I. M. Singer’s foot-treadle sewing machinewas patented in 1851 and soon dominatedthe industry.▼

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

A

AnalyzingCauses

What led tothe rise ofcapitalism?

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

the foot-treadle sewing machine led to the factory production of clothing. Whenclothing prices tumbled by more than 75 percent, increasing numbers of workingpeople could afford to buy store-bought clothes.

IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY While entrepreneurial activity boostedAmerica’s industrial output, American agriculture continued to flourish. Workersin industrial cities needed food. To meet this demand, American farmers began touse mechanized farm equipment produced in factories. Farmers, therefore, madesignificant contributions to the American industrial machine and became impor-tant consumers of manufactured items.

Manufactured items grew less expensive as technology advances loweredexpenses. For example, a clock that had cost $50 to craft by hand in 1800 couldbe turned out by machine for half a dollar by midcentury. Falling prices meantthat many workers became regular consumers. They purchased new products notonly for work, but for comfort as well.

The Economic RevolutionThese new inventions, many developed in the UnitedStates, contributed immensely to changes in Americanlife. Some inventions simply made life more enjoyable.Other inventions fueled the economic revolution of themidcentury, and transformed manufacturing, transporta-tion and communication.

IMPACT ON COMMUNICATION Improving on a devicedeveloped by Joseph Henry, Samuel F. B. Morse, a NewEngland artist, created the telegraph in 1837 to carrymessages, tapped in code, across copper wire. Within tenyears, telegraph lines connected the larger cities on theEast Coast.

Businesses used the new communication device totransmit orders and to relay up-to-date information on

276 CHAPTER 9

MORSE CODE In 1837 SamuelMorse patents the telegraph,the first instant electroniccommunicator. Morse taps on akey to send bursts of electricitydown a wire to the receiver, wherean operator “translates” thecoded bursts into understandablelanguage within seconds.

TELEPHONE In 1876 AlexanderGraham Bell invents the telephone,which relies on a steady stream ofelectricity, rather than electricalbursts, to transmitsounds. By 1900,there are over onemillion telephonesin the UnitedStates.

MARCONI RADIO In 1895, GuglielmoMarconi, an Italian inventor, sends telegraphcode through the air as electromagnetic waves.By the early 1900s, “the wireless” makesvoice transmissions possible. Commercialradio stations are broadcasting music and

entertainmentprograms bythe 1920s.

NOWNOW THENTHEN

FROM TELEGRAPHTO INTERNET

What do the telegraph and theInternet have in common? Theyare both tools for instant commu-nication. The telegraph relied on anetwork of wires that spanned thecountry.The Internet—an interna-tional network of smaller comput-er networks—allows any computeruser to communicate instantlywith any other computer user inthe world.

1895189518371837 18761876

B

B

AnalyzingEffects

Describe theimpact of themarket revolutionon potentialcustomers.

prices and sales. The telegraph was a huge success. The new railroads employedthe telegraph to keep trains moving regularly and to warn engineers of safety haz-ards. By 1854, 23,000 miles of telegraph wire crossed the country.

IMPACT ON TRANSPORTATION Better and faster transportation became essen-tial to the expansion of agriculture and industry. Farmers and manufacturers alikesought more direct ways to ship their goods to market. In 1807, PennsylvanianRobert Fulton had ushered in the steamboat era when his boat, the Clermont,made the 150-mile trip up the Hudson River from New York City to Albany, NewYork, in 32 hours. Ships that had previously only been able to drift southwarddown the Mississippi with the current could now turn around to make the returntrip because they were powered by steam engines. By 1830, 200 steamboats trav-eled the nation’s western rivers, thus slashing freight rates as well as voyage times.

Water transport was particularly important in moving heavy machinery andsuch raw materials as lead and copper. Where waterways didn’t exist, workersexcavated them. In 1816, America had a mere 100 miles of canals. Twenty-fiveyears later, the country boasted more than 3,300 miles of canals.

The Erie Canal was the nation’s first major canal, and it was used heavily.Shipping charges fell to about a tenth of the cost of sending goods over land.Before the first shovel broke ground on the Erie Canal in 1817, for example,freight charges between Buffalo, New York, and New York City averaged 19 centsa ton per mile. By 1830, that average had fallen to less than 2 cents.

The Erie Canal’s success led to dozens of other canal projects. Farmers in Ohiono longer depended on Mississippi River passage to New Orleans. They could nowship their grain via canal and river to New York City, the nation’s major port. Thecanals also opened the heartland of America to world markets by connecting theNortheast to the Midwest.

EMERGENCE OF RAILROADS The heyday of the canals lasted only until the1860s, due to the rapid emergence of railroads. Although shipping by rail cost sig-nificantly more in the 1840s than did shipping by canal, railroads offered theadvantage of speed. In addition, trains could operate in the winter, and theybrought goods to people who lived inland.


19641964

TELEVISION In the late 1800s, scien-tists begin to experiment with transmit-

ting pictures as well aswords through the air. In 1923, VladimirZworykin, a Russian-born American scientist,files a patent for theiconoscope, the firsttelevision camera tubesuitable for broadcast-ing. In 1924 he files a patent for thekinescope, the picturetube used in receivingtelevision signals. In 1929, Zworykindemonstrated his newtelevision.

19291929

COMPUTERS Scientists develop electroni-cally powered computers during the 1940s.In 1951, UNIVAC I (UNIVersal AutomaticComputer) becomes the first commerciallyavailable computer. In 1964, IBM initiatesSystem/360, a family of mutually compatiblecomputers that allow several terminals to beattached to one computer system.

INTERNET Today, on the Internet,through e-mail (electronic mail) or onlineconversation, any two people can haveinstant dialogue. The Internet becomesthe modern tool for instant global com-munication not onlyof words, butimages, too.

By the 1840s, steam engines pulled freight at ten miles an hour—more thanfour times faster than canal boats traveled. Passengers found such speeds exciting,although early train travel was far from comfortable, as Samuel Breck, aPhiladelphia merchant, complained.

A PERSONAL VOICE SAMUEL BRECK

“ If one could stop when one wanted, and if one were not locked up in a box with50 or 60 tobacco-chewers; and the engine and fire did not burn holes in one’sclothes . . . and the smell of the smoke, of the oil, and of the chimney did not poi-son one . . . and [one] were not in danger of being blown sky-high or knocked offthe rails—it would be the perfection of travelling.”

—quoted in American Railroads

Eventually, railroads grew to be both safe and reliable, and the cost of railfreight gradually came down. By 1850, almost 10,000 miles of track had been laid,and by 1859, railroads carried 2 billion tons of freight a year.

New Markets Link RegionsBy the 1840s, improved transportation and communication made America’sregions interdependent. Arteries like the National Road, whose constructionbegan in 1811, had also opened up western travel. By 1818, the road extendedfrom Cumberland, Maryland, west to Wheeling, Virginia; by 1838, it reached asfar west as Springfield, Illinois.

Growing links between America’s regions contributed to the development ofregional specialties. The South exported its cotton to England as well as to NewEngland. The West’s grain and livestock fed hungry factory workers in easterncities and in Europe. The East manufactured textiles and machinery.

SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE Most of the South remained agricultural and reliedon such crops as cotton, tobacco, and rice. Southerners who had seen the North’s

“filthy, overcrowded, licentious factories” looked with dis-favor on industrialization. Even if wealthy Southernerswanted to build factories, they usually lacked the capital todo so because their money was tied up in land and theslaves required to plant and harvest the crops.

Though the new transportation and communicationlines were less advanced in the South, these improvementshelped keep Americans from every region in touch withone another. Furthermore, they changed the economic re-lationships between the regions, creating new markets andinterdependencies.

NORTHEAST SHIPPING AND MANUFACTURING Heavyinvestment in canals and railroads transformed theNortheast into the center of American commerce. After theopening of the Erie Canal in 1825, New York City becamethe central link between American agriculture and Europeanmarkets. In fact, more cotton was exported through NewYork City than through any other American city.

The most striking development of the era, however, wasthe rise in manufacturing. Although most Americans stilllived in rural areas and only 14 percent of workers had man-ufacturing jobs, these workers produced more and bettergoods at lower prices than had ever been produced before.

278 CHAPTER 9

C

WORLD STAGEWORLD STAGE

BRITAIN’S COTTON IMPORTSBy 1840, the American South,the world’s leading producer ofcotton, was also the leading sup-plier of cotton to Great Britain. Inall, Great Britain imported four-fifths of its cotton from theSouth. Cotton directly or indirectlyprovided work for one in eightpeople in Britain, then theworld’s leading industrial power.

For its part, Britain relied soheavily on Southern cotton thatsome cotton growers incorrectlyassumed that the British wouldactively support the South duringthe Civil War. “No power on earthdares make war upon [cotton],” aSouth Carolina senator boldlydeclared in 1858. “Cotton isking.”

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

AnalyzingEffects

How did new products,communicationsmethods, andtransportationmethods help theU.S. economy?

D

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

D

AnalyzingCauses

How did thetransportationrevolution bindU.S. regions toone another andto the rest of theworld?

MIDWEST FARMINGAs the Northeast be-gan to industrialize,many people movedto farm the fertile soilof the Midwest. First,however, they had towork very hard tomake the land arable, or fit to cultivate. Many wooded areas had to be clearedbefore fields could be planted. Then two ingenious inventions allowed farmers todevelop the farmland more efficiently and cheaply, and made farming more prof-itable. In 1837, blacksmith John Deere invented the first steel plow. It slicedthrough heavy soil much more easily than existing plows and therefore took lessanimal power to pull. Deere’s steel plow enabled farmers to replace their oxenwith horses.

Once harvest time arrived, the mechanical reaper, invented by CyrusMcCormick, permitted one farmer to do the work of five hired hands. Thereaper was packed in parts and shipped to the farmer, along with a handbook ofdirections for assembling and operating. Armed with plows and reapers, ambi-tious farmers could shift from subsistence farming to growing such cash crops aswheat and corn.

Meanwhile, the rapid changes encouraged Southerners as well as Northernersto seek land in the seemingly limitless West.

MAIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTES

Create a time line like the onebelow, on which you label and date the important innovations in transportation, communication,and manufacturing during the early19th century.

Which innovation do you think wasmost important, and why?

CRITICAL THINKING3. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

Compare economies of the differentregions of the United States in themid-1800s. Use details from thesection to support your answer.

4. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Why were the reaper and the steelplow important?

5. ANALYZING EFFECTSDuring the 1830s and 1840s,transportation and communicationlinked the country more than everbefore. How did these advancesaffect ordinary Americans? Think About:

• the new kinds of transportation• specific changes in communi-

cations• the new industries of the time

period


•Samuel F. B. Morse•specialization

•market revolution•capitalism

•entrepreneur•telegraph

•John Deere•Cyrus McCormick

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

▼

1825 1850

Cyrus McCormickpatented the firstsuccessful horse-drawn grain reaper(above left).The McCormickcompany grew into the hugeInternationalHarvester Company.Their ads helpedpersuade farmers to revolutionizefarming.

280 CHAPTER 9



Manifest Destiny

•manifest destiny•Treaty of FortLaramie

•Santa Fe Trail•Oregon Trail

•Mormons•Joseph Smith•Brigham Young•“Fifty-Four Fortyor Fight!”

Americans moved west,energized by their belief inthe rightful expansion of theUnited States from theAtlantic to the Pacific.

The South and Southwest arenow the fastest-growing regionsof the United States.


Amelia Stewart Knight’s diary of her family’s five-month journey toOregon in 1853 described “the beautiful Boise River, with her greentimber,” which delighted the family. The last entry in the diarydescribes when she and her family reached their destination, Oregon.

A PERSONAL VOICE AMELIA STEWART KNIGHT

“ [M]y eighth child was born. After this we picked up and ferriedacross the Columbia River, utilizing a skiff, canoes and flatboat.It took three days. Here husband traded two yoke of oxen for ahalf section of land with one-half acre planted to potatoes and asmall log cabin and lean-to with no windows. This is the jour-ney’s end.”

—quoted in Covered Wagon Women

Knight’s situation was by no means unique; probably one infive women who made the trek was pregnant. Her condition, how-ever, did little to lighten her workload. Even young children shoul-dered important responsibilities on the trail.

The Frontier Draws SettlersMany Americans assumed that the United States would extend its dominion tothe Pacific Ocean and create a vast republic that would spread the blessings ofdemocracy and civilization across the continent.

AMERICAN MISSION Thomas Jefferson had dreamed that the United Stateswould become an “empire for liberty” by expanding across the continent “withroom enough for our descendants to the thousandth and thousandth generation.”

Toward that end, Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase in 1803 had doubled theyoung nation’s size. For a quarter century after the War of 1812, Americansexplored this huge territory in limited numbers. Then, in the 1840s, expansionfever gripped the country. Americans began to believe that their movement west-ward and southward was destined and ordained by God.

▼

Amelia StewartKnight told ofcamping by hotsprings whereshe could brewtea withoutstarting a fire.

B

A

The editor of the United States Magazine and Democratic Review described theannexation of Texas in 1845 as “the fulfillment of our manifest destiny to over-spread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.” Many Americans immediately seized on the phrase “manifest destiny” to express their belief that the United States’ destiny wasto expand to the Pacific Ocean and into Mexican territory. They believed that thisdestiny was manifest, or obvious.

ATTITUDES TOWARD THE FRONTIER Most Americans had practical reasonsfor moving west. Many settlers endured the trek because of personal economicproblems. The panic of 1837, for example, had dire consequences and convincedmany people that they would be better off attempting a fresh start in the West.

The abundance of land in the West was the greatest attraction. Whether forfarming or speculation, land ownership was an important step toward prosperity.As farmers and miners moved west, merchants followed, seeking new markets.

While Americans had always traded with Europe, the transportation revolu-tion increased opportunities for trade with Asia as well. Several harbors in theOregon Territory helped expand trade with China and Japan and also served asnaval stations for a Pacific fleet.

Settlers and Native AmericansThe increasing number of U.S. settlers moving west inevitably affected NativeAmerican communities. Most Native Americans tried to maintain strong culturaltraditions, even if forced to move fromancestral lands. Some began to assimi-late—or become part of—the advan-cing white culture. Still others, althoughrelatively few in number, fought hardto keep whites away from their homes.

THE BLACK HAWK WAR In the early1830s, white settlers in western Illinoisand eastern Iowa placed great pressureon the Native American people there tomove west of the Mississippi River.Consequently, representatives fromseveral Native American tribes visitedChief Black Hawk of the Sauk tribe, andone told of a prophet who had a visionof future events involving Black Hawk.

A PERSONAL VOICE“ He said that the Big Black Bird Hawk was the man to lead the [NativeAmerican] nations and win back the old homes of the people; that when the fightbegan . . . the warriors would be without number; that back would come the buffalo . . . and that in a little while the white man would be driven to theeastern ocean and across to the farther shore from whence he came.”

—tribal elder quoted in Native American Testimony

The story convinced Black Hawk to lead a rebellion against the United States.The Black Hawk War started in Illinois and spread to the Wisconsin Territory. Itended in August 1832, when Illinois militia members slaughtered more than 200Sauk and Fox people. As a result, the Sauk and Fox tribes were forcibly removedto areas west of the Mississippi.


John WesleyJarvis paintedBlack Hawk (left)and his son,Whirling Thunder(right) in 1833.

▼

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

ASummarizing

Explain theconcept ofmanifest destiny.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

B

EvaluatingLeadership

Whatmotivated BlackHawk to rebelagainst the UnitedStates?

C

MIDDLE GROUND The place that neither the NativeAmericans nor the settlers dominated, according to histori-an Richard White, was the middle ground. As long as set-tlers needed Native Americans as trading partners andguides, relations between settlers and Native Americanscould be beneficial. Amelia Stewart Knight described suchan encounter on the middle ground.

A PERSONAL VOICE AMELIA STEWART KNIGHT

“ Traveled 13 miles, over very bad roads, without water.After looking in vain for water, we were about to give up asit was near night, when husband came across a company offriendly Cayuse Indians about to camp, who showed himwhere to find water. . . . We bought a few potatoes from anIndian, which will be a treat for our supper.”

—quoted in Covered Wagon Women

By the 1840s, the middle ground was well west of theMississippi, because the Indian Removal Act of 1830 andother Indian removal treaties had pushed Native Americansoff their eastern lands to make room for the settlers.

FORT LARAMIE TREATY As settlers moved west, smallnumbers of displaced Native Americans occasionally foughtthem. The U.S. government responded to the settlers’ fearsof attack by calling a conference near what is now Laramie,Wyoming. The Cheyenne, Arapaho, Sioux, Crow, and oth-ers joined U.S. representatives in swearing “to maintaingood faith and friendship in all their mutual intercourse,and to make an effective and lasting peace.”

The 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie provided variousNative American nations control of the Central Plains, land

east of the Rocky Mountains that stretched roughly from the Arkansas River northto Canada. In turn, these Native Americans promised not to attack settlers and toallow the construction of government forts and roads. The government pledged tohonor the agreed-upon boundaries and to make annual payments to the NativeAmericans.

Still the movement of settlers increased. Traditional Native American huntinglands were trampled and depleted of buffalo and elk. The U.S. government repeat-edly violated the terms of the treaty. Subsequent treaties demanded that NativeAmericans abandon their lands and move to reservations.

Trails WestWhile the westward movement of many U.S. settlers had disastrous effects on theNative American communities there, the experience was also somewhat perilousfor traders and settlers. Nevertheless, thousands made the trek, using a series ofold Native American trails and new routes.

THE SANTA FE TRAIL One of the busiest and most well-known avenues of tradewas the Santa Fe Trail, which led 780 miles from Independence, Missouri, toSanta Fe, New Mexico.

Each spring between 1821 and the 1860s, Missouri traders loaded their cov-ered wagons with cloth, knives, and guns, and set off toward Santa Fe. For aboutthe first 150 miles—to Council Grove, Kansas—wagons traveled alone. After that,fearing attacks by Kiowa and Comanche, among others, the traders banded into

282 CHAPTER 9

NOWNOW THENTHEN

THE OGLALA SIOUXFollowing the Fort Laramie Treaty,the federal government graduallyreclaimed the Sioux’s sacredBlack Hills, and since 1889 theOglala Sioux have lived on thePine Ridge reservation in SouthDakota.

In the 1990s, tourism was thelargest source of revenue for PineRidge, which boasts some of themost beautiful territory in theNorthern Plains. Visitors alsocome for the annual pow-wow,held in August, and the tribe’sPrairie Winds casino.

Nevertheless, with only 20 per-cent of adults employed and a 61percent poverty rate, the reserva-tion remains one of the poorestareas in the United States.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

AnalyzingEffects

What were theeffects of the U.S.governmentpolicies towardNative Americansin the mid-1800s?

Great SaltLake

Cimarron Cutoff

PACIFICOCEAN120°W

110°W

90°W

RO

CK

YM

OU

NT

AI

NS

S IER

RA

NEVADA

CA

SC

AD

E

RA

NG

E

GR

EA

TP

LA

IN

S

Blackfoot

Nez PercéCrow

Yakima

Navajo

Ute

Cheyenne

Sioux

Pawnee

CherokeeCreek

SeminoleChoctaw

Chickasaw

Columbia R.

SnakeRiver

Rio

Gra

nde

Colorado

River

Mis

siss

ippi

Rive

r

MississippiRiver

Arkansas River

N. Platte River

Red

River

Missouri

R iver

St. Louis

Nauvoo

Council Bluffs

Independence

El Paso

Santa Fe

Salt Lake City

Fort Hall

Sacramento

Los Angeles

SanFrancisco

Portland

Fort Smith

N

S

EW

Butterfield Overland Trail

California Trail

Mormon Trail

Old Spanish Trail

Oregon Trail

Sante Fe Trail

0

0 100 200 kilometers

100 200 miles

American Trails West, 1860

The interior of a covered wagon mayhave looked like this on its way west.

▼

A Navajo man and woman in photographs taken by Edward S. Curtis

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER 1. Location Approximately how long was the trail

from St. Louis to El Paso? 2. Movement At a wagon train speed of about 15

miles a day, about how long would that trip take?


D

284 CHAPTER 9

Conestogawagons wereusually pulled bysix horses. Thesewagons werecapable of haulingloads up to sixtons.

▼

organized groups of up to 100 wagons. Scouts rode along the column to check fordanger. At night the traders formed the wagons into squares with their wheelsinterlocked, forming a corral for horses, mules, and oxen.

Teamwork ended when Santa Fe came into view. Traders charged off on theirown as each tried to be the first to enter the Mexican province of New Mexico.After a few days of trading, they loaded their wagons with silver, gold, and furs,and headed back to the United States. These traders established the first visibleAmerican presence in New Mexico and in the Mexican province of Arizona.

THE OREGON TRAIL In 1836, Marcus and Narcissa Whitman, Methodist mis-sionaries, made their way into Oregon Territory where they set up mission schoolsto convert Native Americans to Christianity and educate them. By driving their

wagon as far as Fort Boise, they proved that wagons could travel on theOregon Trail, which started in Independence, Missouri, and ended inPortland, Oregon, in the Willamette Valley. Their letters east praisingthe fertile soil and abundant rainfall attracted hundreds of otherAmericans to the Oregon Trail. The route from Independence toPortland traced some of the same paths that Lewis and Clark had fol-lowed several decades earlier.

Following the Whitmans’ lead, some of the Oregon pioneers bought wooden-wheeled covered Conestoga wagons. But most walked, pushing handcarts loadedwith a few precious possessions. The trip took months. Fever, diarrhea, andcholera killed many travelers, who were then buried alongside the trail.

Caravans provided protection against possible attack by Native Americans.They also helped combat the loneliness of the difficult journey, as CatherineHaun, who migrated from Iowa, explained.

A PERSONAL VOICE CATHERINE HAUN

“ We womenfolk visited from wagon to wagon or congenial friends spent an hourwalking, ever westward, and talking over our home life back in ‘the states’; tellingof the loved ones left behind; voicing our hopes for the future . . . and even whis-pering a little friendly gossip of emigrant life.”

—quoted in Frontier Women

By 1844, about 5,000 American settlers had arrived in Oregon and were farm-ing its green and fertile Willamette Valley.

THE MORMON MIGRATION One group that migrated westward along theOregon Trail consisted of the Mormons, a religious community that would playa major role in the settling of the West. Mormon history began in western NewYork in 1827 when Joseph Smith and five associates established the Church ofJesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Fayette, New York, in 1830.

Smith and a growing band of followers decided to move west. They settled inNauvoo, Illinois, in 1839. Within five years, the community numbered 20,000.When Smith’s angry neighbors printed protests against polygamy, the Mormons’

“ Eastward I goonly by force, butwestward I gofree.”HENRY DAVID THOREAU

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

D

AnalyzingEvents

Whatdifficulties werefaced by familieslike the Whitmansand the Hauns?

E

•manifest destiny•Treaty of Fort Laramie

•Santa Fe Trail•Oregon Trail

• Mormons•Joseph Smith

•Brigham Young•“Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!”



Use a chart like this one to comparethe motivations of travelers on theOregon, Santa Fe, and Mormon trails.

Which do you think was the mostcommon motive? Explain.

CRITICAL THINKING3. EVALUATING

What were the benefits anddrawbacks of the belief in manifestdestiny? Use specific references tothe section to support yourresponse. Think About:

• the various reasons for the movewestward

• the settlers’ point of view• the impact on Native Americans• the impact on the nation as a

whole

4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCESJohn L. O’Sullivan, editor of theUnited States Magazine andDemocratic Review, describedmanifest destiny as meaning thatAmerican settlers should possessthe “whole of the continent” that“Providence” has given us for the development of the greatexperiment of liberty and . . . self-government.” Do you think the sameattitudes exist today? Explain.

practice of having more than one wife, Smith destroyedtheir printing press. As a result, in 1844 he was jailed fortreason. An anti-Mormon mob broke into the jail andmurdered Smith and his brother.

Smith’s successor, Brigham Young, decided to movehis followers beyond the boundaries of the United States.Thousands of Mormons travelled by wagon north toNebraska, across Wyoming to the Rockies, and then south-west. In 1847, the Mormons stopped at the edge of thelonely desert near the Great Salt Lake.

The Mormons awarded plots of land to each familyaccording to its size but held common ownership of twocritical resources—water and timberland. Soon they hadcoaxed settlements and farms from the bleak landscape byirrigating their fields. Salt Lake City blossomed out of theland the Mormons called Deseret.

RESOLVING TERRITORIAL DISPUTES The Oregon Territory was only one pointof contention between the United States and Britain. In the early 1840s, Great Britainstill claimed areas in parts of what are now Maine and Minnesota. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 settled these disputes in the East and the Midwest, butthe two nations merely continued “joint occupation” of the Oregon Territory.

In 1844, Democrat James K. Polk’s presidential platform called for annexationof the entire Oregon Territory. Reflecting widespread support for Polk’s views,newspapers adopted the slogan “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” The sloganreferred to the latitude 54˚40’, the northern limit of the disputed OregonTerritory. By the mid-1840s, however, the fur trade was in decline, and Britain’sinterest in the territory waned. On the American side, Polk’s advisors deemed theland north of 49˚ latitude unsuited for agriculture. Consequently, the two coun-tries peaceably agreed in 1846 to extend the mainland boundary with Canadaalong the forty-ninth parallel westward from the Rocky Mountains to PugetSound, establishing the current U.S. boundary. Unfortunately, establishing theboundary in the Southwest would not be so easy.


•escape religious presecution

• find new markets for commerce

•claim land for farming, ranching,and mining

• locate harbors on the Pacific

•seek employment and avoid creditors after the panic of 1837

•spread the virtues of democracy

Americans Headed West to...

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

E

AnalyzingMotives

Why did theMormons movefarther west intheir search for anew home?

Trail MotivationsOregon Trail

Mormon Trail

Santa Fe Trail

GEOGRAPHY

SPOTLIGHT

October 17-1

October 18-19October19-20

October 20-21

October21-22

October23-24

October24-25 October

25-26

October22-23

Washington

Oregon

area of detail

Mapping the Oregon TrailIn 1841, Congress appropriated $30,000 for a survey of the Oregon Trail. John C.Frémont was named to head the expeditions. Frémont earned his nickname “thePathfinder” by leading four expeditions—which included artists, scientists, and car-tographers, among them the German-born cartographer Charles Preuss—to explorethe American West between 1842 and 1848. When Frémont submitted the report ofhis second expedition, Congress immediately ordered the printing of 10,000 copies,which were widely distributed.

The “Topographical Map of the Road from Missouri to Oregon,” drawn byPreuss, appeared in seven sheets. Though settlers first used this route in 1836, it wasnot until 1846 that Preuss published his map to guide them. The long, narrow mapshown here is called a “strip” map, a map that shows a thin strip of the earth’s sur-face—in this case, the last stretch of the trail before reaching Fort Wallah-Wallah.

THE WHITMAN MISSIONThe explorers came upon theWhitmans’ missionary station.They found thriving families livingprimarily on potatoes of a“remarkably good quality.”

5

6

5

4

6

THE NEZ PERCE PRAIRIEChief Looking Glass (left, in 1871) and the Nez Perce had“harmless” interactions with Frémont and his expedition.

286

October10-11, 1843

October 11-12October 12-13

October 14-15

October 15-16

17-18 October 16-17

THINKING CRITICALLYTHINKING CRITICALLY

1. Analyzing Patterns Use the map to identify naturalobstacles that settlers faced on the Oregon Trail.

2. Creating a Thematic Map Do research to find outmore about early mapping efforts for other westerntrails. Then create a settler’s map of a small section of one trail. To help you decide what information youshould show, pose some questions that a settler might have and that your map will answer. Then, sketch and label your map.

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R32.

3

2

1

4 CROSSING THE MOUNTAINSPioneers on the trail cut pathsthrough the Blue Mountains, awooded range that Frémontbelieved had been formed by“violent and extensive igneous[volcanic] action.”

3 RECORDING NATURAL RESOURCESOn October 13, Frémont traveled through a desolate valley of the Columbia River to a region of “arable mountains,” where heobserved “nutritious grasses” and good soilthat would support future flocks and herds.

2 MAP NOTATIONPreuss recorded dates,distances, tempera-tures, and geographicalfeatures as the expedi-tion progressed alongthe trail.

1 FORT BOISÉE (BOISE)This post became an important stopping pointfor settlers along the trail. Though salmon wereplentiful in summer, Frémont noted that in thewinter Native Americans often were forced toeat “every creeping thing, however loathsomeand repulsive,” to stay alive.

IRESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM


288 CHAPTER 9



Expansion in Texas

•Stephen F. Austin•land grant•Antonio López deSanta Anna

•Texas Revolution

•Alamo•Sam Houston•Republic of Texas•annex

Mexico offered land grants toAmerican settlers, but conflictdeveloped over religion andother cultural differences,and the issue of slavery.

Today, the state of Texasshares an important tradingpartnership with Mexico.


In 1821, Stephen F. Austin led the first of several groups ofAmerican settlers to a fertile area “as good in every respect asman could wish for, land first rate, plenty of timber, finewater—beautifully rolling” along the Brazos River. However,Austin’s plans didn’t work out as well as he had hoped; 12years later, he found himself in a Mexican prison and his newhomeland in an uproar. After his release, Austin spoke aboutthe impending crisis between Texas and Mexico.

A PERSONAL VOICE STEPHEN F. AUSTIN

“ Texas needs peace, and a local government; its inhabitants arefarmers, and they need a calm and quiet life. . . . [But] my efforts toserve Texas involved me in the labyrinth of Mexican politics. I was arrested,and have suffered a long persecution and imprisonment. . . . I fully hoped to havefound Texas at peace and in tranquillity, but regret to find it in commotion; all dis-organized, all in anarchy, and threatened with immediate hostilities. . . . Can thisstate of things exist without precipitating the country into a war? I think it cannot.”

—quoted in Texas: An Album of History

Austin’s warning proved to be prophetic. The conflict between Texas andMexico would soon escalate into a bloody struggle.

Americans Settle in the SouthwestDuring three centuries of Spanish rule of Mexico, only a few thousand Mexicansettlers had migrated to the vast landscape of what is now Texas. Despite theregion’s rich natural resources and a climate conducive to agriculture, a numberof problems scared off many potential Mexican settlers. One was the growingfriction between Native American and Mexican inhabitants of the area.

THE MISSION SYSTEM Since the earliest Spanish settlements, the NativeAmerican and Mexican populations in the Southwest had come into close con-tact. Before Mexico won its independence in 1821, Spain’s system of Roman

Stephen Austinestablished acolony ofAmerican settlersin Tejas, or Texas,then the northern-most province ofthe Mexicanstate of Coahuila.

▼

A

B

Catholic missions in California, New Mexico, and Texas tried to convert NativeAmericans to Catholicism and to settle them on mission lands. To protect themissions, Spanish soldiers manned nearby presidios, or forts.

The mission system declined during the 1820s and 1830s, after Mexico hadwon its independence. After wresting the missions from Spanish control, theMexican government offered the surrounding lands to government officials andranchers. While some Native Americans were forced to remain as unpaid laborers,many others fled the missions, returning to traditional ways. When Mexicanscaptured Native Americans for forced labor, groups of hostile Comanche andApache retaliated by sweeping through Texas, terrorizing Mexican settlementsand stealing livestock that supported many American settlers and Mexican set-tlers, or Tejanos.

THE IMPACT OF MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE Trade opportunities betweenMexico’s northern provinces and the United States multiplied. Tejano livestock,mostly longhorn cattle, provided tallow, hides, and other commercial goods totrade in Santa Fe, New Mexico, north and west of Texas.

Newly free, Mexico sought to improve its economy. Toward that end, thecountry eased trade restrictions and made trade with the United States moreattractive than trade between northern Mexico and other sections of Mexico.Gradually, the ties loosened between Mexico and the northern provinces, whichincluded present-day New Mexico, California, Texas, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah.

Mexico was beginning to discover what Spain had previously learned: own-ing a vast territory did not necessarily mean controlling it. Mexico City—the seatof Mexican government—lay far from the northernprovinces and often seemed indifferent to the problems ofsettlers in Texas. Native American groups, such as theApache and the Comanche, continued to threaten the thin-ly scattered Mexican settlements in New Mexico and Texas.Consequently, the Mexican government began to look forways to strengthen ties between Mexico City and thenorthern provinces.

MEXICO INVITES U.S. SETTLERS To prevent border vio-lations by horse thieves and to protect the territory fromNative American attacks, the Mexican government encour-aged American farmers to settle in Texas. In 1821, and againin 1823 and 1824, Mexico offered enormous land grantsto agents, who were called empresarios. The empresarios, inturn, attracted American settlers, who eagerly bought cheapland in return for a pledge to obey Mexican laws andobserve the official religion of Roman Catholicism.

Many Americans as well as Mexicans rushed at thechance. The same restless determination that produced newinventions and manufactured goods fed the American urgeto remove any barrier to settlement of the West. The popu-lation of Anglo, or English-speaking, settlers from Europeand the United States soon surpassed the population ofTejanos who lived in Texas. Until the 1830s, the Anglo set-tlers lived as naturalized Mexican citizens.

AUSTIN IN TEXAS The most successful empresario,Stephen F. Austin, established a colony between the Brazosand Colorado rivers, where “no drunkard, no gambler, noprofane swearer, and no idler” would be allowed. By 1825,Austin had issued 297 land grants to the group that later


NOWNOW THENTHEN

TEJANO CULTUREThe Anglo and Mexican culturesof Texas have shaped one anoth-er, especially in terms of music,food, and language.

For example, Tejano musicreflects roots in Mexican mariachias well as American country andwestern music and is now a$100 million a year industry. Asfor language, Tejanos often speaka mixture of Spanish and Englishcalled Spanglish.

As Enrique Madrid, who lives inthe border area between Texasand Mexico, says, “We have twovery powerful cultures coming toterms with each other every dayon the banks of the Rio Grandeand creating a new culture.”

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

A

AnalyzingEffects

How didrelations betweenthe Mexicans andNative Americansin the Southwestchange after1821?

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

B

AnalyzingMotives

What didMexico hope togain from Anglosettlement inTexas?

became known as Texas’s Old Three Hundred. Each family received 177 very inex-pensive acres of farmland, or 4,428 acres for stock grazing, as well as a 10-yearexemption from paying taxes. “I am convinced,” Austin said, “that I could takeon fifteen hundred families as easily as three hundred.”

At the colony’s capital in San Felipe, a visiting blacksmith, Noah Smithwick,described an established town, with “weddings and other social gatherings.”Smithwick stayed in a simple home but learned that “in the course of time thepole cabin gave place to a handsome brick house and that the rude furnishingswere replaced by the best the country boasted.”

In 1836, Mary Austin Holley, Stephen Austin’s cousin, wrote admiringlyabout towns such as Galveston on the Gulf Coast and Bastrop.

A PERSONAL VOICE MARY AUSTIN HOLLEY

“ Bastrop . . . continues to grow rapidly. It is a favorite spot for new settlers, andis quite the rage at present. . . . It is situated on a bend of the [Colorado], slopingbeautifully down to the water, with ranges of timber—first oak, then pine, thencedar, rising in regular succession behind it.”

—quoted in Texas: An Album of History

Word about Texas spread throughout the United States.Posters boldly stated, “Go To Texas!” Confident that Texaseventually would yield great wealth, Americans increasing-ly discussed extending the U.S. boundaries to the river theycalled the Rio Grande (known in Mexico as the Rio Bravo).President John Quincy Adams had previously offered to buyTexas for $1 million; President Andrew Jackson later uppedthe bid to $5 million. Mexico not only refused to sell Texasbut also began to regret its hospitality to Anglo immigrants.

Texas Fights for IndependenceAs Texas’s Anglo population surged, tensions grew withMexico over cultural differences, as well as slavery. Theoverwhelmingly Protestant settlers spoke English ratherthan Spanish. Many of the settlers were Southern cotton orsugar farmers who had brought slaves with them. Mexico,which had abolished slavery in 1824, insisted in vain thatthe Texans free their slaves.

“COME TO TEXAS” In 1830, Mexico sealed its bordersand slapped a heavy tax on the importation of Americangoods. Mexico, however, lacked sufficient troops to policeits borders well. Despite restrictions, the Anglo populationof Texas doubled between 1830 and 1834. In 1834, Austinwon a repeal of the prohibition on immigration. By 1835,more than 1,000 Anglos each month streamed into Texas,scrawling the initials “G.T.T.” on their doors to indicate thatthey had “Gone to Texas.” A year later, Texas’s populationincluded only 3,500 Tejanos, 12,000 Native Americans,45,000 Anglos, and 5,000 African Americans.

Meanwhile, Mexican politics became increasinglyunstable. Austin had traveled to Mexico City late in 1833 topresent petitions for greater self-government for Texas toMexican president Antonio López de Santa Anna.

290 CHAPTER 9

D

KEY PLAYERKEY PLAYER

SANTA ANNA1795–1876

Antonio López de Santa Annabegan his career fighting forSpain in the war over Mexicanindependence. Later, he switchedsides to fight for Mexico.

Declaring himself the “Napoleonof the West,” Santa Anna tookcontrol of the government aboutten years after Mexico won inde-pendence in 1821. He spent thenext 34 years alternately servingas president, leading troops intobattle, and living in exile. Heserved as president 11 times.Santa Anna was a complex manwith much charm. He sacrificedhis considerable wealth to returnagain and again to the battlefieldand died in poverty and almostforgotten.

C

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

EvaluatingLeadership

Why wasStephen Austin’scolony sosuccessful?

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

DContrasting

List some ofthe culturalconflicts causedby the influx ofAnglo settlers intoTexas.

Nacogdoches

Santa

Anna

Houston

Santa Anna

95°W 91°W

27

Red River

Pecos RiverRio Grande

BrazosRiver

Nueces R i ver

Colorado River

Sabine River

Neches River

Trinity River

Gul f of MexicoRefugio,Mar. 12–15, 1836

Alamo,Feb. 23–Mar. 6, 1836

San Antonio,Dec. 10, 1835

Goliad,Mar. 20, 1836

San Jacinto,Apr. 21, 1836

UNITEDSTATES

MEXICO

Land disputedby Texas

and Mexico

REPUBLICOF TEXAS

Matamoros

Waterloo(Austin)

LaredoCorpus Christi

Matagorda

Washington-on-the-Brazos

Galveston

Texan forces

Mexican forces

Texan victory

Mexican victory

0

0 75 150 kilometers

75 150 miles

N

S

EW

War for Texas Independence, 1835–1836

Henry Arthur McArdle conveys the brutality of the fightingin Dawn at the Alamo, painted between 1876 and 1883.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Place What geographical feature marked the

northern border of the Republic of Texas?2. Region What does the map show as a major

disagreement left unresolved by the war?

While Austin was on his way home, Santa Anna suspended the 1824 Mexicanconstitution and had Austin imprisoned for inciting revolution. After Santa Annarevoked local powers in Texas and other Mexican states, several rebellions erupt-ed, including what would eventually be known as the Texas Revolution.

“REMEMBER THE ALAMO!” Austin had argued with Santa Anna for self-gov-ernment for Texas, but without success. Determined to force Texas to obey lawshe had established, Santa Anna marched toward San Antonio at the head of a4,000-member army. At the same time, Austin and his followers issued a call forTexans to arm themselves.

Late in 1835, the Texans attacked. They drove the Mexican forces from theAlamo, an abandoned mission and fort. In response, Santa Anna swept north-ward and stormed and destroyed the small American garrison in the Alamo. All187 U.S. defenders died, including the famous frontiersmen Jim Bowie, who haddesigned the razor-sharp Bowie knife, and Davy Crockett, who sported a raccooncap with a long tail hanging down his back. Hundreds of Mexicans also perished.Only a few women and children were spared.

THE LONE STAR REPUBLIC Later in March of 1836, Santa Anna’s troops exe-cuted 300 rebels at Goliad. The Alamo and Goliad victories would prove costly forSanta Anna. Six weeks after the defeat of the Alamo, on April 21, the Texans

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

EComparing

Compare thereasons for theTexas Revolutionwith the reasonsfor the AmericanRevolution. E


struck back. Led by Sam Houston, they defeated SantaAnna at the Battle of San Jacinto. With shouts of “Rememberthe Alamo!” the Texans killed 630 of Santa Anna’s soldiers in18 minutes and captured Santa Anna. The victorious Texansset Santa Anna free after he signed the Treaty of Velasco,which granted independence to Texas. In September 1836,Houston became president of the Republic of Texas. Thenew “Lone Star Republic” set up an army and a navy andproudly flew its new silk flag with the lone gold star.

TEXAS JOINS THE UNION On March 2, 1836, as the bat-tle for the Alamo was raging, Texans had declared theirindependence from Mexico. Believing that Mexico haddeprived them of their fundamental rights, the Texas rebelshad likened themselves to the American colonists who hadchafed under British rule 60 years earlier. On March 16,they ratified a constitution based on that of the UnitedStates. In 1838, Sam Houston invited the United States toannex, or incorporate, the Texas republic into the UnitedStates. Most people within Texas hoped this would happen.U.S. opinion, however, divided along sectional lines.Southerners sought to extend slavery, already established inTexas. Northerners feared that annexation of more slaveterritory would tip the uneasy balance in the Senate infavor of slave states—and prompt war with Mexico.

Then in 1844, the U.S. presidential election featured adebate on westward expansion. The man who would winthe presidency, James K. Polk, a slaveholder, firmly favoredannexation of Texas “at the earliest practicable period.”

On December 29, 1845, Texas became the 28th state inthe Union. A furious Mexican government recalled itsambassador from Washington. Events were moving quicklytoward war.

292 CHAPTER 9

•Stephen F. Austin•land grant

•Antonio López de Santa Anna

•Texas Revolution

•Alamo•Sam Houston

•Republic of Texas•annex



Use a diagram similar to this one toanalyze the relationship betweenMexican authorities and Anglossettling in Texas.

What other actions might Mexico orthe settlers have taken to avoidconflict?

CRITICAL THINKING3. COMPARING

Compare and contrast Santa Annaand Austin as leaders. Use detailsfrom the section to explain youranswer. Think About:

• Santa Anna’s role as presidentof Mexico

• Santa Anna’s qualities as a mili-tary leader

• Austin’s settlement in Texas• Austin’s abilities as a negotiator

4. SYNTHESIZINGWhich group or country gained themost from the entry of Texas intothe United States? Who lost themost? Support your opinion withspecific references to the section.

KEY PLAYERKEY PLAYER

SAM HOUSTON1793–1863

Sam Houston ran away fromhome at about age 15 and livedfor nearly three years with theCherokee. He later fought in theU.S. Army, studied law, was elect-ed to Congress, and became gov-ernor of Tennessee.

In his memoirs, Houston told oflistening in vain for the signalguns indicating that the Alamostill stood.

“I listened with an acutenessof sense which no man canunderstand whose hearing hasnot been sharpened by theteachings of the dwellers ofthe forest.”

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

FContrasting

Explain thedifferencesbetween theNorthern andSouthern positionson the annexationof Texas.

F

Mexico SettlersGoalsActionsOutcomes


Robert E. Lee was born into a prominent Virginia family in1807. His father had been a hero of the American Revolution.In 1846, the war with Mexico provided the 39-year-old captainwith his first combat experience. Among the soldiers whomLee directed in battle was his younger brother, Sidney SmithLee. The elder Lee wrote about the battle.

A PERSONAL VOICE ROBERT E. LEE

“ No matter where I turned, my eyes reverted to [my brother],and I stood by his gun whenever I was not wanted elsewhere.Oh, I felt awfully, and am at a loss what I should have donehad he been cut down before me. I thank God that he wassaved. . . . [The service from the American battery] was terrif-ic, and the shells thrown from our battery were constant andregular discharges, so beautiful in their flight and so destruc-tive in their fall. It was awful! My heart bled for the inhabi-tants. The soldiers I did not care so much for, but it was terrible to think of the women and children.”

—a letter cited in R. E. Lee by Douglas Southall Freeman

In recoiling at the ugliness of the war with Mexico, Lee hardly stood alone.From the start, Americans hotly debated whether the United States should pursuethe war.

Polk Urges WarHostilities between the United States and Mexico, which had flared during theTexas Revolution in 1836, reignited over the American annexation of Texas in1845. The two countries might have solved these issues peaceably if not for thecontinuing instability of the Mexican government and the territorial aspirationsof the U.S. president, James K. Polk.



The War with Mexico

•James K. Polk•Zachary Taylor•Stephen Kearny•Republic ofCalifornia

•Winfield Scott

•Treaty ofGuadalupeHidalgo

•GadsdenPurchase

•forty-niners•gold rush

Tensions over the U.S.annexation of Texas led towar with Mexico, resulting inhuge territorial gains for theUnited States.

The United States has achievedits goal of expanding across thecontinent from east to west.


▼

Robert E. Leefollowed his fatherinto a militarycareer, graduatingfrom the new U.S.Military Academyat West Point.

A

Polk now believed that war with Mexico would bring not only Texasbut also New Mexico and California into the Union. The presidentsupported Texas’s claims in disputes with Mexico over the Texas-Mexico border. While Texas insisted that its southern border extendedto the Rio Grande, Mexico insisted that Texas’s border stopped at theNueces River, 100 miles northeast of the Rio Grande.

SLIDELL’S REJECTION In 1844, Santa Anna was ousted as Mexico’spresident. The Mexican political situation was confusing and unpre-dictable. In late 1845, “Polk the Purposeful” sent a Spanish-speakingemissary, John Slidell, to Mexico to purchase California and NewMexico and to gain approval of the Rio Grande as the Texas border.When Slidell arrived, Mexican officials refused to receive him. Hopingfor Mexican aggression that would unify Americans behind a war, Polk

then issued orders for General Zachary Taylor to march to the Rio Grande andblockade the river. Mexicans viewed this action as a violation of their rights.

Many Americans shared Polk’s goals for expansion, but public opinion wassplit over resorting to military action. Slavery would soon emerge as the key issuecomplicating this debate.

SECTIONAL ATTITUDES TOWARD WAR The idea of war unleashed great pub-lic celebrations. Volunteers swarmed recruiting stations, and the advent of dailynewspapers, printed on new rotary presses, gave the war a romantic appeal.

Not everyone cheered. The abolitionist James Russell Lowell considered thewar a “national crime committed in behoof of slavery, our common sin.” Evenproslavery spokesman John C. Calhoun saw the perils of expansionism. Mexico,he said, was “the forbidden fruit; the penalty of eating it would be to subject ourinstitutions to political death.”

Many Southerners, however, saw the annexation of Texas as an opportunityto extend slavery and increase Southern power in Congress. Furthermore, theWilmot Proviso, a proposed amendment to a military appropriations bill of 1846,prohibited slavery in lands that might be gained from Mexico. This attack onslavery solidified Southern support for war by transforming the debate on warinto a debate on slavery.

Northerners mainly opposed the war. Antislavery Whigs and abolitionists sawthe war as a plot to expand slavery and ensure Southern domination of theUnion. In a resolution adopted by the Massachusetts legislature, Charles Sumnerproclaimed that “the lives of Mexicans are sacrificed in this cause; and a domes-tic question, which should be reserved for bloodless debate in our own country,is transferred to fields of battle in a foreign land.”

The War BeginsAs Taylor positioned his forces at the Rio Grande in 1845–1846, John C. Frémontled an exploration party through Mexico’s Alta California province, another vio-lation of Mexico’s territorial rights. The Mexican government had had enough.

Mexico responded to Taylor’s invasion of the territory it claimed by sendingtroops across the Rio Grande. In a skirmish near Matamoros, Mexican soldierskilled 9 U.S. soldiers. Polk immediately sent a war message to Congress, declaringthat by shedding “American blood upon American soil,” Mexico had started thewar. Representative Abraham Lincoln questioned the truthfulness of the message,asking “whether our citizens, whose blood was shed, as in his message declared,were or were not, at that time, armed officers and soldiers, sent into that settle-ment by the military order of the President.” Lincoln introduced a “SpotResolution,” asking Polk to certify the spot where the skirmish had occurred.

294 CHAPTER 9

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

A

AnalyzingEfects

How did theissue of slaveryaffect the debateover the war withMexico?

James Polk, alsoknown as “Polkthe Purposeful”

▼

C

B

Truthful or not, Polk’s messagepersuaded the House to recognize astate of war with Mexico by a vote of174 to 14, and the Senate by a vote of40 to 2, with numerous abstentions.Some antislavery Whigs had tried tooppose the war but were barelyallowed to gain the floor of Congressto speak. Since Polk withheld keyfacts, the full reality of what had hap-pened on the distant Rio Grande wasnot known. But the theory and prac-tice of manifest destiny had launchedthe United States into its first war onforeign territory.

KEARNY MARCHES WEST In 1846,as part of his plan to seize NewMexico and California, Polk orderedColonel Stephen Kearny to marchfrom Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, acrossthe desert to Santa Fe, New Mexico.Kearny earned the nickname “theLong Marcher” as he and his mencrossed 800 miles of barren ground.They were met in Santa Fe by a NewMexican contingent that includedupper-class Mexicans who wanted tojoin the United States. New Mexicofell to the United States without ashot being fired. After dispatchingsome of his troops south to Mexico,the Long Marcher led the rest onanother long trek, this time to south-ern California.

THE REPUBLIC OF CALIFORNIA By the turn of the 19th century, Spanish set-tlers had set up more than 20 missions along the California coast. After indepen-dence, the Mexican government took over these missions, just as it had done inTexas. By the late 1830s, about 12,000 Mexican settlers had migrated to Californiato set up cattle ranches, where they pressed Native Americans into service asworkers. By the mid-1840s, about 500 U.S. settlers also lived in California.

Polk’s offer to buy California in 1845 aroused the indignation of theMexican government. A group of American settlers, led by Frémont, seized thetown of Sonoma in June 1846. Hoisting a flag that featured a grizzly bear, therebels proudly declared their independence from Mexico and proclaimed thenation of the Republic of California. Kearny arrived from New Mexico andjoined forces with Frémont and a U.S. naval expedition led by CommodoreJohn D. Sloat. The Mexican troops quickly gave way, leaving U.S. forces in con-trol of California.

THE WAR IN MEXICO For American troops in Mexico, one military victory fol-lowed another. Though Mexican soldiers gallantly defended their own soil, theirarmy labored under poor leadership. In contrast, U.S. soldiers served under someof the nation’s best officers, such as Captain Robert E. Lee and Captain Ulysses S.Grant, both West Point graduates.


▼

This 19th-centurywood engravingshows ColonelStephen Kearnycapturing SantaFe, New Mexico.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

B

AnalyzingCauses

How didPresident Polkprovoke Mexico toattack U.S.forces?

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

AnalyzingMotives

How doKearny’s actionssupport the ideaof manifestdestiny?

The American invasion of Mexico lasted about a year and featured a pair ofcolorful generals, Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott. Affectionately nicknamed“Old Rough and Ready” because he sported a casual straw hat and plain browncoat, Taylor attacked and captured Monterrey, Mexico, in September 1846, butallowed the Mexican garrison to escape.

Meanwhile, Polk hatched a bizarre scheme with Santa Anna, who had beenliving in exile in Cuba. If Polk would help him sneak back to Mexico, Santa Annapromised he would end the war and mediate the border dispute. Polk agreed, butwhen Santa Anna returned to Mexico, he resumed the presidency, took com-mand of the army and, in February 1847, ordered an attack on Taylor’s forces atBuena Vista. Though the Mexican army boasted superior numbers, its soldiers suf-fered from exhaustion. Taylor’s more rested troops pushed Santa Anna intoMexico’s interior.

Scott’s forces took advantage of Santa Anna’s failed strategy and capturedVeracruz in March. General Scott always wore a full-dress blue uniform with a yel-low sash, which won him the nickname “Old Fuss and Feathers.” Scott supervisedan amphibious landing at Veracruz, in which an army of 10,000 landed on an

296 CHAPTER 9

PACIFICOCEAN

Gulf ofMexico

30°N

20°N

110°W

90°W

Tropic of Cancer

St. L

awre

nce

R.

Rio Grande

Colorado

River

Gila River

Arkansas

R.

Red River

El Paso

Santa Fe

AlbuquerqueLas Vegas

San Antonio

CorpusChristi

NewOrleans

Matamoros

Mazatlán

Saltillo

San Luis Potosi

Los Angeles

San Francisco Fort LeavenworthBent's Fort

SacramentoFeb. 28, 1847

ChihuahuaMar. 1–Apr. 28,

1847

San PasoualDec. 6, 1846

El BrazitoDec. 25, 1846

Mexico CitySept. 14, 1847

VeracruzMar. 9–29, 1847

TampicoNov. 15, 1846

MonterreySept. 20–24, 1846

MontereyJuly 7, 1846

Buena VistaFeb. 22–23, 1847

Churubusco,Aug. 20, 1847

Kearny

Scott

Scott

Scott

W

ool

Kearny

Doniphan

Taylor

Taylor

Sloat

Sant

aAn

na

Kearn

yStockton

MEXICO

N

S

EW

U.S. victory

Mexican victory

U.S. forces

Mexican forces

Acquired by U.S. in Texasannexation of 1845

Acquired by U.S. in Treaty ofGuadalupe Hidalgo, 1848

Acquired by U.S. in GadsdenPurchase, 1853

0

0 200 400 kilometers

200 400 miles

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Location From which locations

in Texas did U.S. forces come toBuena Vista?

2. Region In which country weremost of the battles fought?

War with Mexico, 1846–1848

MEXICO

UNITED STATES

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

MEXICO

OREGONTERRITORY

UNITED STATES

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

UNITED STATES, 1830

UNITED STATES, 1853

D

island off Veracruz in 200 ships and ferried 67 boats in lessthan 5 hours. Scott’s troops then set off for Mexico City,which they captured on September 14, 1847. Covering 260miles, Scott’s army had lost not a single battle.

America Gains the Spoils of WarFor Mexico, the war in which it lost at least 25,000 lives andnearly half its land marked an ugly milestone in its rela-tions with the United States. America’s victory came at thecost of about 13,000 lives. Of these, nearly 2,000 died inbattle or from wounds and more than 11,000 perished fromdiseases, such as yellow fever. However, the war enlargedU.S. territory by approximately one-third.

THE TREATY OF GUADALUPE HIDALGO On February 2,1848, the United States and Mexico signed the Treaty ofGuadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico agreed to the Rio Grandeborder for Texas and ceded New Mexico and California tothe United States. The United States agreed to pay $15 mil-lion for the Mexican cession, which included present-dayCalifornia, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, most of Arizona,and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The treaty guaran-teed Mexicans living in these territories freedom of reli-gion, protection of property, bilingual elections, and openborders.

Five years later, in 1853, President Franklin Piercewould authorize his emissary James Gadsden to pay Mexicoan additional $10 million for another piece of territorysouth of the Gila River. Along with the settlement ofOregon and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the GadsdenPurchase established the current borders of the lower 48 states.

TAYLOR’S ELECTION IN 1848 In 1848 the Democrats nominated Lewis Cassfor president and hesitated about the extension of slavery into America’s vast newholdings. A small group of antislavery Democrats nominated Martin Van Burento lead the Free-Soil Party, which supported a congressional prohibition on theextension of slavery into the territories. Van Buren captured 10 percent of thepopular vote and no electoral votes. The Whig nominee, war hero Zachary Taylor,easily won the election. Taylor’s victory, however, was soon overshadowed by aglittering discovery in one of America’s new territories.

The California Gold Rush In January 1848, James Marshall, an American carpenter working on John Sutter’sproperty in the California Sierra Nevadas, discovered gold at Sutter’s Mill. Wordof the chance discovery traveled east.

THE RUSH BEGINS Soon after the news reached San Francisco, residents trav-eled to the Sacramento Valley in droves to pan for gold. Lacking staff and readers,San Francisco’s newspaper, the Californian, suspended publication. An editorialin the final issue, dated May 29, complained that the whole country “resoundswith the sordid cry of gold, GOLD, GOLD! while the field is left half-plowed, thehouse half-built, and everything neglected but the manufacture of shovels andpickaxes.”


LOS NIÑOS HÉROESThough most Americans know little about the war with Mexico,Mexicans view the war as a crucial event in their history.

On September 14, 1847,General Winfield Scott capturedMexico City after the hard-foughtBattle of Chapultepec, the site ofthe Mexican military academy.There, six young cadets leapedfrom Chapultepec Castle to com-mit suicide rather than surrenderto the U.S. Army. A monument(shown above) that honors losNiños Héroes (the boy heroes)inspires pilgrimages everySeptember.

ANOTHER

PERSPECTIVEPERSPECTIVE

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

DSummarizing

Explain theimportance of the Treaty ofGuadalupe Hidalgoand the GadsdenPurchase.

E

AnalyzingAnalyzing

“THE WAY THEY GO TOCALIFORNIA”This cartoon lithograph by NathanielCurrier (1813–1888) was inspired bythe California gold rush. Currier was afounder of the Currier and Ives compa-ny, which became famous for detailedlithographs of 19th-century daily life.

Here Currier portrays some of thehordes of prospectors who flocked fromall over the world to California in 1849.The mob wields picks and shovels, des-perate to find any means of transport tothe “Golden West.” While some minersdive into the water, weighed down byheavy tools, one clever prospector hasinvented a new type of airship to speedhim to the treasure.

SKILLBUILDERAnalyzing Political Cartoons1. How has the cartoonist added humor

to this portrayal of the gold seekers?2. What clues tell you that this cartoon

is about the California gold rush?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK,PAGE R24.

On June 6, 1848, Monterey’s Mayor Walter Colton sent a scout to report onwhat was happening. After the scout returned on June 14, the mayor describedthe scene that had taken place in the middle of the town’s main street.

A PERSONAL VOICE WALTER COLTON

“ The blacksmith dropped his hammer, the carpenter his plane, the mason histrowel, the farmer his sickle, the baker his loaf, and the tapster his bottle. Allwere off for the mines. . . . I have only a community of women left, and a gang ofprisoners, with here and there a soldier who will give his captain the slip at firstchance. I don’t blame the fellow a whit; seven dollars a month, while others aremaking two or three hundred a day!”

—quoted in California: A Bicentennial History

As gold fever traveled eastward, overland migration to California skyrocketed,from 400 in 1848 to 44,000 in 1850. The rest of the world soon caught the fever.Among the so-called forty-niners, the prospectors who flocked to California in1849 in the gold rush, were people from Asia, South America, and Europe.

IMPACT OF GOLD FEVER Because of its location as a supply center, San Franciscobecame “a pandemonium of a city,” according to one traveler. Indeed, the city’spopulation exploded from 1,000 in 1848 to 35,000 in 1850. Ferrying people andsupplies, ships clogged San Francisco’s harbor with a forest of masts.

Louisa Clapp and her husband, Fayette, left the comforts of a middle-classfamily in New England to join the gold rush for adventure. After living in SanFrancisco for more than a year, the Clapps settled in a log cabin in the interior

298 CHAPTER 9

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

EComparing

What commondreams did peoplewho sought gold inCalifornia sharewith those whosettled in Oregon?

mining town of Rich Bar. While herhusband practiced medicine, Louisatried her hand at mining and found ithardly to her liking.

A PERSONAL VOICELOUISA CLAPP

“ I have become a mineress; that is, ifhaving washed a pan of dirt with myown hands, and procured therefromthree dollars and twenty-five cents ingold dust . . . will entitle me to thename. I can truly say, with the black-smith’s apprentice at the close of hisfirst day’s work at the anvil, that ‘I amsorry I learned the trade;’ for I wet myfeet, tore my dress, spoilt a pair ofnew gloves, nearly froze my fingers,got an awful headache, took cold andlost a valuable breastpin, in this mylabor of love.”

—quoted in They Saw the Elephant

GOLD RUSH BRINGS DIVERSITY By 1849, California’s population exceeded100,000. The Chinese were the largest group to come from overseas. Free blacksalso came by the hundreds, and many struck it rich. By 1855, the wealthiestAfrican Americans in the country were living in California. The fast-growing pop-ulation included large numbers of Mexicans as well. The California demographicmix also included slaves—that is until a constitutional convention in 1849 drewup a state constitution that outlawed slavery.

California’s application for statehood provoked fiery protest in Congress andbecame just one more sore point between irate Northerners and Southerners, eachintent on winning the sectional argument over slavery. Nevertheless, Californiadid win statehood in 1850.


•James K. Polk•Zachary Taylor•Stephen Kearny

•Republic of California•Winfield Scott

•Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo•Gadsden Purchase

•forty-niners•gold rush



Draw a chart showing how theboundaries of the contiguous UnitedStates were formed.

How did the United States pursueits goal of expanding in the 1840s?

CRITICAL THINKING3. EVALUATING

How would you evaluate PresidentPolk’s attitude and behavior towardMexico? Use specific references tothe chapter to support yourresponse. Think About:

• Polk’s position on expansion• his actions once in office• his relationship with Santa Anna

4. ANALYZING EFFECTSWhat were some of the effects ofthe California gold rush?

5. EVALUATING DECISIONSWould you have supported thecontroversial war with Mexico? Whyor why not? Explain your answer,including details from the chapter.

Present-Day U.S. BordersEffect:

Causes:

▼

These miners areprospecting inSpanish Flat,California, in1852.

300 CHAPTER 9

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

TERMS & NAMES For each term or name below, write a sentence explaining itsconnection to the expansion of the U.S. in the mid-19th century.

1. Samuel F. B. Morse 6. Alamo2. manifest destiny 7. Sam Houston3. Oregon Trail 8. Republic of Texas4. Brigham Young 9. James K. Polk5. Antonio López de 10. Treaty of Guadalupe

Santa Anna Hidalgo

MAIN IDEASUse your notes and the information in the chapter to answerthe following questions.

The Market Revolution (pages 274–279)1. What inventions and technological advancements changed

lives as part of the market revolution?2. How did the inventions and innovations of the mid-19th

century encourage various regions to specialize in certainindustries?

Manifest Destiny (pages 280–285)3. Why was the concept of manifest destiny of particular appeal

to Americans in the 1840s?4. What were the factors that drew settlers west during the first

half of the 19th century?

Expansion in Texas (pages 288–292)5. What made Americans want to settle in Texas?6. What were the major events that led to Texas joining the

Union?

The War with Mexico (pages 293–299)7. What developments caused the United States to go to war

with Mexico?8. What effect did the gold rush have on the growth of

California?

CRITICAL THINKING 1. USING YOUR NOTES What were America’s goals and ideals

during this period of expansion and economic change? Draw achart in which you list goals from the period, how they wereachieved, and in what ways their effects were positive or negative.

2. INTERPRETING MAPS Review the map on pages 286–287. Inwhat ways would this map have been helpful to settlers follow-ing the Oregon Trail to a new home? Explain your answer.

3. ANALYZING EFFECTS What was the impact of the new meth-ods of communication during this period? Use details from thetext to support your response.

Goal How Achieved Positive/Negative Effects

VISUAL SUMMARY

• technological changes • economic interdependence • greater economic diversity among the

regions of the nation

MARKET REVOLUTION

EXPANSION IN TEXAS

WAR WITH MEXICO

MANIFEST DESTINY

• the idea of manifest destiny used tojustify settling the land

• increasing westward migration

• land grants offered by Mexico• American settlement of Texas• conflict over cultural differences, and

over slavery• American uprising • Texas independence• U.S. annexation of Texas

• tension over annexation of Texas• war with Mexico• huge territorial gains for the U.S.• greater westward movement of settlers

CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH• discovery of gold in California• population and economic boom in

California• California statehood (1850)

UNITEDSTATESIN 1830

UNITEDSTATESIN 1853

EXPANDING MARKETSAND MOVING WEST

UNITED STATES

UNITED STATES


ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT1. Recall your discussion of

the question on page 273:

What are the ways that a nationincreases its territory?

Suppose you are a journalist covering the Warwith Mexico for an American newspaper. Write aneditorial that presents your point of view aboutwhether the terms of the Treaty of GuadalupeHidalgo are fair to Mexicans living in the territoriescovered by the treaty. Use information from thechapter to support your opinion.

2.

Visit the links for Chapter Assessment to find out more about the revolution in technology and communication in the first half of the 19th century.What invention most appeals to you, and why?

Prepare an oral report that describes theimpact that your favorite invention had on societyat the time.

I N T E R A C TI N T E R A C TW I T H H I S T O R YW I T H H I S T O R Y

ITEST PRACTICE CLASSZONE.COM

IINTERNET ACTIVITY CLASSZONE.COM

Standardized Test Practice

ADDITIONAL TEST PRACTICE, pages S1–S33.

Use the map and your knowledge of U.S. history toanswer questions 1 and 2.

1. Which area on the map corresponds to the label“Mexican Cession, 1848”?

A Area AB Area BC Area CD Area D

2. Which area on the map corresponds to the label“Oregon territory”?

F Area AG Area BH Area CJ Area D

Use the quotation below and your knowledge of U.S.history to answer question 3.

“ [T]he right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continentwhich Providence has given us for the develop-ment of the great experiment of liberty and . . .development of self government entrusted to us.It is [a] right such as that of the tree to thespace of air and the earth suitable for the fullexpansion of its principle and destiny of growth.”

—John L. O’Sullivan,United States Magazine and Democratic Review

3. In this passage, the writer uses the term “manifestdestiny” to mean that -—

A expansion is not only good but bound to happen.B neighboring territories will resent U.S. expansion.C America’s growth can be compared to a tree.D self-government leads to expansion.

4. All of the following were outcomes of the CaliforniaGold Rush except —

F increased diversity in the region.G the rapid growth of San Francisco.H an increase in overland migration.J the expansion of slavery in California.

A

B

C D

UNITED STATESIN 1819

The Americans - Chapter 9 · 2018. 9. 9. · 272 CHAPTER 9 Andrew Jackson is elected president. 1828 Martin Van Buren is elected president. 1836 Uruguay becomes an inde-pendent republic.

Documents