"The Almond in Morocco"

488

The Almond inMorocco

Ahmed Mahhou1 andFrank G. Dennis, Jr.2

Additional index words. productionmethods, marketing, research, cultivarselection, germplasm preservation

Summary. Morocco ranks fifth amongthe nations of the world in almond(Prunus dulcis L.) production, andcontains many zones where climaticconditions are ideal for this species.Seedling trees are responsible formore than half the total production,although grafted trees are usuallymuch more productive per hectare. Alarge seedling population representsan important gene pool, both for abreeding program and for selection ofsuperior genotypes adapted to Moroc-can conditions.

W orld almond production isconcentrated in three re-gions: a) Asia, b) the Medi-

terranean basin, and c) California, withlimited amounts in Australia, SouthAfrica, Chile, and Argentina. In Asiaand North Africa, almond-growingpractices have changed little during re-cent centuries. Many orchards consistof seedlings; when grown in mixedcultures with other crops under mini-mal care, yields are low.

California’s 166,000 ha of bear-ing trees account for -70% of theworld’s almond production. Sixty per-cent to 70% of California’s productionis exported to >40 countries. Spain isthe second-most important producingcountry, with 15% to 20% of the world’stotal production grown on ≈567,000ha. Other countries contributing tothe world total include Italy (5%),Greece (5%), Morocco (2%), andPortugal ( 1% ) .

The almond originated in themountainous regions of Iran, Af-ghanistan, and the former Soviet Union(Grasselly and Crossa-Raynaud, 1980).

Almond is primarily limited in its geo-graphical adaptation by its susceptibil-ity to spring frost. This hazard arisesdirectly from early flowering and leaf-ing. Where frost is not a problem, ma-jor yield limitations are rain and cooltemperature during bloom, which in-terfere with cross-pollination andpromote fungal diseases of leaves andflowers. Conditions favorable for al-mond culture include 100 to 400 h ofchilling at temperatures below 7.2C(Tabuenca, 1972), limited danger ofspring frost injury, and a warm, dryclimate to avoid fungal infection. Thetrees can perform fairly well even withmoderate care. They exhibit greaterresistance to drought than other stonefruits, and are able to grow in calcar-eous soils. Fruits have no fleshy peri-carp requiring special handling, andthe edible seeds can be stored drywithout refrigeration for a time. Thesecharacteristics make almond a goodcrop for owners of small farms in de-veloping countries.

We present here an overview ofalmond production and research inMorocco-the fifth-largest producerofalmonds (9,000-12,000 t ofshelledalmonds per year) (Direction de lePlanification et des Affaires Econom-iques, 1987), after the United States(264,000 t), Spain (73,000 t), Greece( 1 7 , 0 0 0 t ) , a n d I t a l y ( 1 6 , 0 0 0 t )(Grasselly and Souty, 1988).

Acreage and productionMorocco has a mild, Mediterra-

nean climate with areas well-suited toalmond growing (see Fig. 1 for areasmentioned). In terms of surface areaoccupied by tree fruits in 1987-88, al-monds (95,000 ha) were second onlyto olives (337,000 ha) (Division del’Horticulture, 1987-88). Additionalplantings by governmental agenciesincreased total acreage to 104,000 hain 1988-89 (Division de l’Horticul-ture, 1988-89). Almonds are grownunder two types of culture that can bedescribed broadly as a) traditional andb) semi-intensive (Lousert et al., 1989).

Traditional culture. Almonds aregrown under conditions where one ormore environmental requirements arelimiting. These include water duringthe growing season, soil depth, andnutrients, primarily N. Trees (mostlyopen-pollinated seedlings) are plantedon slopes and hillsides, along streams,or interplanted with field crops, and

Fig. 1. Map of Morocco, with cities and villages mentioned in the text.

are given little or no care (Fig. 2A).This sector covers more than 70,000ha and represents 70% to 80% of thealmond plantings in Morocco (8 mil-lion trees). The trees are planted at anaverage density of 80 trees/ha. TheService of Forestry and Water (Servicedes Eaux et Forêts) has planted 5 mil-lion trees, mostly ‘Marcona’, on con-tours as part of its soil conservationmission Defense et Restauration desSols (DRS) (Laghezali, 1985). Thesetrees are neither pruned nor sprayed,but are harvested by local farmers. Thealmonds are used by the family or soldlocally.

Despite their low productivity,seedling trees represent a potentialsource ofgermplasm, both for selectionof new cultivars and for use as parentsin breeding programs (see below).Many microclimates exist, and resultin considerable variation among seed-ling populations. Many of the localplantings have evolved through natu-ral and human selection and representdistinct ecotypes or landraces. Muchof the population has moved fromrural to urban areas, and many peoplework in Europe for much of the year.

This has further limited the care thatseedling populations receive. Lack ofcare, togetherwith severe drought con-ditions during the early 1980s, con-tinues to threaten the continued ex-istence of many of these trees.

Sixty-five percent of the almondcrop is produced on small farms in thetraditional sector. Yields are low underthis cultural system and trees show astrong tendency toward alternate bear-ing. The causes of low yield include: a)marginal and poor soils; b) low rainfall,resulting in moisture stress and reducedflower bud initiation; c) spring frosts;d) rain and cool temperatures duringbloom, which restrict cross-pollinationand favor fungal diseases; e) lack orabsence of pollinizers; f) limited careand management; and g) lack of vigor.Low yields despite heavy blooms sug-gest that pollination is one of the mostlimiting factors for the performance ofalmond in this system. Most almondcultivars are self-incompatible. In ad-dition, they require pollen transfer byinsects, primarily honeybees, for cross-pollination. Some growers have top-grafted named cultivars on the scaffoldlimbs of seedlings. In the area near Al

Semi-intensive culture. In this sys-tem, trees are planted at 150 to 300/ha (Loussert et al., 1989) on a total of34,000 ha. Most trees are grafted andthe cultivars are chosen based on theirperformance, overlapping bloom, andcompatibility for cross-pollination.Most of these trees are located in “com-mercial” zones where irrigation is pos-sible (Fig. 2B). Few of these orchardsare actually irrigated, however, for otherrosaceous fruits (apples, pears, peaches,prunes) have priority for water. Themost-important cultivars are ‘Marcona’and ‘Fournat de Brezenaud’ (Loussertet al., 1989). Other cultivars include‘Desmayo Largueta’, ‘Ne(c) Plus Ul-tra’, ‘Abiod’, and ‘Ai’. None of thesecultivars is of Moroccan origin. Be-cause of the danger of frost injury, se-veral of the new, late-blooming Frenchcultivars, including ‘Ferragnès’ and‘Ferraduel’, are of considerable inter-est. Aside from a small number ofpeach-almond hybrids, seedlings of‘Marcona’ are generally used asrootstocks. Almond seedlings are out-standing for their deep rooting abilityand tolerance to drought and calcare-ous soils. Growers often plant seeds onsite, then graft scions of known culti-vars on the seedlings. This allows thetaproot to continue developing, thusproviding greater drought resistancethan is the case with trees that aretransplanted from a nursery.

Area planted in the commercialsector declined from 50,300 ha in1969 to 34,600 ha in 1985 (Directionde la Planification et des Affaires Eco-nomiques, 1985). Among the reasonsfor this decline are: a) a shift to otherdeciduous tree fruits, including apple,peach, pear, plum, apricot (total in-crease of 31,800 ha during the sameperiod), and olives (increase of 67,000ha); b) a series of dry years from 1980to 1984; c) attack by insects, particu-larly a bark beetle [Scolytus (Rugulo-scolytus) amygdali], and capnode(Capnodis tenebrionis L.) that attacksthe roots (Loussert et al., 1989); andd) low returns in comparison withcompetitive crops, especially wheat.(The price of wheat is subsidized andits production involves no “lag pe-riod” ofseveral years prior to cropping. )However, the decline in acreage wasoffset by an increase in mean yield

Hoceima, on the Mediterranean, 46%of an estimated 17,500 trees weregrafted in 1989 (Service de la Mise enValeur Agricole, n.d.).

Fig. 2. Traditional seedling almond tree near Al-Hoceima (A) and semi-intensivegrafted treesnear Meknès (B).

from 190 to 300 kg of shelled almondsper hectare (Loussert et al., 1989).Closer planting, introduction of more-productive cultivars, and better cultur-al practices were responsible for thisincrease (Loussert et al., 1989). Nev-ertheless, yields remain low relative tothose of California. Yields of 2200 to3300 kg of shelled almonds/ha can beobtained in well-managed, irrigatedCalifornia orchards under the intensiveculture system of management, andyields as high as 4480 kg·ha-1 have beenreported (Rough et al., 1989). With-out irrigation, the yield in Moroccovaried from 30 (Al Hoceima) to 3700(Errachidia) kg·ha-1 in shell (about 10to 1200 shelled) in 1988-89 (Divisiondel’Horticulture, 1988-89). The high-

est yields are obtained in irrigatedzones, e.g., the area of Beni-Mellal(Loussert et al., 1989).

MarketingMost of the crop is sold locally.

Only a few hundred tonnes of sweetalmonds (used for direct consump-tion) are exported, mainly to Europe,and importation into Morocco is pro-hibited. A total of 1226 t of bitteralmonds (used for almond extract)were exported in 1988-89 (Divisionde l’Horticulture, 1988-89). The farmprice for shelled sweet almonds is aboutU.S. $0.60 to U.S. $1.20/lb ($1.25 to$2.50/kg). Price in shell is about$0.20/lb, and shelled bitter almondsbring $1.40 to $2.00/b. Almonds are

Several INRA research stations,including those at Ain Taoujdate (nearMeknes), at Marrakech, and at Er-rachidia, conduct cultivar testing and/or evaluation of local almond geno-types. Laghezali and Oufkir (1989)evaluated a total of 60 European,American, and local cultivars plantedat Ain Taoujdate for fruit and seedcharacteristics, tree form, bloom andharvest dates, and tolerance to diseases.No data have been published on yield,however.

The abundance of almond seed-lings and their wide distribution pro-vide good possibilities for selecting su-perior genotypes. Because the speciesis highly self-sterile and heterozygous;wide genetic variability is evident withinthe population. However, relativelylittle research has been devoted to se-lection of clones. Barbeau and El Bou-ami (1979, 1980) of INRA, Marrakech,

very popular in Morocco, being usedin main dishes. as hors d’oeuvres, andin baked goods and almond pastes.Some of the best-quality almonds arecandied to form the popular “dragées.”

ResearchHorticultural research, teaching,

and extension are developed after theFrench rather than the United Statesmodel, with separate institutions. Thereare three organizations that are involv-ed with horticultural research, exten-sion, and teaching.

The Institut National de la Re-cherche Agronomique (INRA) has pri-mary responsibility for research in allareas of agriculture. Extension is con-ducted by the Direction de Vulgarisa-tion et de la Reforme Agraire (DVRA),Ministère de l’Agriculture. DVRA isrepresented at the local level by theDirections Provinciales d’Agriculture(DPA) and the Offices Régionaux deMise en Valeur Agricole (ORMVA) inirrigated zones.

University-level education inhorticulture is carried out by the InstitutAgronomique et Vétéinaire Hassan II(I.A.V.), the main campus of which islocated at Rabat. Horticultural pro-grams are presently divided amongthree locations: Rabat, Agadir, andMeknès. The university is also involvedin research in connection with under-graduate and MS theses and PhD pro-grams, most of which are carried out inconjunction with foreign universities,particularly the United States, throughthe USAID/Minnesota Project.

Fig. 3. Representative examples indicating the range in stage of development of trees in thecollection at Marrakech on 22 Feb. 1990. Trees were propagated by grafting selected seedlings on<Marcona> rootstocks.

marked 200 seedlings for evaluation inOuarzazate and Errachidia provincesin southern Morocco in the mid- 1970sand recorded eight characteristics ofeconomic value for 3 consecutive years.Fifty-three seedlings with useful char-acteristics for breeding purposes werepropagated for further evaluation atboth Errachidia and Marrakech (Fig.

3). Seedlings of ‘Marcona’ were usedas a rootstock, and two commercialcultivars (‘Ferragnès’ and ‘Tardy Non-pareil’) and a self-fertile Italian cultivar(‘Tuono’), were included for compari-son. Over a 4-year period, five of theclones yielded more than 5 kg of al-monds, in shell, per tree annually atMarrakech, and 19 produced more

than 3 kg , whereas ‘Ferragnès ’ ,‘Tuono’, and ‘Tardy Non-Pareil’ pro-duced only 1.5, 1.0, and 0 kg, respec-tively (Mouhri, 1986). (Possible cli-matic × cultivar interactions are sug-gested by the observation that ‘Tuono’has produced well when planted in aSolid block at Ain Taoujdate.) Laghezali(1985) evaluated 16 clones selected inseedling orchards in northern (AlHoceima) and southern (Tafraoute)Morocco. These were classified accord-ing to eight characteristics, includingboth tree and nut properties. Chahbar(unpublished data) made a similar studyin the Al Hoceima area over a 2-yearperiod. However, in neither case wereclones propagated for further evalua-tion. A small collection of genotypesfrom the area near Taroudant exists atthe INR4 station at Oulad Berhill, 60miles south of Agadir. However, nodata are available as to performance ofthese genotypes at this time (Hamon,personal communication).

Neumann (unpublished data),workingwith the German technical as-sistance program (GTZ) at Al Ho-ceima, collected several clones for pos-sible use as rootstocks. These clonesare included in a budwood block atAin Taoujdate, but no data are knownto exist as to their effects upon scionperformance.

Benazoun (1984) of the I.A.V.,Agadir, conducted an extensive studyof the life cycle of the almond barkbeetle in intercropped orchards in thearea near Beni-Mellal and Tafiaoute.Although some natural predators werefound, none was effective in control-ling the insect. A single spray of delta-methrin [(S)- α -cyano-3-phenoxyben-zyl(1R,3R)-3-(2,2-dibromovinyl-2,2-dimethyl-cyclopropanecarboxylate)]was partially effective, however, whenapplied during spring emergence ofadults (Benazoun and Schvester,1989). Farmers in this area are reluc-tant to spray trees during the growingseason for fear of mechanical damageto the crops grown between them (A.Benazoun, personal communication).

Capnode (Capnodis tenebrionisL.) became a serious threat to all stonefruits during the drought years of theearly 1980s. The larvae of this beetleattack the roots and crowns of treesthat have been weakened by droughtor disease. Young trees that have notbeen well-cared for are particularly sus-ceptible. Hmimina (1989) and Hmi-mina et al. (1988) have described the

life cycle of this insect. Once eggs havebeen laid, control is very difficult, asthe larvae are subterranean. HCH(mixed isomers of 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexa-chlorocyclohexane) applied to the soilduring the oviposition period was theonly treatment found to be effective.Although HCH has now been banned,ethyl chloropyrophosphate is beingevaluated (Loussert et al, 1989).

Research prioritiesDespite a high demand for al-

monds on the domestic market, theprofit margin is often narrow, andgreater efficiency is essential. A majorfactor limiting yield is water. Irrigationalone would greatly increase produc-tion, were it available.

As noted above, biennial bearingis a problem. This may be associatedwith certain cultivars, or with weatherconditions during bloom, and may beintensified by moisture stress from lackof fall rains. Some research is needed toestablish the reasons for this tendencyand to determine how to correct it. InFrance, heavy fruiting limits flowerinitiation in certain cultivars (e.g.,‘Rachele’) but not in others (e.g.,‘Ferragnès’, ‘Nonpareil’) (Grasselly andCrossa-Raynaud, 1980).

Production efficiency could alsobe improved by selecting superiorclones from the large seedling popula-tion. Establishment of a germplasmbank would preserve clones that mayhave valuable scion and/or rootstockcharacteristics, such as drought toler-ance, but lack the full range ofqualitiesnecessary for commercial production.These should be propagated and eval-uated at several locations because ofthe great difference in chilling hours,precipitation, and soil types that occuramong almond-growing areas. Latebloom to avoid frosts is of high prior-ity. Self-fertility should also be evalu-ated, as none of the cultivars currently

grown commercially is self-fertile. Thisseedling population might also pro-vide superior rootstocks. A breedingprogram may be initiated at the EcoleNa-tionale d’Agriculture (ENA) atMeknès. Seedling selections could pro-vide some useful germplasm for thisprogram.

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