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Alfred Thayer Mahan
Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry
More about President Millard Fillmore, including a picture
clickable map of Japan
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
theUnited States pursued an aggressive policy of
expansionism,extending its political and economic influence around
theglobe. That pivotal era in the history of our nation is
thesubject of this online history.
ContentsExpansion in the Pacific
A Letter to an EmperorFootholds in the Pacific
The Spanish-American WarRemember the MaineYellow JournalismA
Splendid Little WarA Gift from the Gods
The Boxer RebellionSpheres of InfluenceFists of Righteous
Harmony
The Panama CanalPresident RooseveltJoining the Waters
U.S. Intervention in Latin AmericaTeddy's LegacyThe End of an
Era
Image CreditsBibliography
Teacher's Guide now available
Expansion in the PacificAfter temporarily resolving the problems
of Reconstruction and Industrialization, Americansbegan to resume
the course of expansion. The horrors of the Civil War had
interrupted theoriginal Manifest Destiny that began in the 1840s.
Now, as pioneers settled the last westernfrontiers, expansionists
looked yet farther to the west—toward Asia and the Pacific.
A leading expansionist, Captain Alfred T. Mahan, cautioned that
the Pacific could "be enteredand controlled only by a vigorous
contest." As head of the Naval War College, Mahan believedthat
America's survival depended upon a strong navy. He argued that a
strong navy wouldrequire island possessions to serve as naval
bases. The time had come, Mahan wrote, forAmericans to turn their
"eyes outward, instead of inward only, to seek the welfare of
thecountry."
American ships had long been active in the Pacific. The New
Englandwhaling fleets scoured the ocean in search of their prey.
The Chinatrade had been enriching Yankee merchants since 1784.
Japan,however, had effectively closed its doors to outsiders, and
it restricted
foreign ships to a small part of Nagasaki.
Commodore Matthew C. Perry, commander of the United States naval
forcesin the China seas, was a staunch expansionist. Back in 1852
he warnedPresident Fillmore that the British, who had already taken
control of HongKong and Singapore, would soon control all trade in
the area. Perry
recommended that the United States take "active measures to
secure a number of ports of refuge"in Japan. President Fillmore
agreed with Perry. In 1853 he ordered the Commodore to
opennegotiations with the Emperor of Japan.
[Return to Top]
A Letter to an EmperorKayama Yezaimon, daimyo of Uraga, raced to
the battlement, the clash of the warning gong still
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(Note: Edo Bay is located near Tokyo.)
Brief history of the samurai (including definitions of daimyo,
shogun, etc.)
Abe Masahiro, headof the Roju (governingcouncil) under
ShogunIeyoshi
Part of the U.S. Japanese Squadron under Commodore Perry's
command
Toda Izu, governor of Uraga
Hawaiian Islands Overview
(Note: Click on Map ofHawaiian Islands for maps and Hawaiian
Islands Pictorial for photos.)
Images of Hawaii from space
ringing in his ears. Stopping beside the brass cannon that
guarded the entrance of Edo Bay, hescanned the horizon. The summer
sun flashed high above the blue Pacific, and beneath it fourships
approached with the tide.
As the ships sailed closer, the daimyo, his samurai, and their
retainers watched in silent awe. Twohuge steam frigates spouted
thick black clouds as they maneuvered against the wind. With
theirpaddle-wheels churning the water, the frigates came about,
bringing their gun-decks to bear uponthe shore defenses. Two
sailing ships waited downwind in support. Bright signal flags
fluttered
from halyards.
Kayama scowled. Through a telescope he studied the ships, which
were well beyond the range ofhis small shore batteries. The ships
bristled with cannon much more formidable than his own.Identical
flags flapped at the stern of each vessel—red and white stripes,
with white stars on apatch of blue. Kayama barked out an order. A
samurai ran forward and dropped to one knee. Thedaimyo instructed
the samurai to ride to the castle of Abe Masahiro, and to inform
the shogun thata barbarian fleet blocked the mouth of Edo Bay.
From the fo'c'sle of the sloop of war Saratoga, Lieutenant John
Goldsborough watched as dozens ofJapanese galleys approached the
American fleet.
They were all fantastically decorated with flags and banners.
They were propelled byfrom ten to twenty oars each with generally
two or three men at each oar. None of theboats were permitted to
come alongside any ship in the Squadron, though they allappeared
quite anxious to go alongside the Flagship. Still none were
permitted until wewere fully convinced that a high officer was in
one of the boats. Then he alone, with aninterpreter who spoke
Dutch, was allowed to come over the Susquehanna's side.
On board the Susquehanna, Commodore Perry's aide, Lieutenant
Contee, informed the official thatthe Commodore carried a letter
from the President of the United States to the Emperor of Japan.The
Commodore intended to deliver the letter personally to an official
representative. Since theCommodore was of the highest rank in the
United States Navy, Contee said, he would meet onlywith a Japanese
official of equal status.
Two days later, Kayama Yezaimon visited the Susquehanna. He
informed Captain Adams that theAmericans must take their message to
Nagasaki. Perry refused to meet with Kayama, but he wrotea
message.
"The Commodore will not go to Nagasaki," Adams read. "If this
friendly letter of the President tothe Emperor is not received and
duly replied to, he will consider his country insulted, and will
nothold himself accountable for the consequences."
After several more days of haggling, a suitable representative,
"Prince"Toda, arrived in Uraga. With cannon salutes and a marching
band, Perry
led a parade of marines to meet the Japanese delegation. He
presented Toda with the president'sletter, enclosed in a rosewood
box trimmed with gold, and announced that he would return for
theemperor's answer in the spring.
Perry impressed the Japanese officials with his diplomacy and
with the technological superiority ofhis ships and weapons. The
Japanese shogunate decided to grant the minor trade concessions
thatPresident Fillmore asked for in his letter. Forming a treaty
with the Americans, they reasoned,would prevent another European
power from imposing even greater concessions.
In February 1854, Perry returned to Edo with eight ships. He
accepted the favorable reply toFillmore's letter and visited
several Japanese ports before beginning the long voyage home.
Hisdiplomatic mission had officially established the United States'
presence in Asia. Still, theAmericans never realized that they had
been negotiating with a mere shogun. For the emperor toconsult with
barbarians was unthinkable.
[Return to Top]
Footholds in the PacificAs ships crossed the vast ocean to trade
in Asia, islands in the Pacific became important stops forcoal,
provisions, and repairs. In the South Pacific, the American navy
negotiated with awestrucknatives for the rights to build bases on
the islands of Midway and Samoa. The Hawaiian Islands,which lie
closest to the American mainland, had long been an important stop
for the Pacific fleet.Pearl Harbor, on the island of Oahu, offered
one of the most attractive natural bases in thePacific.
In the early 1800s, missionaries from New England made the
arduous voyage to Hawaii andsettled there. They sent back news of
fantastic economic possibilities in the islands. Soon other
Americans followed to become sugar planters and to establish
profitable businesses.
To the native Hawaiians, or Kanaka, their island was a paradise.
The sea, the abundant fruit trees,and the rich, fertile soil
provided the Kanaka with all their necessities. Because of the
perfect year-round climate, their simple shelters were adequate and
comfortable. To the Americans, however,the Kanaka behaved like
foolish children, as one early visitor described:
The ease with which the Hawaiians on their own land can secure
their food supply hasundoubtably interfered with their social and
industrial advancement. . . . [It] relieves the
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Detail from King's Palace, Toward Waikiki, Oahu, in 1826
Treaties between the United States and Hawaii: 1826, 1849, 1875,
1884
Biography ofQueen Liliuokalani
Background information about the Hawaiian monarchy
Sanford Ballard Dole
U.S.S. Boston
Text of the Constitution of 1887, which gave Queen Liliuokalani
the right to rule Hawaii
(See especially Articles 21 and 22.)
Biography and photo of Grover Cleveland
Text of a speech by President Cleveland in which he expresses
his "desire to aid in the restoration of the status existing before
the lawlesslanding of the United States forces at Honolulu on the
16th of January [1892]"
Biography and photo of William McKinley
Excerpts from the 1993 Apology Resolution signed by President
Clinton
native from any struggle and unfits him for sustained
competition with men from otherlands. The fact that food is
supplied by nature takes from the native all desire for
theacquisition of more land. Today's food can be had for the
picking, and tomorrow's aswell. Instead of grasping all he can get,
he divides with his neighbor, and confidentlyexpects his neighbor
to divide with him.
While the Kanaka were content to live in their traditional,
idyllic ways, Americans were busy buildinghuge plantations,
warehouses, railroads, drydocks, banks, hotels, and stores. They
soon dominated theisland's economy, and they were able to influence
its government as well. Americans created andcontrolled Hawaii's
legislature and cabinet, and they limited the power of the native
king.
As the nineteenth century drew to a close, disputes arose
between the Kanaka and those of foreigndescent. "Hawaii for
Hawaiians" became the slogan of people who sought to restore the
traditional ways of the kingdom.Others called for the annexation of
Hawaii by the United States. Annexation would eliminate the recent
trade restrictions onsugar and revive the island's faltering
economy. Secret organizations, such as the Annexation Club, plotted
revolution.
In the midst of this unrest, Queen Liliuokalani assumed the
throne upon thedeath of her brother, King Kalakaua. At age
fifty-two, Liliuokalani had alreadygoverned the islands as regent
during her brother's long absences. She waswell qualified to take
control of the government. An American newspaperreporter who
interviewed the new queen described her as "strong and resolute.
Her manner wasdignified, and she had the ease and authoritative air
of one accustomed to rule." Educated in Americanschools,
Liliuokalani's voice "was musical and well modulated, and she spoke
remarkably pure andgraceful English." Islanders who favored
annexation hoped that the new queen would support
theirinterests.
Liliuokalani, however, was determined to eliminate American
influence in thegovernment. She tried to create a new constitution
that would strengthen thetraditional monarchy, but her cabinet
refused to cooperate. The American
residents were outraged. They organized the Committee of Safety
and appointed members of theAnnexation Club as its leaders. On the
morning of January 17, 1893, armed members of thecommittee
attacked. They took over the government office building. From its
steps they read aproclamation abolishing the monarchy and
establishing a provisional government. The provisionalgovernment
"would exist until terms of union with the United States of America
have been negotiatedand agreed upon." Sanford B. Dole, an elderly
judge with a flowing, white beard, became itspresident.
Hawaiians who were loyal to their queen tried to come to her
defense andstop the revolution. When they arrived in Honolulu,
however, Americantroops confronted them. The United States'
minister, John L. Stevens, had sent for a battalion ofmarines and
an artillery company from the cruiser Boston. They were ordered to
protect theprovisional government. For the Hawaiians, resistance
was hopeless.
Queen Liliuokalani sadly surrendered her throne. She wrote a
document in which she "yielded tothe superior forces of the United
States." She pleaded with the U.S. government to "undo theactions
of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority I claim as
the ConstitutionalSovereign of the Hawaiian Islands." Meanwhile,
the Provisional Government sent fiverepresentatives to Washington
to apply for annexation. They quickly drew up a treaty,
andPresident Harrison signed it and submitted it to Congress.
Before the Senate could approve the treaty, however, a new
presidenttook office. This president, Grover Cleveland, had
reservations about taking over an independentcountry. He withdrew
the treaty and sent a special commissioner to Hawaii to investigate
therevolution. The commissioner reported that Minister Stevens had
conspired with a small group ofrevolutionaries to overthrow the
government. Cleveland replaced Stevens with a new minister andtried
to restore Liliuokalani to the throne.
President Dole flatly refused to give the government back to the
Hawaiians. He told PresidentCleveland that the United States had no
right to meddle in Hawaii's internal affairs. Congressagreed, and
it adopted a "hands off" policy toward the island. Dole's new
government then createdan army and held a constitutional
convention. On July 4th, 1894, the government unveiled thecompleted
constitution and declared an independent Republic of Hawaii.
Despite Liliuokalani's pleas for help, other governments quickly
recognized the new republic. In desperation, supporters ofthe queen
began to collect weapons and to make secret plans to overthrow the
republic and restore the monarchy. Theyplanned to strike on the
morning of January 7, 1895, but informers told the government about
their plot.
At dawn, as the queen's supporters slipped silently ashore on
Waikiki, government soldiers opened fire. A few of the rebelsfell
dead or wounded; others surrendered. The government declared
martial law. During the next few days, governmenttroops defeated
the disorganized rebels in a series of brief but deadly skirmishes.
Within two weeks, they completelysuppressed the uprising and
captured its followers, including Queen Liliuokalani. The prisoners
were tried for treason.Liliuokalani was forced to sign a document
in which she finally renounced all claims to the throne.
Now secure in its power, the republican government turned its
attention to international relationsand trade. In 1896, however,
the election of a Republican, William McKinley, as president of
theUnited States, rekindled Hawaiian hopes for annexation.
President McKinley, like manyRepublicans, favored expansionism, and
he welcomed the new annexation treaty. A jointresolution of
Congress annexing Hawaii passed both houses, and the islands became
American
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to acknowledge the 100th anniversary of the overthrow of Kingdom
of Hawaii
January 25, 1898—The U.S.S. Maine enters Havana harbor, about
three weeks before it was blown up.
Cuba in 1898Provides background information about the Cuban
insurgency against foreign control both before and just after the
Maine incident
Map of Cuba(This is an interactive map—for example, click on
Havana for a more detailed view of the city.)
For a wider view of the region: Map of Caribbean regionMap of
Latin America
Captain Sigsbee in the captain's cabin aboard the Maine
General Fitzhugh Lee
Capt. Charles D. Sigsbee, 1898
The Spanish-American War Centennial's photo of the Maine, photos
of pieces of the Maine, reputed photo of explosion, accounts of the
destruction, New York Times report, crew roster and much more.
Stereoscopic view of the disaster
More photos of the wreckage and salvage effort
possessions.
While Congress was considering the annexation treaty, an
American fleet was steaming acrossthe Pacific to attack the
Philippine Islands. The United States had gone to war.
[Return to Top]
The Spanish-American WarRemember the Maine
The battleshipMaine driftedlazily at itsmooring.Although
theHavana nightwas moonless,the Maine'sgleaming
whitehull—longerthan a football
field—contrasted against the blackness of the sea and sky. Smoke
wisped from its twomustard-colored funnels. Random lights sparkled
from its portholes and its bridge.
In the captain's cabin, Charles Sigsbee sat at a table writing
aletter to his wife. The trouble in Cuba, he wrote, would soon
beover. The new Spanish governor of the island seemed to havethe
situation under control. During the three weeks that theMaine had
been in Havana, Captain Sigsbee had seen no signof Cuban rebels.
He'd entertained the Spanish officers in hismess, and he and his
staff had been entertained lavishly by thelocal officials. Although
Sigsbee found the bullfights to whichhe'd been invited somewhat
barbaric, the Spanish officersbehaved as perfect gentlemen.
Even Fitzhugh Lee, the Americanconsul, seemed optimistic. A
monthearlier the old general (Lee hadcommanded a cavalry division
underhis uncle Robert E. in the Civil War)
had summoned a battleship to "protect American interests."
Although the Maine was only asecond-class battleship, it was the
largest ship ever to enter Havana harbor. To the Cubans, it wasa
floating American fortress right in their capital city.
Aboard the Maine, "taps" sounded at ten minutes past nine.
Captain Sigsbeedescribes what happened next.
I laid down my pen and listened to the notes of the bugle, which
were singularly beautiful inthe oppressive stillness of the night.
. . . I was enclosing my letter in its envelope when theexplosion
came. It was a bursting, rending, and crashing roar of immense
volume, largelymetallic in character. It was followed by heavy,
ominous metallic sounds. There was atrembling and lurching motion
of the vessel, a list to port. The electric lights went out.
Thenthere was intense blackness and smoke.
The situation could not be mistaken. The Maine was blown up and
sinking. For a momentthe instinct of self-preservation took charge
of me, but this was immediately dominated bythe habit of
command.
Captain Sigsbee managed to reach the deck, now slanted down
sharply toward the submerged bow.He climbed aft toward the only
part of the ship that was not awash. Fires had broken out all over
the
vessel, and they lit the harbor in an eerie red glow. In Havana
lights began to shine from windows that had just beensmashed by the
blast. Most of the crew had been asleep in their berths at the
forward part of the ship, which was already atthe bottom of the
harbor. The stern sunk more slowly.
Crews from nearby ships manned lifeboats to rescue the surviving
crewmen of the Maine."Chief among them," Sigsbee wrote, "were the
boats from the Alfonso XII. The Spanishofficers and crews did all
that humanity and gallantry could compass." Reluctantly,
CaptainSigsbee abandoned the Maine, which continued to burn and
explode throughout the night.
The twisted, burnt wreckage of the Maine's stern and bridge was
still above water in themorning. It remained there for years. Two
hundred fifty-four seamen were dead, and fifty-nine sailors were
wounded. Eight of the wounded later died. The navy conducted
aninvestigation into the cause of the disaster, but it never
discovered who was responsible forthe explosion.
[Return to Top]
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Joseph Pulitzer
Drawing of "The Yellow Kid"
Delivering the WorldThe film shows a one-horse paneled newspaper
van arriving to deliver the "New York World" to a crowd of
newspaper carriers. The location is presumed to be Union Square in
New York.
Puck magazine published this cartoon depicting Cuba's difficult
situation in the 1890s.
The wreck of the U.S.S. Maine
Chronology of the war (from the NYPL's Online Exhibition of the
Spanish-American War)
World map showing location of the Philippine Islands
Yellow JournalismThe American press, however, had no doubts
about who was responsible for sinking the Maine. Itwas the cowardly
Spanish, they cried. William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal
even publishedpictures. They showed how Spanish saboteurs had
fastened an underwater mine to the Maine andhad detonated it from
shore.
As one of the few sources of public information, newspapers
hadreached unprecedented influence and importance. Journalistic
giants,such as Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer of the World, viciously
competedfor the reader's attention. They were determined to reach a
dailycirculation of a million people, and they didn't mind
fabricating storiesin order to reach their goal.
They competed in other ways as well. The World was the
firstnewspaper to introduce colored comics, and the Journal
immediatelycopied it. The two papers often printed the same comics
under
different titles. One of these involved the adventures of "The
Yellow Kid," a little boy whoalways wore a yellow gown. Since color
presses were new in the 1890s, the finished productwas not always
perfect. The colors, especially the Yellow Kid's costume, often
smeared. Soonpeople were calling the World, the Journal, and other
papers like them "the yellow press.""They colored the funnies,"
some said, "but they colored the news as well."
A minor revolt in Cuba against the Spanish colonial government
provided a colorful topic. Formonths now the papers had been
painting in lurid detail the horrors of Cuban life underoppressive
Spanish rule. The Spanish had confined many Cubans to concentration
camps. The press called them "deathcamps." Wild stories with
screaming headlines—Spanish Cannibalism, Inhuman Torture, Amazon
Warriors Fight For Rebels—flooded the newsstands. Newspapers sent
hundreds of reporters, artists, and photographers south to recount
Spanishatrocities. The correspondents, including such notables as
author Stephen Crane and artist Frederick Remington, found littleto
report on when they arrived.
"There is no war," Remington wrote to hisboss. "Request to be
recalled."
Remington's boss, William Randolph Hearst,sent a cable in reply:
"Please remain. Youfurnish the pictures, I'll furnish the
war."Hearst was true to his word. For weeks afterthe Maine
disaster, the Journal devotedmore than eight pages a day to the
story.Not to be outdone, other papers followedHearst's lead.
Hundreds of editorialsdemanded that the Maine and Americanhonor be
avenged. Many Americans agreed.Soon a rallying cry could be
heardeverywhere—in the papers, on the streets,and in the halls of
Congress: "Rememberthe Maine! To hell with Spain."
[Return to Top]
A Splendid Little WarIn the wake of the Maine incident,
Congresshurriedly appropriated $50 million to prepare thenation for
war. "Big navy" supporters, includingthe Assistant Secretary of the
Navy, TheodoreRoosevelt, appropriated the lion's share of themoney.
Next, President McKinley insisted thatSpain agree to a cease-fire
with the Cuban rebelsand negotiate a permanent settlement with
them.After a slight delay, Spain agreed to the Americandemands. Two
days later, McKinley askedCongress for authority to use military
force to endthe Cuban conflict. Essentially, this was adeclaration
of war.
The United States Army was not prepared for war. After the Civil
War, the country had drastically reduced its army. Mostarmy units
had been scattered throughout the west, where they had fought and
confined Native Americans. Volunteer andNational Guard units
quickly assembled in Tennessee. Regular-army divisions, filled with
new recruits, rushed to Florida toawait the invasion of Cuba.
Back to the Pacific The navy, however, needed little
preparation. The Pacific fleet was visiting Hong Kong when the
newsof war arrived. Commodore George Dewey quickly provisioned his
ships and set off to attack the Spanish colony in thePhilippine
Islands.
Once at sea, Commodore Dewey had his men paint all the ships.
Once a bright white,the ships were soon covered with a dull gray to
make them less visible to the enemy.
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Map of the Philippine Islands
Another Philippines map
Philippine History
Chronology of Events Leading to the Philippine-American War
Photo of the U.S.S. Olympia
Photo and biography of Captain Gridley
Photos of the U.S.S. Boston
Photo of Commodore George Dewey.
Commodore George Dewey is depicted here commanding the battle of
Manila Bay. He does so from his flagship Olympia.World front page
announcing the victory
The Spanish-American War in Motion Pictures. This presentation
features 68 motion pictures produced between 1898 and 1901 of the
Spanish-American War and the subsequent Philippine Revolution.
Photobiography of Teddy Roosevelt
A brief biography of TR
Next, Dewey ordered that everything made of wood, including the
piano on his flagshipOlympia, be tossed over the side. Splintered
wood presented a greater danger to hiscrews than enemy shells. Then
with chests, chairs, and tables bobbing in the waterbehind them,
the ships went after the Spanish fleet.
After searchingthroughout an oppressivetropical night,
Deweyfound the Spaniards in theshallows of Manila Bay. Atdawn on
the first of May,the Olympia led the fleetin single file toward
itsenemy. The Spanish
opened fire long before the Americans were within range.
TheOlympia moved still closer. When it reached effective range,
itturned sharply to the west, bringing all its guns to bear uponthe
Spanish fleet.
"You may fire when ready, Gridley," Dewey told his
executiveofficer. With a deafening roar, the huge cruiser's guns
erupted.The flagship swung around in a wide circle, and each
shipfollowed, guns blasting as it passed. "We made five trips
pastthe fleet," a gunner on the Boston wrote.
Just two hours after the beginning of the battle wehauled out
and, withdrawing a few miles, the orderwas given for breakfast. I
was exhausted from theheat, loss of sleep, and lack of proper food.
I went upon deck. Below the thermometer was at 116°, andthe fresh
air was a great relief. From this vantagepoint, I could see the
destruction we had wrought.
When the thick, blacksmoke that had obscuredthe battle cleared,
hesaw the Spanish fleet, battered and afire. The battle had been
won. Eight seamensuffered wounds aboard the Boston (the same ship
that had helped "liberate" Hawaii).One man died from the heat
before the battle began. They represented the totalcasualties for
the fleet.
When the news of the stunning victory reached home, Americans
cheered ecstatically.Dewey, "the conqueror of the Philippines,"
became an instant national hero. Stores soon filled with
merchandise bearing hisimage. Few Americans knew what and where the
Philippines were, but the press assured them that the islands were
awelcome possession.
Rough Riders Despite Dewey's early victory, the war in the
Caribbean was getting off to a slowstart. More than 250,000
soldiers rushed enthusiastically into the service. The
army'squartermaster corps, however, had only fifty-seven men to
supply the army with equipment.Soldiers gathered in Florida and
waited impatiently for supplies and transportation. Someindividuals
organized and outfitted their own regiments. One such individual,
the AssistantSecretary of the Navy, resigned his post and formed a
volunteer regiment of cavalry. TeddyRoosevelt did not intend to
miss his chance at glory.
Roosevelt had been born forty years earlier to a wealthy New
York family. He described himself as"a sickly, delicate boy" who
"suffered much from asthma, and frequently had to be taken away
ontrips to find a place where [he] could breathe." Determined to
overcome his physical limitations,Roosevelt embarked on a grueling
program of body building. He practiced boxing, hunting, andriding,
and after college he spent three years as a working cowboy in the
wild Badlands of Dakota."It was still the Wild West in those days,"
he wrote. "The West of the Indian and the buffalohunter, the
soldier and the cow-puncher." There he "led a free and hardy life
with horse and rifle."
Roosevelt's political career began in the New York legislature.
Next, after running unsuccessfullyfor mayor of New York, he served
as that city's police commissioner. A loyal Republican,
hecampaigned tirelessly for McKinley in the 1896 election, and the
president rewarded him with an appointment to theDepartment of the
Navy.
Now, seeking again the "hardy life with horse and rifle,"
Roosevelt waited in Tampa withhis men. His regiment, which called
itself the Rocky Mountain Riders, consisted mostlyof cowboys from
the West, although it contained a few Indians and wealthy polo
playersfrom the East as well. The papers called the regiment
"Teddy's Terrors," but itscommander was Leonard Wood, a physician
who was also a colonel in the regular army.Roosevelt served as
lieutenant colonel.
"Tampa was a scene of the wildest confusion," Teddy remembered.
"There was nosemblance of order." Thousands of men, horses, mules,
and supply wagons werescattered about haphazardly in the tropical
heat. Somehow the expedition reached
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TR and his Rocky Mountain Riders, or "Rough Riders"
Cuban Soldiers Read more about the role of Cuban soldiers, who
had nearly won their island's independence from Spain by the time
Teddy Roosevelt arrived
San Juan Hill
Print depicting an African American soldier during the march
toward San Juan Hill
Captain-General Ramon Blanco
Photos of Spanish wrecks after the battle
Painting of the Battle of Santiago de Cuba
Commemorative poster from the Spanish-American War
Cuba. Still, "different parts of different outfits were jumbled
together. . . . For instance,one transport had guns, and another
had the locks for the guns. Soldiers went here,provisions went
there, and who got ashore depended upon individual activity."
Roosevelt, always active, got his regiment ashore quickly. "We
disembarked with our rifles, our ammunition belts, and notmuch
else," he remembered. "I carried some food in my pocket, and a
light coat which was my sole camp equipment for thenext three
days."
With the July temperature climbing above 100°, the soldiers
plodded off through thethick jungle toward the city of Santiago.
Wearing uniforms made of wool, the menstruggled against the heat.
Those who managed to obtain rations often discovered thattheir food
had spoiled. Soon the ranks were riddled with malaria, fever, and
dysentery.(Before the war ended, 5,200 Americans would perish from
disease.) General Shafter,the army's commander, realized that if he
didn't capture Santiago soon, he might not
have an army left.
After a few brief skirmishes, the armies confronted each other.
The Spanish defended the San Juan hills, a long ridge east
ofSantiago. The Americans, arrayed in the valley below, sent up an
observation balloon to study the city's defenses.
Roosevelt, who had managed to obtain a horse, rode up and down
the lines anxiously. "I had cometo the conclusion," he said, "that
it was silly to stay in the valley firing up at the hills. . . .
The thingto do was to try to rush the entrenchments." Never a man
to stand on ceremony, Teddy took itupon himself to order the
charge.
With a pistol in one hand an a saber in the other, Teddy spurred
his mount forward. His face grewflushed; his glasses clouded with
steam; a wide grin covered his face. The rough riders followed
onfoot, and the Ninth Cavalry, an African American regiment, rushed
forth beside them. As hereached the crest of Kettle Hill, Teddy saw
its defenders fleeing before him. He fired at one ofthem, and later
remarked that the man fell "as neatly as a jackrabbit."
Atop Kettle Hill, the soldiers dined on captured Spanish
provisions. Later Teddy left his men androde to the top of San Juan
Hill, but the Tenth Cavalry, another African American regiment,
hadalready stormed and captured it. That night the Americans
repelled a Spanish counterattack. In themorning, General Shafter
demanded that the Spanish commander surrender.
A Big Turkey Shoot Ramon Blanco y Erenas, governor general of
Cuba, received Shafter'sdemand. He responded by ordering his fleet
to attack the American ships blockading Santiagoharbor. If the
Spanish could destroy the Americans' supply line, he thought, they
could force theenemy to withdraw. His fleet commander, Admiral
Cervera, disagreed. Attacking a force fourtimes the size of his own
seemed like suicide. Nevertheless, Cervera obeyed his orders, and
inthe hazy dawn the Spanish, led by the magnificent Maria Teresa,
bravely steamed into battle.
The Americans were ready. Four first-class battleships (any one
of them might have been amatch for the whole Spanish fleet), two
cruisers, and several smaller ships enclosed the mouthof the harbor
in a half-circle. Tugboats filled with reporters scurried in their
wake. The Oregonfired the first shot of the battle, and soon black
smoke blurred the bay.
"It was a big turkeyshoot," Seaman Crossof the Oregon said."The
Fleet came outand went to DavyJones' locker."
By one o'clock the battle was over. The Spanishfleet was
destroyed, and with it sank all hope ofvictory in Cuba. General
Nelson Miles, the oldIndian fighter, led a force to Puerto Rico.
Heconquered the island and its few Spanishdefenders easily. In
effect, the war was over.
Spain agreed to anarmistice. In the fourmonths of
fighting,Americans had lost a total
of 460 soldiers in battle. Compared to the CivilWar, in which
tens of thousands were often killedin a single day, these
casualties seemedinsignificant. "It's been a splendid little war,"
theambassador to England wrote to his friend, Teddy Roosevelt.
Roosevelt returned, the hero of the war. Because of his heroism
on Kettle Hill, he'd been nominated for the CongressionalMedal of
Honor. His popularity swept him to the governorship of New York.
Like Dewey before him, Roosevelt memorabiliafilled shop windows.
One of the more popular items was a cuddly stuffed animal wearing a
bandana and glasses. Peoplecalled it the "Teddy Bear."
[Return to Top]
A Gift from the Gods
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American troops on the ramparts at Manila, c. 1898-1901
More about Mark Twain's views on the Philippines
Excerpts from an anti-imperialist essay by Andrew Carnegie
A list of links to additional anti-imperialist essays, speeches,
and pamphlets
Map of the Caribbean region(to locate Puerto Rico)
Large map of Guam (includes locator map)
Photo and short bio of Emilio Aguinaldo
Filipino-American history timeline
Biography and photo of William Howard Taft
Cartoon: "Civilization Begins at Home" (1898)
Canton, China: seawall and harbor crowded with sampans, c.
1895
Background of Ch'ing (Qing) Dynasty
Maps of China: Large one Smaller maps of China Another small
map
In the months following the Spanish-AmericanWar, the winds of
expansionism blew stronglyacross the United States. There was a lot
of talkabout "Manifest Destiny," and many peoplesuggested that
America should assume its role asa world power. In Congress,
legislators called forthe annexation of all Spanish territories.
Somenewspapers even suggested the annexation ofSpain itself.
Expansionists such as Roosevelt,former President Harrison, and
Captain Mahanargued for creating an American empire.
Others,including Grover Cleveland, Andrew Carnegie, andMark Twain,
opposed these ideas.
In October, representatives from Spain and theUnited States sat
down in Paris to work out a treaty. President McKinley appointed a
"peace commission" to represent theUnited States. A majority of the
commission's members believed in expansionism. No representatives
from the colonieswhose fates were being decided attended the Paris
conference.
The Spanish delegates assumed that the United States would annex
Cuba. They suggested thatthe United States also take over Cuba's
$400 million debt. The Americans declined. After all, thewar had
been fought in support of Cuban independence. However, they were
glad to acceptPuerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
The American army already controlled the city of Manila, but it
had not ventured into any otherareas of the Philippine Islands.
After signing the treaty, President McKinley ordered the War
Department to bring all theislands under military control. The
people of the Philippines, he decided, were too "uncivilized" to
govern themselves. TheFilipinos were shocked. For two years they'd
been fighting for their independence from Spain. Since the United
States hadsupported rebels in Cuba and Hawaii, they expected
support for their independence as well.
Commodore Dewey wrote to his superiors and pointed out that the
Filipinos seemed better prepared forself-government than the Cubans
did. The War Department responded by sending more men andequipment
to Manila. Emilio Aguinaldo, the wiry leader of the Filipino
independence movement, feltbetrayed. Aguinaldo admired the United
States. He liked to be called "the George Washington of
thePhilippines." He had helped the Americans fight the Spanish. Now
the Americans and the Spanishresidents of the islands were fighting
him.
Aguinaldo led his bitter troops into the jungles, and for three
years they foughta brutal war against the military government. In
the end the overwhelmingpower of the American forces defeated them.
The Americans confined manyFilipinos in concentration camps like
the ones the Spanish had used in Cuba. William Howard Taft
wasappointed head of the Philippine Commission, charged with
replacing the military government with a
civilian legislature. Despite the plan to prepare the
Philippines for independence, however, Americans continued to rule
theislands until after World War II.
The war in the Philippines claimed four times as many American
lives as the war with Spain did. Few Americans, however,rejoiced at
the victory. There were no heroes. No parades greeted the returning
troops. For many, this war seemed tocontradict some basic American
values.
"I have been criticized a good deal about the Philippines,"
McKinley said, "but I don't deserve it. The truth is . . . they
cameto us as a gift from the gods."
"Congratulations," Andrew Carnegie wrote to a leading
expansionist. "You seem to have aboutfinished your work of
civilizing the Filipinos. It is thought that about eight thousand
of them havebeen completely civilized and sent to heaven. I hope
you like it."
[Return to Top]
The Boxer RebellionSpheres of Influence
Throughout the nineteenthcentury, China's emperorshad watched as
foreignersencroached further andfurther upon their land.Time and
again, foreignersforced China to make
humiliating concessions. Foreign regiments,armed with modern
weapons, consistentlydefeated entire imperial armies. Now, as a
newcentury was about to begin, Tsu Hsi, empressdowager of the
Ch'ing Dynasty, searched for a way to rid her empire of foreign
parasites.
Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and
Russia all claimed exclusive tradingrights to certain parts of
China. They were dividing China into "spheres of influence." Some
evenclaimed to own the territory within their spheres. By acquiring
the Philippines, the United States
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John Hay
Text of John Hay's First Open Door Note
Empress Dowager Tsu Hsi
A "Boxer" in 1900
Artillery of International Relief Force to Beijing, 1900
Concise Political History of China, including more about the
Empress Dowager and the Boxer Rebellion (Scroll about halfway down
the page to get to the section about Tsu Hsi.)
became an Asian power too. Now, with a strong base of operations
just 400 miles from China,American businesses hoped to take
advantage of China's vast resources. The foreign spheres
ofinfluence, however, threatened their ambitions.
So while the empress was hoping to close China to foreigners,
Americans were looking for a way in.John Hay, now Secretary of
State, had an idea. Since public opinion, strained by the
Philippineswar, would never support the use of force, he decided to
negotiate. He sent letters to all theforeign powers and suggested
an "Open Door" policy in China. This policy would guarantee
equaltrading rights for all and prevent one nation from
discriminating against another within its sphere.
The nations replied that they liked the concept of the Open
Door, but that they could not support orenforce it. Hay's plan had
been politely rejected. Nevertheless Hay announced that since all
of thepowers had accepted the Open Door in principle, the United
States considered their agreement
"final and definitive."
[Return to Top]
Fists of Righteous HarmonyWhile the outside powers bickered over
who would control China, Tsu Hsi issued an imperial message to all
the Chineseprovinces.
The present situation is becoming daily more difficult. The
various Powers cast upon uslooks of tiger-like voracity, hustling
each other to be first to seize our innermostterritories. . . .
Should the strong enemies become aggressive and press us to consent
tothings we can never accept, we have no alternative but to rely
upon the justice of ourcause. . . . If our . . . hundreds of
millions of inhabitants . . . would prove their loyalty totheir
emperor and love of their country, what is there to fear from any
invader? Let usnot think about making peace.
In northern Shandong province, a devastating drought was pushing
people to the edge ofstarvation. Few people there were thinking
about making peace. A secret society, known as theFists of
Righteous Harmony, attracted thousands of followers. Foreigners
called members of thissociety "Boxers" because they practiced
martial arts. The Boxers also believed that they had amagical
power, and that foreign bullets could not harm them. Millions of
"spirit soldiers," they said,would soon rise from the dead and join
their cause.
Their cause, at first, was to overthrow the imperial Ch'ing
government andexpel all "foreign devils" from China. The crafty
empress, however, saw a way to use the Boxers.Through her
ministers, she began to encourage the Boxers. Soon a new
slogan—"Support theCh'ing; destroy the foreigner!"—appeared upon
the Boxers' banner.
In the early months of 1900, thousands of Boxers roamed the
countryside. They attacked Christianmissions, slaughtering foreign
missionaries and Chinese converts. Then they moved toward
thecities, attracting more and more followers as they came. Nervous
foreign ministers insisted that theChinese government stop the
Boxers. From inside the Forbidden City, the empress told
thediplomats that her troops would soon crush the "rebellion."
Meanwhile, she did nothing as theBoxers entered the capital.
Foreign diplomats, their families, and staff lived in a compound
just outside the Forbidden City'swalls in the heart of Beijing.
Working together, they threw up hasty defenses, and with a
small
force of military personnel, they faced the Boxer onslaught. One
American described the scene as 20,000 Boxers
advanced in a solid mass and carried standards of red and white
cloth. Their yells were deafening, whilethe roar of gongs, drums
and horns sounded like thunder. . . . They waved their swords and
stamped onthe ground with their feet. They wore red turbans,
sashes, and garters over blue cloth. [When] theywere only twenty
yards from our gate, . . . three volleys from the rifles of our
sailors left more than fiftydead upon the ground.
The Boxers fell back but soon returned. Surrounded, the
foreigners could neither escape nor sendfor help. For almost two
months, they withstood fierce attacks and bombardment. Things began
tolook hopeless. Seventy-six defenders lay dead, and many more were
wounded. Ammunition, food,and medical supplies were almost gone.
Then, shortly before dawn, loud explosions rocked thecity. Weary
defenders staggered to the barricades, expecting a final,
overpowering Boxer attack.But as a column of armed men approached
them, they began to cheer. Help had arrived at last.
After a month of no news from their diplomats, the foreign
powers had grown worried. Theyassembled an international relief
force of soldiers and sailors from eight countries. The
UnitedStates, eager to rescue its ministers and to assert its
presence in China, sent a contingent of 2,500sailors and marines.
After rescuing another besieged delegation in Tientsin, the
international forcemarched to Beijing, fighting Boxers and imperial
soldiers along the way.
The international troops looted the capital and even ransacked
the Forbidden City. Disguised as apeasant, the empress dowager
escaped the city in a cart. She returned to the Forbidden City
ayear later, but the power of the Ch'ing dynasty was destroyed
forever.
Because it had participated in the campaign, the United States
participated in the settlement that
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Panama Canal: Culebra Cut, c. 1910-1920
see President McKinley speaking at the Pan-American
Exposition
Teddy Roosevelt's Inaugural Address
Maps of Panama: Access to information and maps about Panama
Large relief map
Abandoned French machinery in Panama, c. 1910-1914
Biographical info about Osmund Osmundsen, a Norwegian immigrant
who worked as a ship rigger during the building of the canal.
Includes historical photos
Steam shovels digging the Panama Canal
Smithsonian Institution's "Make the Dirt Fly" Panama Canal
exhibition
TR Papers at the Library of Congress
followed. Hay called for an expanded "Open Door," not only
within the spheres of influence, but in all parts of China. He
alsorecommended that the powers preserve China's territory and its
government. Other powers agreed, and the Open Doorpolicy allowed
foreign access to China's market until World War II closed it once
again.
[Return to Top]
The Panama CanalPresident Roosevelt
The popular acclaim thatcarried Teddy Roosevelt tothe
governorship of NewYork didn't stop there. In1900, Republicans
nominated Teddy as PresidentMcKinley's running mate. McKinley won a
secondterm, and Teddy was sworn in as vice-president.Six months
later, an assassin's bullet killedMcKinley. At age 42, Theodore
Roosevelt becamethe nation's youngest president.
Roosevelt assumed theoffice with the same vigor with which he
charged up Kettle Hill. A long believer in Captain Mahan'stheory of
sea power, Roosevelt began to revitalize the navy. Now that
America's empire stretchedfrom the Caribbean across the Pacific,
the old idea of a canal between the two oceans took on newurgency.
Mahan had predicted that "the canal will become a strategic center
of the most vitalimportance," and Teddy agreed.
"The canal," Roosevelt said, "was by far the most important
action I took in foreign affairs duringthe time I was President.
When nobody could or would exercise efficient authority, I
exercised it."
[Return to Top]
Joining the WatersIn 1878 Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French
engineer who built the Suez Canal, began to dig a canalacross the
Isthmus of Panama, which was then part of Colombia. Tropical
disease and engineeringproblems halted construction on the canal,
but a French business (the New Panama CanalCompany) still held the
rights to the project. Roosevelt agreed to pay $40 million for the
rights,and he began to negotiate with Colombia for control of the
land. He offered $10 million for a fifty-mile strip across the
isthmus. Colombia refused.
"We were dealing with a government of irresponsible bandits,"
Roosevelt stormed. "I was preparedto . . . at once occupy the
Isthmus anyhow, and proceed to dig the canal. But I deemed it
likelythat there would be a revolution in Panama soon."
Teddy was right. The chief engineer of the New Panama Canal
Company organized a local revolt.Roosevelt immediately sent the
battleship Nashville and a detachment of marines to Panama to
support the newgovernment. The rebels gladly accepted Roosevelt's
$10 million offer, and they gave the United States complete control
of aten-mile wide canal zone.
Roosevelt ordered army engineers to start digging. Thousands of
workers sweated in the malarialheat. They tore up jungles and cut
down mountains. Insects thrived in muddy, stagnant
pools."Mosquitoes get so thick you get a mouthful with every
breath," a worker complained. Themosquitoes also carried yellow
fever, and many fell victim to the deadly disease before Dr.
WilliamGorgas found a way to stop it.
Some Americans did not approve of Roosevelt's behavior."There
was much accusation about my having acted in an'unconstitutional'
manner," Teddy shrugged. "I took the isthmus, started the canal,
andthen left Congress—not to debate the canal, but to debate me. .
. . While the debategoes on, the canal does too; and they are
welcome to debate me as long as they wish,provided that we can go
on with the canal."
Work did go on. Despite lethal landslides, workers withdynamite
and clumsy steam shovels cut their way across acontinent. They
built a railroad, three sets of concrete locks,and a huge
artificial lake. Nine years later the freighter Anconentered the
new channel. Hundreds of construction workershopped aboard for the
historic ride. A shiny towing locomotive
pulled the Ancon into the first lock. Bands played and crowds
cheered as the ship slipped into the Pacific.
Roosevelt liked to repeat an old African saying: "Speak softly,
and carry a big stick. You will go far." In Panama, Teddyproved to
the world that he was willing to use his big navy as a stick to
further American interests.
[Return to Top]
U.S. Intervention in Latin America
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Main business street, Domingo City, San Domingo, c. 1901. The
Dominican Republic was another site of U.S. intervention in the
early 1900s.
Time line of U.S. intervention in Latin America
The Monroe Doctrine:
Text (plus some background information)
Brief analysis of doctrine
Roosevelt Corollary
Maps of Nicaragua:
Large map
Smaller map of Nicaragua with geographical facts
Another map
"Commodore" Cornelius Vanderbilt
More about William Walker, including a picture
Foreign Intervention in Nicaragua, 1850-68 (Library of Congress)
(Index)
More about Adolfo Diaz.
General information about Nicaragua:
Nicaragua Profile (Library of Congress)
Background Notes: Nicaragua
Teddy's LegacyBetween the end of theSpanish-American Warand the
dawn of theGreat Depression, theUnited States sent troopsto Latin
Americancountries thirty-twotimes. It used theRoosevelt Corollary,
oraddition, to the Monroe
Doctrine to justify intervention. In the corollary,Teddy
Roosevelt proclaimed that the UnitedStates, because it was a
"civilized nation," had the right to stop "chronic wrongdoing"
throughout the Western Hemisphere.
"Any country whose people conduct themselves well can count upon
our hearty friendship," he said. "Chronic wrongdoing,however, . . .
may force the United States to exercise an international police
power." Teddy didn't hesitate to use this"police power" to
strengthen his country, but he was always careful not to upset the
balance of world power.
William Howard Taft, former governor of the Philippines,
followed Roosevelt into the White House. Taft believed in
economicexpansion, and he introduced a policy called "dollar
diplomacy." This policy used diplomacy to advance and
protectAmerican businesses in other countries. Taft employed
Roosevelt's corollary in Nicaragua and other Latin American
countriesto protect American investments.
American businesses had been active in Nicaragua since the
1850s. The lushcountry attracted American fruit growers and mining
companies. Others believedthat Nicaragua offered the best site for
a canal, and they invested in land.Cornelius Vanderbilt started a
company that transported passengers betweenNew York and San
Francisco via the Nicaraguan jungle. Shortly afterCommodore Perry
opened Japan, Vanderbilt plotted to take control ofNicaragua.
With Vanderbilt's help, a young adventurer named William Walker
set out with fifty-seven followersto conquer Nicaragua. A short,
freckled man with sharp green eyes, Walker formed an alliance witha
group of local rebels and defeated the Nicaraguan forces. He
proclaimed himself "commander inchief," and soon thousands of
Americans rushed into the country. Many Americans wanted theUnited
States to assume direct control of Nicaragua. The government,
however, was afraid to upsetthe fragile balance between "free" and
"slave" territories.
Walker eventually quarreled with Vanderbilt about the transit
company, and soon another revolutiondrove him from power. In 1860
Walker died before a firing squad. American economic involvementin
Nicaragua lived on.
Nicaraguans confidently expected the canal, and they gladly
accepted loans and payments based onits eventual construction. By
1909 the United States-Nicaraguan Concession was largest
Americancompany in Nicaragua. That year the Concession's chief
legal counsel, Philander C. Knox, resigned tobecome Taft's
Secretary of State. When Nicaragua's ruler cancelled an agreement
with one Americanbusiness and threatened the Concession, the
company organized another revolution. Adolfo Diaz, aConcession
employee, became the new president. Taft quickly recognized the
Diaz government.
When still another revolt threatened Diaz, Taft invoked the
corollary and ordered American marinesto suppress the rebellion.
Then he and Knox worked out a plan to collect the money that
Nicaraguaowed to foreign investors. Under the plan, American banks
took control of Nicaragua's customscollection. They applied the
money they collected directly to the country's debt. The
marinesremained in Nicaragua's capital to serve as "international
police" and prevent any further revolts.Except for a short period
in 1925, they stayed for 21 years.
[Return to Top]
The End of an EraThe two decades that sandwiched the turning of
the century enclosed a turning point in American history. Despite
GeorgeWashington's advice to the contrary, the years saw American
interests scatter across the globe. America had flexed itsmuscles,
and the world had cowered. But the ease with which America gained
its new possessions obscured theresponsibilities that came with
them. Dollar diplomacy would soon drag a reluctant America into the
muddy trenches of theWestern Front. The "Open Door" welcomed a
series of squabbles that later erupted in a mushroom cloud. But few
in thatinnocent era could foresee such extraordinary events. Most
believed that America was simply following its natural order,
itsdestiny.
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