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ACADEMY OF URBANISM
CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
Provocation Paper 2:
Jobs
Prepared by A+DS
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The Cities Outlook 2011, published by the Centre or Cities, paints a
troubling picture o the UKs economic geography. Looking at the 64
biggest cities and towns o the UK, the image arises o an ever clearer
divide in ortunes between the UKs high-value knowledge economy (e.g.,
Brighton, Cambridge, Edinburgh) and those post-industrial or otherwise
marginalised places where structural decline or at growth may be the norm
or a long time to come (e.g., Burnley, Stoke-on-Trent, Doncaster, Hull and
Newport). The ongoing recession seems to have only exacerbated uneven
geographical development. Whilst the country as a whole may bounce out
o recession soon, this may not be true at all or places in the post industrial
and marginalised category. For some, the evidence suggests that in theseplaces, a Great Depression seems underway.
The Cities Outlook is particularly concerned about vulnerabilities stemming
rom reliance on the public sector as jobs engine. It is also concerned
about the deeply engrained tendency to rely on high-profle physical
regeneration to put cities on a dierent path. These actors will be prone
to public unding cuts. In addition, emerging evidence suggests that
deeply rooted path dependencies shape the economic prospects o
places, and that turning these around is very difcult. Or near-impossible,
as was suggested in the controversial 2007 report rom the ree market
think tank Policy Exchange. It is clear that path dependencies matter more
than location per se, but that pathways can be inuenced. Its not alwaysa deterministic story. The problem is that physical regeneration has done
little to address this, as it oten ails to have a structural impact. This is
necessarily related to local institutional capacity, local place culture and
local enterprise. Factors such as these are likely to be the driving orce o
change as internal growth capacity may be more important when large
scale unding rom external sources gets scarcer. This requires whole place
thinking, new ways o thinking and doing. It requires a new approach to
innovation, experimentation in the making and management o the spaces
o our places.
Growth rom within inevitably means smarter use o the resources we
already have to deliver better outcomes, better opportunities, greater
choice. Innovation is key. Human capital is key. Creative use o existing
buildings, space and assets is key. Growing the conditions or innovation
to ourish as a cultural aspect o all decisionmaking is central to smarter
economies. This is likely to be enabled by new orms o networking. Tim
Frothy papers that announce the death of distance or the dominance of global
networks and the need to move beyond thinking about place are as unhelpful as those
that see neighbourhoods as closed systems of unending borrowing of cups of sugar and
other forms of mutual support. Better place polices would start from knowing the nature
of the places where investment and change is planned
Proximity to the school gate is no longer enough to get a job
Professor Duncan McLennan
ACADEMY OF URBANISM CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
Provocation Paper 2: Jobs
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Brown, CEO o IDEO suggests that that participation is key to the next
big wave o innovation in business and society. Participation can be
understood in terms o the process o creating ideas collectively using the
knowledge, skills and creativity o people. Collaboration can be understood
in terms o those with the power to eect change translating these ideas
into valuable processes, products and services to achieve economies o
beneft [ie there is more to gain by doing it together]. Perhaps these are two
o the key capacities to develop at the level o local institutions to enable
places to develop as modern spaces o enterprise and innovation.
Re-thinking the planning of places?
Increasingly, it is agreed that you cannot defne and design neighbourhoods
through zoning alone. However, you can provide the catalysts to stimulate
them; creating the conditions in which they can emerge as distinctive
and characterul places. As part o the 10x10x10 series acilitated by the
Academy o Urbanism, Proessor John Worthington defned placemaking
.as a combination o organisational [behaviourial] and spatial [physical]
actions over time, spanning masterplanning and economic development
planning. The emphasis on both behaviours and space is important.
In seeking to build better places, we should seek to better understand
the behaviours and motivations o the individuals and communities
that colonise spaces. What are the emerging behaviours o innovators,
entrepreneurs, organisations and communities o work? What needs and
demands might these behaviours place on the built environment as a
physical resource, and the institutions that govern and manage place as an
enabling resource?
In seeking to develop growth rom within places, policymakers as agents
o change can have a tendency to divide out the economic drivers o
productivity, skills, investment, competition, as separate silos. In this
context, the interest in place based public investment is sometimes about
specifc benefts, specifc targets met, specifc outputs. The emphasis
moves towards efciency and management, not creativity, leadership,learning, thinking and doing. A consequence o this approach to public
policy and investment is sometimes not the growth o local institutions
and capacities that make places resilient, but rather service redistribution.
This orm o place policy sometimes tends to ocuses on decline and
disadvantage rather than development.
What then does place policy mean? It does not have to be ocused on
redistribution. It may not be simply about bending mainstream programmes.
Rather it may be about mending the capabilities o local institutions and
individuals to beneft rom the mainstream ow o opportunities and policies
in society. This is about enabling conditions or growth as well as renewal.
Place management in that sense embraces service delivery, regulation(especially land use planning and spatial development plans), tax policies
and also the investment programmes o local and national governments
and their private and non-proft partners. The process o creating these
policies matters. I this process is about participation and collaboration,
ACADEMY OF URBANISM CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
Provocation Paper 2: Jobs
Growing theconditionsor innovation
to ourish as a
cultural aspect o
all decisionmakingis central to smarter
economies
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and a creative use o people and space, then strategic design thinking,
understanding the architecture o problems and matching this to the art o
the possible creates new potentials.
Innovation as a basis for building capacity, collectively
Starting local, growth and development will not be just about ast growing
creative and other industries. It will also be about the outlook and values
o a place tolerant, exible, and irreverent which make places good
collaborators, adept problem solvers, open to ideas and willing to think
aresh; in short design thinking.
It is important to be clear about the nature o the innovation we mean.
Innovation rarely proceeds down an orderly unnel rom bofn to consumer.
Innovation oten involves changes to institutional, business organisation
and consumer behaviour as much as science and technology. Frequently,
innovation is highly networked and interactive, involving a wide range o
players, not least the ultimate consumers o products and services. On this
basis, what is required is to recognise that innovation will come rom many
sources. It will embrace social innovation, technical innovation, business
innovation, all the elements needed to create what Will Hutton describes
as an innovation eco system. Hutton argues that uture success is aboutdeliberately and sel consciously constructing this eco system, to inorm all
that we do.
To create the innovation eco system, we need new approaches to
thinking and doing, individually, collectively and institutionally or the rip,
mix, burn generation that throngs to MySpace. This is the generation that
spontaneously sets up blogs, adds content and character to the computer
games it plays and uses Garage Band and Sibelius to create its own
music. The YouTube tribe does not just want to listen and watch culture
wherever and whenever it wants; it also wants to create and distribute it.
The Google generation increasingly seeks out knowledge and ideas rom
wherever they come. The generation that grew up with MSN Messengerand social networking, is instinctively at home working creatively and
collaboratively together in teams. This all has implications or the way in
which we make and manage spaces, and the way we enable behaviours
and cultural development in our places.
Authenticity
A review o the winners o the Academy o Urbanism awards or great
places suggests two common themes. First, is an authentic story that
transcends everything in the city. The second is authentic leadership, a
stewarding o resources that is recogniseably motivated by enhancingpeople and place. These conditions stimulate the art o the possible. The
same conditions seem necessary to eective innovation. The innovation
story must be about the art o the possible. An innovation eco system
should aim to become a society o adapters, contributors, participants
ACADEMY OF URBANISM CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
Provocation Paper 2: Jobs
Smarter growth...will also be aboutthe outlook and
values o a place
tolerant, exible, and
irreverent whichmake places good
collaborators, adept
problem solvers,
open to ideas and
willing to think
aresh; in shortdesign thinking.
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and designers, with people having their say, making a contribution
(oten in small ways) to add to the accumulation o ideas and innovation.
Participation and contribution should be the watchwords o such a society,
rather than mere consumerism. A society o mass innovation oers access
to a deeper story about possibility and sel-expression that will distinguish
us rom many societies around the world. Ultimately, people achieve
happiness not just through consumer choice but through a deeper sense
o fnding how to express themselves through creative work: Innovation by
the community, not just or them. The outcome is a learning place, smarter
places, enhanced capacities to drive change.
Scaling
The innovation based view o building capacity suggests that strategies
that are participatory and ocus on livelihood, opening up opportunities and
encouraging innovation are more likely to succeed than those which take a
mechanistic, regulatory approach to discouraging unwanted behaviour. The
challenge or this approach is how to scale up a locally driven approach
to deliver at a wider scale a challenge addressed by NESTA in its recent
report Mass Localism. This report suggests that Government can learn
rom a broader trend evident across the wider economy, culture and
society that o fnding distributed answers to problems and deliveringsolutions with citizens. This represents a shit rom mass production to
distributed production. It is an open source approach based on trust, and
on the positive eedback loop experienced by orward-thinking businesses
that are opening up their R&D processes to their suppliers and customers.
Clearly, local capacity to act goes beyond the public sector. The experience
with some o the best Development Trusts, regeneration legacy vehicles
and community-based initiatives has shown the potential o local area-
asset based organisations to provide long-term support and generate
innovation around local needs. I sufciently resourced and embedded in
the locality their permanent presence and independence can enable the
thick institutional networks and responsible risk-taking which are required
or successul growth. This is a chance to drive enterprise and local
wellbeing through a mix o interventions. A people-driven and distributed
approach to culture which relies less on capital investment and more on
support or creativity and education is integral to this. In eect, it is this type
o approach which can grow new pathways that many places need.
Innovation, places and work
Where is it that innovation might bring us in economic terms? Bruce Katz
suggests a vision or cities that will be innovation-led, export-led, and low-
carbon. It envisages that cities will be making things rather than services,with any orm o change driven by innovation and entrepreneurship. This he
suggests will be a key element o the regional economy around cities.
Typically, the regional economy is understood as having our elements: its
ACADEMY OF URBANISM CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
Provocation Paper 2: Jobs
Governmentcan learn roma broader trend
evident across the
wider economy,
culture and society that o fnding
distributed answers
to problems and
delivering solutions
with citizens.
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size, its industrial structure (what does the City actually do or a living), its
labour market structure (how will the workorce behave), and its balance
(manuacturing/service; public/private; geographical). Futurologists
suggest that a uture export led regional economy might be inormed by the
ollowing trends in industrial structure and labour orce:
[i] Regarding industrial structure, the technology oresight literature identifes
six growth opportunities:
A21stCenturyManufacturingRevolution:notmorejobsbutgrowth
through bespoke manuacturing-on-demand & servicisation
SmartInfrastructure;instrumentationtosupportmicrogeneration,
electric vehicle recharging, smart metering
SecondInternetRevolution
EnergyTransformation:renewableenergygeneration,batteriesand
uel cells
Newmaterialsforlowcarbonfuture:buildingmaterials,nano
materials
RegenerativeMedicine:stemcellproducts
[ii] In terms o the labour market, it is clear that work patterns are already
changing. The labour market may play out in a number o ways but
these scenarios may orm part o the uture labour landscape in 20
years:
Increasingnumbersofself-employedandmicro-business
Increasingmovetowardsnomadicworkstyleofknowledgeworkers:
o time in traditional corporate ofce, working at home and working
rom 3rd places such as caes, libraries, open space, resulting
in a potentially a huge demand or semi-public spaces that can be
inormally appropriated to ad hoc workspace
MovetowardsFlexibleWorkingContactsnewemploymentmodel
whereby the core permanent sta is much smaller and greater
number o reelance, consultants, temporary workers; more people
working on contract rather than employed
Fourdifferentgenerationswithdifferentmotivationsandexpectations
o work. Generation Y (born in mini baby boom 1979 94) to the 1st
generation o digital natives
The idea o an export led economy does not necessarily imply reliance on
inward investment alone. Neither does it necessarily imply an economywhose sole purpose is export. From the 1950s on, regional scientists
posited that industrial structure was a key determinant o the perormance
and prospects or a regional economy. By the 1980s, a rich literature and
practice counseled planners to think strategically about their comparative
ACADEMY OF URBANISM CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
Provocation Paper 2: Jobs
Increasing movetowards nomadicworkstyle o knowledge
workers: o time in
traditional corporate
ofce, working at home
and working rom 3rd
places such as caes,
libraries, open space,
resulting in a potentially
a huge demand or semi-
public spaces that can be
inormally appropriated to
ad hoc workspace
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What are the emerging
behaviours of innovators,
organisations and
communities of work?
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advantages and intervene in particular sectors, reerred to as targeting. In
place o generic attraction strategies or eorts to improve the local business
climate, planners began to husband their resources and nurture particular
sectors that showed greater promise in terms o longevity, good jobs and
diversifcation. While we have no defnitive body o empirical work on
the outcomes o industrial targeting, it is airly clear that such eorts have
ranged rom highly successul to abysmal ailures.
Ann Markusen argues that industrial targeting eorts oten disappoint
their purveyors because they ocus on frms, the individual members
o an industry, as the central agents o economic development. Mobileinvestment when it does come does not always stay. When it stays
it does not always embed in the local context to stimulate additional
economic development. In this context, Markusen argues that stimulating
the conditions or local economic development are important. Her
argument suggests that there should be as much ocus on occupations,
or human capital, or the capacities at local level, what people can do, as
industrial targeting. Key occupations are not confned to highly educated
proessionals but may encompass immigrants skilled in trading connections
and knowledge o local markets, skilled workers and artisans, energetic and
smart community activists, among others.
Markusen suggests seven reasons why a ocus on occupations may be amore appropriate basis or understanding and designing the conditions or
more resilient economic utures:
First,theabilitytospecializeandexportisbaseddeeplyontalents
and synergy in the local economy. These may be better understood
and tapped by identiying skill sets and talents embedded in
occupations in addition to researching frms and industries.
Although frms still decide where to locate and whether to hire or
retain workers, the quality o workers is oten key to their choices.
Furthermore, new frms are oten ounded by members o key
occupations. Second,developmentisincreasinglylesslinkedtonaturalresource
endowments, once thought to govern a localitys specialization,
and more heavily reliant on human capital. As a key input, labour is
undamentally dierent rom natural resources in that it is relatively
mobile, i less so than fnancial capital. Mobile labour is drawn to
particular natural environments, but in a new and ascinating way
workers with choice opt or livable environments rather than
exploited ones. A much greater priority is now placed on protecting
environmental assets rather than spending them down.
Third,jobcommitmentonthepartofbothworkersandemployershas waned. Firms are less willing to train workers or internal job
ladders, because this is an expensive process. Firms are thus
increasingly dependent on regional labour pools, and training is
becoming increasingly externalized in regional institutions. Such
ACADEMY OF URBANISM CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
Provocation Paper 2: Jobs
The ability tospecialise andexport is based
deeply on talents
and synergy in the
local economy
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training is best organized by occupation.
Fourth,thereisnowgreatercross-overofskillsamongindustries
than is suggested by the stereotype o labourers on construction
sites or teachers working in school classrooms. Many clerical and
sales workers are employed by manuacturing frms, while many
engineers and construction workers work in the service sector. As
outsourcing and subcontracting prolierate, occupational talent is
shared even more liberally actors and directors create videos or
medical instrument companies, while sotware engineers program or
flm companies and arts organizations. Thus, occupations that mayappear to be local-serving are enhancing the productivity o other
export-oriented sectors in the local economy. Function, skill and
connections become more important than organization.
Fifth,thefast-pacedandexibleeconomyplacesapremiumonnew
frm ormation. Entrepreneurial activity may entail signifcant costs and
high rates o ailure but it may account or the emergence o new
local specializations and job growth. It is cumbersome to identiy
entrepreneurship potential by studying industries and much easier
to work with occupations. Certain occupations may show higher
rates o new frm ormation, cross-over with other sectors, and/or
maturation rom local-serving to exporting activities.
Sixth,thedigitalrevolutionhasmadeiteasiertoworkfromremote
job sites. Workers are more likely to be committed to the region and
neighbourhood than to the frm or industry and will search or livability,
amenities and lovability.
Seventh,plannersworkingtosteminnercitydeclineand/or
concerned with minority participation and jobs or underemployed
groups may fnd occupational groupings easier to distinguish and
target than industries. Designing economic development strategies
to specifcally redress socioeconomic imbalances is ar easier when
occupations (and individuals in them) are used as targets rather thanindustries (and the frms that populate them).
The implication o these principles is that placemaking needs to include
more about the human capital debate. This should include studying how
industries and occupations orm and operate. It should include discourse
about how state and local governments und and supply public services,
which kinds o spending have long term growth impacts, and how
consumers at dierent ages, locations, and levels o educational attainment
and wealth spend their incomes. The human capital and innovation stories
lend themselves to thinking about the creation o dierent communities, o
workers, o sponsors, o consumers. These communities will have greateror lesser ties to the local context, and enabling these communities to orm,
unction and collaborate has signifcant implications or the way in which
we produce and manage the spaces o our places. I every culture creates
spaces to enable their cultural view o the world to be supported, how
ACADEMY OF URBANISM CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
Provocation Paper 2: Jobs
The humancapital andinnovation stories
lend themselves to
thinking about the
creation o dierentcommunities
o workers, o
sponsors, o
consumers
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might a networked idea o people and space work which acommodates
dierence and creates opportunity?
Neighbourhoods as places of work
Traditionally, property investment has generally ocused on the location,
identity and quality o individual buildings. It has tended to ocus less on the
contribution that the building and its occupants can make to the character
and economic health o the surrounding neighbourhood. However, there is
some emerging thinking that value or both the user (business value) and
investors (exchange value) are created by the quality and wellbeing o theneighbourhood and the building. This in turn could drive the potential to
create new public value in placemaking understood here as a combination
o organisational behaviour and spatial actions over time.
This line o argument importantly depends on a wide defnition o place,
beyond the purely physical. The emphasis on the experiential idea o space
has resonance within the best workspace projects, which consciously aim
to complement the oer o space with a series o processes ostering
collective social belonging and inhabitation to support the diverse needs o
its users. At a larger scale, questions are arising in regards o how changes
in work patterns are aecting ofce locations, with some papers ocusing
on CBD areas. Boundaries between public and private spaces are being
blurred and many corporate businesses are willing to share spaces in a
process o communalisation.
This process o communalisation is a developing behaviour not just within
organisations. It is a characteristic o innovation oriented communities,
entrepreneurs and a generation who have grown up as collaborators
across virtual and web based networks. It may be an important element
o the conditions necessary or local capacity building, dierent orms o
engagement with an by the institutions o place. It may be an important
element o the process o local, and meso economics underpinning frm
ormation in a place as described by Markusen. It may be that theseconditions are necessary to the ormation o the innovation eco system
described by Hutton, and the innovation led, export led, low carbon
export urban economy described by Katz. On this basis, the pattern
o communalisation may be expressed in a number o ways, spatially
in the organisation o workspaces, communities doing things together
similar sharing values; in the development o hackspaces and mobile
workspaces; fnancially and organisationally through the use o cloud
sourcing and open source communities and discourse. There are distinct
behaviours and rules that rame how these processes work. Undoubtedly,
these behaviour and culture will shape space. Understanding them, and
enabling them may orm a key element o uture neighbourhood planning.
Organizational expectations o ofce locations in terms o segmentation
and specialisation o activities are changing. How might these be met in
the urban context? I the tendency o communalisation o nearby public
and semi-public space within a neighbourhood is happening, what are the
ACADEMY OF URBANISM CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
Provocation Paper 2: Jobs
communalisation...is a characteristico innovation oriented
communities,
entrepreneurs and
a generation whohave grown up as
collaborators across a
range o networks
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design, management, governance and tenure implications or investors,
building owners, users and the wider community? And more importantly:
how deeply embedded are such trends across a wide range o ofce
users? As 22% o the UK workorce works in low paid jobs, this includes
at least a sizable part o the ofce workorce. This should be a reminder
o the diversity within the sector, with dierent incentives and workspace
strategies at play.
This idea o dierence and diversity is an important element o the uture
o neighbourhood planning. Whereas the perceived wisdom in the 1970s
was comprehensive area development with the perect let to a blue chipclient, it may be that thinking more incrementally is a better way orward.
This creates a more messy environment, which permits a range o
behaviours and mix o uses. This mixing and diversity is an important part
o the enabling aspect o place, the condition which supports the creative
behaviours o a range o communities, entrepreneurs and investors. For
example, Industry in the City a report prepared by Urhahn Design or the
GLA identifed the opportunities and challenges o embedding spaces o
making and doing into the city abric, mixing these spaces with other uses
and amenities to create places where there are opportunities or a very
wide variety o economic use.
This changes the nature o spatial organisation rom concentrated todistributed. For this to work, what matters most is the character o the
neighbourhood, the opportunities, the exibility o spaces, the amenities,
the quality o lie. The development o this model, as a viable model or
modern urban development could result say in organisations saying
we dont need 1,000 people in one building, we can have little bits o
building and were going to then work within the city and have a distributed
organisation oten in a number o buildings within the same neighbourhood.
They question is how might this inorm neighbourhood planning as places
o work and living?
Initiatives rom the bottom up, transitional schemes, small, speedy, andtemporary may orm a basis or planning and development o these new
city spaces. For instance, Jan Gehls proposals or Broadway in Manhatten
are interesting. To give areas o the city back to the pedestrian they have
painted street suraces street, making it hal the width or cars put deck
chairs out and seen whether it works or not. It can be reinstated i it doesnt
work. But the point is i it sticks then it becomes part o planning. On this
basis, transitional schemes are based on the idea that the people who live
in urban areas can act as agents on behal o their communities, capable
o both remembering simple rules and generating a creative response
to them . A placemaking approach based on simple rules and enabling
mechanisms would ocus on open yet hierarchical urban networks, diversity
and exibility. This would work spatially rom the whole neighbourhood to
the building typology.
ACADEMY OF URBANISM CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
Provocation Paper 2: Jobs
A placemakingapproachbased on simple
rules and enabling
mechanisms would
ocus on open yethierarchical urban
networks, diversity
and exibility
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Simple rules or better urbanism closely mirror those that acilitate emergent
systems in modern society, such as business and inormation technology.
They reect shared values and a social contract between the elected
and the electorate; one based on a more collaborative, we will, i you
will relationship between government and community. This involves a
willingness among civic leaders to be less concerned with establishing a
direction or the city and more involved with enabling, encouraging and
generating the best ideas. Increasingly we might see the transitional as an
alternative strategy to command and control planning. Are we going to see
the comprehensive and the incremental, the permenant and the temporary
working in parallel. Two dierent ways o doing things but both viable andneeded together, producing a new and perhaps more appropriate model
or regeneration. At the level o local institutions, this could orm the basis
o the Third Place, in between institutions which link private sector, public
sector and create spaces or innovation, enterprise and creativity. I this
institutional capacity is linked with exible, diverse use o space, then the
uture o neighbourhoods, towns and cities as new communities o work
may be transormational.
References
Investing in better places - http://www.smith-institute.org.uk/le/Investing%20in%20Better%20Places.pdf
Delivering Better Places - http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/336587/0110158.pdf
AOU 10x10x10 Folkestone - http://www.academyofurbanism.org.uk/projects/10x/provocation_folkestone.pdf
AOU 10x10x10 Dublin - http://www.academyofurbanism.org.uk/projects/10x/provocation_dublin.pdf
AOU 10x10x10 Reading - http://www.academyofurbanism.org.uk/projects/10x/provocation_dublin.pdf
AOU 10x10x10 Bristol - http://www.academyofurbanism.org.uk/projects/10x/provocation_bristol.pdf
A+DS Learning towns - www.learningtowns.org
Ann Markusen meso economics - http://www.hhh.umn.edu/img/assets/6158/japa_ve1.pdfAnn Markusen Creative Placemaking - http://www.nea.gov/pub/pubDesign.php
Will Hutton Innovation eco system - http://www.buildingfutures.org.uk/projects/building-futures/debate-series-2010/this-house-believes-the-
road-to-recovery-is-paved-with/
Professor Stuart Gulliver - http://www.csft.org.uk/speaker_proles/professor_stuart_gulliver
ACADEMY OF URBANISM CONGRESS VI, Glasgow 2011
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Architecture + Design Scotland (A+DS)is Scotlands champion for excellence inplacemaking, architecture & planning.
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T: 0131 556 6699F: 0131 556 [email protected]
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