The 1960s: Kennedy, Johnson, and Vietnam
The 1960s: Kennedy, Johnson, and Vietnam
The Election of 1960: The Candidates
Richard Nixon – CA Republican Congressman/HUAC and VP (1946 – 1960) Emphasized experience and anti-Communism
Senator John F. Kennedy – MA Democrat Young (43), WWII veteran, wealthy family Promised a “New Frontier” at home and to
fight Communism abroad Election more about appearances than issues
The Election of 1960: The Issues
Religion JFK’s Catholicism Voting for me, not my religion
Cold War – Was the US losing? Space Race (1957) Cuba (1959) U2 Incident (1960)
Civil Rights JFK’s support of MLK after his arrest in 1960
support of Af. Am. voters
The Election of 1960: Television
First TV debate: September 26, 1960 Style vs. Substance Style wins JFK = youthful, energetic, poised Nixon = ill, uneasy, tired http://www.history.com/videos/the-first-jfk-
nixon-debate#the-first-jfk-nixon-debate
The Election of 1960
JFK’s Administration
A new “mood” in Washington Youthful, energetic, optimistic “Camelot” Inaugural Speech = inspiration and unity http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=ZdTDcA4QlTA
JFK’s Administration
Domestic Agenda – “New Frontier” Little support in Congress for social programs (education,
health care, etc.) Civil Rights
Reluctant until 1963 Civil Rights Bill after Birmingham Federal enforcement (freedom riders, Ole Miss) A “moral issue”
Space Race Yuri Gagarin – 1st human in space (1961) Increased federal $ “Race to the moon” Neil Armstrong on July 20, 1969
Peace Corps and Alliance for Progress Fight poverty in Asia, Africa, S. America Communism was
less appealing
JFK’s Administration
Cold War Policy “Flexible Response”
Maintain alliances Increase nuclear
capabilities/ICBM’s Increase $ on non-
nuclear options Special Forces
Berlin (June – August 1961) E. German refugees
Khrushchev threatened to block access to W. Berlin
US and USSR posture for war
Berlin Wall around W. Berlin (1961 – 1989)
Berlin WallJune 1963
JFK’s Administration
US – Cuban History Spanish American War, Platt Amendment,
Guantanamo Bay US involvement since 1898 Castro’s overthrow of dictator Battista in 1959; NOT a
Communist revolution harmed American $ and politics in Cuba
Growing Castro – USSR connections Bay of Pigs Invasion (April 1961) – covert action
US trained 1400 Cuban exiles to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro failure
Castro sought closer USSR alliance for defense and aid in case of another US invasion
JFK’s Administration
Assassination in Dallas: November 22, 1963 http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=GNvjbVP31D0 (7:00 – 12:00 minutes) Warren Commission no conspiracy Does the image of JFK outshine the reality?
What did happen? vs. What could have happened?
Role of the media throughout his presidency? The power of “martyrdom”
1976: JFK = greatest of all Presidents LBJ used this to win big politically
LBJ takes the Oath of Office: November 22, 1963 on Air Force One
Johnson’s Administration
LBJ – a (successful) political “bully” Texan, Protestant, middle class balanced
JFK in 1960 Proven Congressional leader (26 years)
Senate Majority Leader in 1954 Issues: poverty and civil rights
Strong “New Dealer” Experience as a teacher in a Mexican-American
school in TX Civil Rights Act of 1957
“Johnson Treatment”
Johnson and Congress
Presidential Portrait of LBJ on display at the National Portrait Gallery (Peter Hurd, 1967)
What does this portrait suggest about President Johnson’s relationship with Congress?
Johnson’s Administration Domestic Policies – “Great Society”
“We have the opportunity to move not only towards the rich society and the powerful society, but upward to the Great Society. The Great Society rests on abundance and liberty for all. It demands an end to poverty and racial injustice…It is a challenge constantly renewed…So, I want to talk to you today about three places where we begin to build the Great Society – in our cities, in our countryside, and in our classrooms…” (May 1964 at Univ. of MI Commencement)
Key goals and priorities? Tone: optimistic and activist
Context: Era of Liberal Reforms What does this mean? Liberal vs. Conservative? Civil Rights Movement in 1964 Warren Court - an “activist” Court
Brown vs. Bd. of Education Gideon vs. Wainwright and Miranda vs. AZ – rights of accused Engel vs. Vitale – no prayer in school Griswold vs. CT – sale of birth control/right to privacy
Johnson’s Administration
Civil Rights Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965
“War on Poverty” Harrington’s The Other America (1962) “Affluence of 1950s” vs. “Culture of Poverty” for 40
million Americans (20%) Economic Opportunity Act (August 1964)
Job Corps Head Start VISTA
Johnson’s Administration
Election of 1964: LBJ vs. Goldwater Goldwater portrayed as a dangerous radical “Daisy” campaign ad:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AtYpnGZr6TA&feature=fvst
LBJ victory = popular mandate for reform Compare to JFK in 1960 1964 – 1968 60 Great Society programs
passed Continued Progressive and New Deal programs of
social welfare
Election of 1964
Vietnam, 1964 - 1973
French Colonial Policies
French imperialism: mid 1874 – 1940 Japanese occupation: 1940 – 1945 (WWII) Rise of Ho Chi Minh
Nationalist; asked for principles of self-determination at Versailles (1919) denied
Became Communist in 1920 Formed Vietminh in 1940 to overthrow Japan
and win Vietnamese independence Declared independence in August 1945
French fight to regain control
French Colonial Policies
French-Vietnamese Conflict, 1945 – 1954 Vietminh = north and
rural southern areas French = southern
urban areas US dilemma: Support
Vietnamese nationalists or French Anti-Communists?
Cold War in SE Asia
Clouded American perception of what was really a war for Vietnamese independence
Cold War fears America supports France by 1950 Containment Policy
E. Europe, China, Korea by 1950 Domino Theory Fear of “appeasement” 1953 80% of war funding was US $ Siege at Dien Bien Phu (May 1954) French
pull out of Vietnam
Cold War in SE Asia
Geneva Accords (April – May 1954) Divided Vietnam at 17th Parallel
Vietminh (Communists) = North French = South
1956: supposed to be unifying elections never happened Ngo Dinh Diem – US supported leader of S. Vietnam
Strongly anti-Communist, but very corrupt No political/religious dissent No popular support; Ho Chi Minh had this Diem and US agreed – no elections b/c of fears of losing power
1957 – Vietcong reorganize resistance to Diem in the South Vietnamese Civil War
Aided by Ho Chi Minh; supply route = Ho Chi Minh Trail US (under Eisenhower) increases aid to Diem (military
advisors/Special Forces and $)
Kennedy and Vietnam
US military presence gradually increased to 16,000 by 1963
Guerilla Vietcong attacks continue
S. Vietnamese government collapsing coup and Diem assassination on Nov. 1, 1963 No American opposition
Campaign of 1964
LBJ vs. Barry Goldwater Goldwater = dangerous radical “Daisy” ad http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=AtYpnGZr6TA&feature=fvst LBJ pressured not to “lose an inch” to
Communism, but also promised no more military involvement
Needed a decisive incident
Campaign of 1964
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, August 1964
Reports of North Vietnamese attacks on US ship (USS Maddox) – questionable reliability
LBJ asks Congress for power to take “all necessary measures” to protect American interests blank check for LBJ
Info left out…beginning of the “credibility gap” Covert U.S. attacks on N Vietnamese island
bases night before reported shooting
Escalation Under Johnson, 1965 - 1968
US Basic Problem #1: No clear goal Secure a stable, democratic S. Vietnamese gov. NOT total defeat of Vietcong When will we know when victory has been won?
US Basic Problem #2: Fought a limited war No war declaration Slowly escalated troop #’s No economic or public support mobilization No major offensive into N. Vietnam Could not attack USSR or China to stop aid to N. Vietnam
N. Vietnamese Advantages Clear Goal: Unify Vietnam; independence Fought an all-out war Knowledge of terrain and support of people
Escalation Under Johnson, 1965 - 1968
Key People and Groups Robert McNamara – Sec. of Defense Dean Rusk – Sec. of State William Westmoreland – Top US commander
in Vietnam ARVN – South Vietnamese Army; US “ally”
Escalation Under Johnson, 1965 - 1968
US Strategies Air Bombings – Operation Rolling Thunder (Feb. 1965)
North Vietnam and Ho Chi Minh Trail Little success; downed pilots = POW’s
Ground troops to S. Vietnam (3500 Marines in March 1965) Westmoreland requested more and more through 1968 (escalation)
Ia Drang Valley – November 1965 Strategic Hamlet Program and Search-and-Destroy Missions
Elusive civilian enemy made this difficult and destructive War of Attrition – wear the enemy down over time
Underestimated the will of the Vietcong; independence = strong motivator
Defoliation Agents Napalm Agent Orange
Escalation Under Johnson, 1965 - 1968
The Soldier’s Experience Selective Service/the “draft” after 1965 Local draft boards determined deferments
College Physical/psychological ailments Minister Conscientious Objector Status
1969: draft lottery instituted an attempt to make the process fairer
Demographics Disproportionately poor and African American –
Criticisms?? Average age = 19
Anti-Draft Activities
Division at Home
Living Room War Influence of the press; “body counts” on nightly news Growing “credibility gap”
Protest Movement multi-dimensional Great Society Programs cut – MLK’s protest in 1967 Student Movements on college campuses
Students for Democratic Society (1960) and Free Speech Movement (1964) wanted greater individual liberties and protested government corruption (“New Left”)
Influenced by SNCC and beatnik poets of 1950s Increasingly militant and radical
Hawks and Doves